Green Chemistry for Dyes Removal from Waste Water E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 685

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

The use of synthetic chemical dyes in various industrial processes, including paper and pulp manufacturing, plastics, dyeing of cloth, leather treatment and printing, has increased considerably over the last few years, resulting in the release of dye-containing industrial effluents into the soil and aquatic ecosystems. The textile industry generates high-polluting wastewaters and their treatment is a very serious problem due to high total dissolved solids (TDS), presence of toxic heavy metals, and the non-biodegradable nature of the dyestuffs in the effluent. The chapters in this book provide an overview of the problem and its solution from different angles. These problems and solutions are presented in a genuinely holistic way by world-renowned researchers. Discussed are various promising techniques to remove dyes, including the use of nanotechnology, ultrasound, microwave, catalysts, biosorption, enzymatic treatments, advanced oxidation processes, etc., all of which are "green." Green Chemistry for Dyes Removal from Wastewater comprehensively discusses: * Different types of dyes, their working and methodologies and various physical, chemical and biological treatment methods employed * Application of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) in dye removal whereby highly reactive hydroxyl radicals are generated chemically, photochemically and/or by radiolytic/ sonolytic means. The potential of ultrasound as an AOP is discussed as well. * Nanotechnology in the treatment of dye removal types of adsorbents for removal of toxic pollutants from aquatic systems * Photocatalytic oxidation process for dye degradation under both UV and visible light, application of solar light and solar photoreactor in dye degradation

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgements

About the Editor

Chapter 1: Removal of Organic Dyes from Industrial Effluents: An Overview of Physical and Biotechnological Applications

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Classification of Dyes

1.3 Technologies for Color Removal

References

Chapter 2: Novel Carbon-Based Nanoadsorbents for Removal of Synthetic Textile Dyes from Wastewaters

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Basic Properties of Carbon Nanoadsorbents

2.3 Adsorpton of Textile Dyes by Carbon Nanoadsorbents

2.4 Mechanism of Dye Adsorption onto Carbon-Based Nanoadsorbents

2.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives

References

Chapter 3: Advanced Oxidation Processes for Removal of Dyes from Aqueous Media

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Advanced Oxidation Processes

3.3 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 4: Photocatalytic Processes for the Removal of Dye

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Photocatalysis – An Emerging Technology

4.3 Photo-Oxidation Mechanism

4.4 Solar Photocatalysis/Photoreactors

4.5 Solar Photoreactor for Degradation of Different Dyes

4.6 Dependence of Dye Degradation on Different Parameters

4.7 Conclusions

Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 5: Removal of Dyes from Effluents Using Biowaste-Derived Adsorbents

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Agro-Based Waste Materials as Dye Adsorbents

References

Chapter 6: Use of Fungal Laccases and Peroxidases for Enzymatic Treatment of Wastewater Containing Synthetic Dyes

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Textile Dyes – Classifications, Chemical Structures and Environmental Impacts

6.3 Biodegradation of Synthetic Dyes by White Rot Fungi

6.4 Fungal Decolorization Mechanisms and Involvement of Ligninolytic Enzymes

6.5 Classification and Enzymology of Ligninolytic Enzymes

6.6 Enzymatic Treatment of Synthetic Dyes

6.7 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 7: Single and Hybrid Applications of Ultrasound for Decolorization and Degradation of Textile Dye Residuals in Water

7.1 Overview of the Textile Industry, Dyestuff and Dyeing Mill Effluents

7.2 Sonication: A Viable AOP for Decolorizing/Detoxifying Dying Process Effluents

7.3 Hybrid Processes with Ultrasound: A Synergy of Combinations

7.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 8: Biosorption of Organic Dyes: Research Opportunities and Challenges

8.1 General Considerations

8.2 Biosorbents

8.3 Factors Affecting Biosorption

8.4 Biosorption Isotherms, Thermodynamics and Kinetics

8.5 Future Perspectives and Challenges

References

Chapter 9: Dye Adsorption on Expanding Three-Layer Clays

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Classification of Dyes

9.3 The Expanding Three-Layer Clay Minerals and Dye Adsorption

9.4 General Remarks

References

Chapter 10: Non-conventional Adsorbents for Dye Removal

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Activated Carbons from Solid Wastes

10.3 Clays

10.4 Siliceous Materials

10.5 Zeolites

10.6 Agricultural Solid Wastes

10.7 Industrial Byproducts

10.8 Peat

10.9 Chitin and Chitosan

10.10 Biomass

10.11 Starch-Based Derivatives

10.12 Miscellaneous Adsorbents

10.13 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 11: Hen Feather: A Remarkable Adsorbent for Dye Removal

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Adsorbate Materials – Azo Dyes

11.3 Adsorbent Material – Hen Feather

11.4 Preliminary Investigations

11.5 Adsorption Isotherm Models

11.6 Kinetics Measurements

11.7 Conclusions

References

Index

Green Chemistry for Dyes Removal from Wastewater

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Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-1-118-72099-8

This book is for Kunal – Kritika…. my twin angels on their 15th Birthday, with love.

Preface

Writing a preface for a book always has been a challenge as things are to be looked upon not only from the eyes of an editor, but also from a reader’s perception and expectations; all the while keeping in mind not to do any injustice to the zeal of a contributor who has worked so hard to pen the text.

“Green Chemistry” two decade’s old philosophy, has been attracting the attention of scientists worldwide. Academicians as well as industrialists are equally interested in this new stream of chemical science. Researchers, all over the world, are conducting active research in different fields of engineering, science and technology by adopting green chemistry principles and methodologies to devise new processes with a view towards helping, protecting, and ultimately saving the environment of our planet from further anthropogenic interruptions and damage. Achieving sustainability and renewability of resources is the basic spirit of green chemistry; it inspires us to try alternative “green” approaches in place of traditional “gray” practices in everyday industrial and scientific activities.

Water pollution is a matter of great concern. It’s quality and potability is equally important for both domestic purposes and industrial needs. But, at the same time, industrial effluents pollute the available water resources. Dyes, as one of the pollutants, cause various serious health hazards and socioeconomic problems. It spoils the “productivity” of soil; which in turn may be the reason for other related issues, especially in developing countries. Removal of dyes from water or wastewater is therefore an important task. But, removing dyes at a cost to the environment should be avoided when considering which technique to use. So, the far important challenge is to make a removal technique sufficiently “green.”

Water pollution is often discussed with respect to various pollutants and their treatments, but water pollution due to the presence of synthetic dyes has not been discussed sufficiently in the literature. So, the treatment of wastewater produced from industries using dyes (directly or indirectly) has tremendous scope worldwide. That is why dye removal is an important issue which needs to be addressed seriously.

The chapters in this book are the outcome of the scholarly writing of researchers of international repute with stellar credentials, who have tried to present an overview of the problem and its solution from different angles. These problems and solutions are presented in a genuinely holistic way using valuable research-based text from world-renowned researchers. Discussed herein are various promising techniques to remove dyes, including the use of nanotechnology, ultrasound, microwave, catalysts, biosorption, enzymatic treatments, advanced oxidation processes, etc., all of which are “green.” The book contains eleven chapters, all of which focus on the theme of green chemistry and discuss tools and techniques which are eco-friendly, non-hazardous and, moreover, low waste generating.

The textile industry produces a large amount of dye effluents which are highly toxic as they contain a large number of metal complex dyes. The use of synthetic chemical dyes in various industrial processes, including paper and pulp manufacturing, plastics, dyeing of cloth, leather treatment and printing, has increased considerably over the last few years, resulting in the release of dye-containing industrial effluents into the soil and aquatic ecosystems. The textile industry generates highly polluting wastewaters and their treatment is a very serious problem due to high total dissolved solids (TDS), presence of toxic heavy metals, and the non-biodegradable nature of the dyestuffs present in the effluent. There are many processes available for the removal of dyes by conventional treatment technologies including biological and chemical oxidation, coagulation and adsorption, but they cannot be effectively used individually. Different types of dyes, their working and methodologies and various physical, chemical and biological treatment methods employed so far are comprehensively discussed in Chapter 1.

Adsorption is widely acknowledged as the most promising and efficient method because of its low capital investment, simplicity of design, ease of operation, insensitivity to toxic substances and ability to remove pollutants even from diluted solutions. In recent years, nanotechnology has introduced a myriad of novel nanomaterials that can have promising outcomes in environmental cleanup and remediation. Particularly, carbon-based nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and graphene are being intensively studied as new types of adsorbents for removal of toxic pollutants from aquatic systems. This extraordinary interest stems from their unique morphology, nanosized scale and novel physicochemical properties. Thus, Chapter 2 focuses on the use of nanotechnology in the treatment of dye removal.

Textile dyeing industries expend large volumes of water, which is ultimately discharged with intense color, chemical oxygen demand (COD), suspended/dissolved solids and recalcitrant material as unfixed dye residuals and spent auxiliaries. A typical reactive dyebath effluent contains 20–30% of the input dye mass (1500–2200 mgL-1) and traces of heavy metals (i.e., cobalt, chromium and copper) that arise from the use of metal-complex azo dyes. The challenge to destroy dye residuals in biotreated wastewater effluents seems to be resolved by the introduction of advanced oxidation processes (AOP), whereby highly reactive hydroxyl radicals are generated chemically, photochemically and/or by radiolytic/sonolytic means. Hence, AOPs not only offer complete decolorization of aqueous solutions without the production of huge volumes of sludge, but also promise a considerable degree of mineralization and detoxification of the dyes and their oxidation/hydrolysis byproducts. The potential of ultrasound as an AOP is based on cavitation phenomenon, i.e., the formation, growth and implosive collapse of acoustic cavity bubbles in water and the generation of local hot spots with very extreme temperatures and pressures. Application of AOPs in dye removal is comprehensively discussed in Chapters 3 and 7.

The heterogeneous photocatalysis process has shown huge potential for water and wastewater treatment over the last few decades. Chapter 4 summarizes the photocatalytic oxidation process for dye degradation under both UV and visible light, application of solar light and solar photoreactor in dye degradation, and then finally discusses the dependence of different parameters (pH, photocatalyst loading, initial dye concentration, electron scavenger, light intensity) on dye degradation.

Several technologies have been developed to treat dye-containing effluents (DCEFs) such as coagulation-flocculation, filtration, sedimentation, precipitation-flocculation, electrocoagulation-electroflotation, biodegradation, photocatalysis, oxidation, electrochemical treatment, membrane separation, ion-exchange, incineration, irradiation, advanced oxidation, bacterial decolorization, electrokinetic coagulation and adsorption on activated carbon. From an industrial viewpoint, no single process provides adequate treatment, being that significant reduction of expenses and enhancement of dye removal can be achieved by the combination of different methods in hybrid treatments. “Biosorption” can be employed to treat DCEFs because it combines the advantages of adsorption with the use of natural, low-cost, eco-friendly and renewable biosorbents. Biosorption of organic dyes and related research opportunities and challenges are beautifully discussed in length in Chapters 5 and 8.

The enzymatic process using ligninolytic enzymes, such as laccases and peroxidases, is a relatively new emerging technology for the degradation of xenobiotics, including synthetic dyes in textile wastewater. This unique process employs a hybrid of chemical and biological oxidation using a combination of crude or purified enzymes from plant materials or fungal cultures as a biocatalyst and dissolved molecular oxygen or hydrogen peroxide as a chemical oxidant. This enzymatic process has a number of advantages over conventional physical, chemical and biological processes. Chapter 6 provides a comprehensive literature review on the enzymatic treatment of various synthetic dyes and discusses the recent progress and challenges associated with this technology. In addition, the fungal treatment of synthetic dyes and contaminated effluents, as well as the enzymology of the key ligninolytic enzymes, are covered in this chapter to explore the important roles of fungal enzymes in synthetic dye decolorization.

Adsorption is one of the best treatment methods due to its flexibility, simplicity of design, and insensitivity to toxic pollutants. Recently, clay and its modified forms have been used as adsorbents, and there has been an upsurge of interest in the interactions between dyes and clay particles. Clay may serve as an ideal adsorbent because of its low cost. It has relatively large specific surface area, excellent physical and chemical stability, and other advantageous structural and surface properties. Use of clay (especially three-layer clays) as adsorbent has been elaborately presented by Tolga Depci and Mehmet S. Çelik in Chapter 9.

Chapter 10 is about non-conventional adsorbents including clays, siliceous materials, zeolites, agricultural solid wastes, industrial byproducts, peat, chitin and chitosan, biomass, starch-based derivatives and miscellaneous adsorbents. Their effectiveness as an alternative green approach for the removal of dyes from wastewater and industrial effluents is discussed.

Hen feather is an abundantly available waste material found at poultry houses. It possesses marvelous and proficient structures, which are flexible as well as strong. Hen feather is composed of keratin and is biochemically similar to the substance responsible for creating the fur of mammals, scales of reptiles, horns of animals and fingernails of humans.

It is now well established that hen feather can be used as a potential adsorbent for the removal of hazardous pollutants. Before the year 2006, the use of hen feather as adsorbent was limited to the removal of metal ions only. However, in an innovative initiative first made by Alok Mittal and Jyoti Mittal, it was found that hen feather can also be exploited as a dye scavenger for wastewater. Chapter 11 summarizes the results of the removal of dye contaminants from water using hen feather as an adsorbent. The chapter provides comparable consequences of the effects of various parameters influencing the adsorption, various adsorption isotherms, kinetics, etc., of the developed dye removal processes.

The main outcome of reading this book will be that the reader is going to have a holistic view of the immense potential and ongoing research in dye removal by green chemistry, and its close connection with modern research and engineering applications. Furthermore, this book can be used as an important platform to inspire researchers in any related fields to develop greener processes for important techniques for use in several fields.

I gratefully acknowledge all the contributors of this book, without whom these valuable chapters could not have been completed. I express my highest gratitude and thankfulness to all of them.

Sanjay K. Sharma, FRSCJaipur, India1st January 2015

Acknowledgements

When you complete a task and take time to rewind your journey and relive it through memories, you find some smiling and encouraging faces that have motivated you to complete the task with untiring efforts to your full ability. Such smiling faces remove the pain of stress which we occasionally face during any journey and encourage us to “Go ahead.” They deserve a special mention and gratitude, love and affection.

It is time for me to express my feelings about my friends, colleagues, supporters and well- wishers and to let them know that I was so fortunate to have them and their valuable cooperation during the writing of this book, Green Chemistry for Dye Removal from Wastewater: Research Trends and Applications.

First of all I want to express my special thanks to all esteemed contributors of this book, who deserve special mention for contributing their writings, without which this book would not have been possible.

I deeply acknowledge my parents, Dr. M.P. Sharma and Mrs. Parmeshwari Devi, for their never-ending encouragement, moral support and blessings.

My wife Dr. Pratima Sharma deserves the highest appreciation for being beside me all the way and encouraging me in every hour of crisis. I appreciate her patience over the course of this book.

I also wish to thank Mr. Amit Agarwal and Mr. Arpit Agarwal (Vice Chairpersons, JECRC University, Jaipur) for their never ending support and encouragement, Prof. Victor Gambhir (President, JECRC University, Jaipur), Prof. J.K. Sharma (Pro-President, JECRC University, Jaipur), Prof. R.N. Prasad (Dean, School of Sciences) and Prof. D.P. Mishra (Registrar, JECRC University, Jaipur) for their appreciation and guidance.

My kids Kunal and Kritika always deserve special mention as they are my best companions, who energize me to work with a refreshed mood and renewed motivation.

Special thanks go to Martin and his team behind this publication, without whose painstaking efforts this work could not have been completed in a timely manner.

I am also thankful to many others whose names I have not been able to mention but whose association and support has not been less in any way.

About the Editor

Prof. (Dr.) Sanjay K. Sharma is a very well-known author and editor of many books, research journals and hundreds of articles over the last twenty years.

Presently Prof. Sharma is working as Professor and Head of the Department of Chemistry, JECRC University, Jaipur, India, where he is teaching Engineering Chemistry and Environmental Chemistry to B. Tech Students; Green Chemistry, Spectroscopy and Organic Chemistry to undergraduate and post-graduate students; and pursuing his research interest in the domain of Green Chemistry with special reference to Water Pollution, Corrosion Inhibition and Biopolymers.

Dr. Sharma has had 16 books published on Chemistry by national-international publishers and over 61 research papers of national and international repute to his credit.

He has also been appointed as a Series Editor by Springer, UK, for their prestigious book series “Green Chemistry for Sustainability,” where he has been involved in editing 14 different titles by various international contributors so far. Dr. Sharma is also serving as Editor-in-Chief for the RASAYAN Journal of Chemistry

He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry (UK), member of the American Chemical Society (USA), and International Society for Environmental Information Sciences (ISEIS, Canada) and is also a lifetime member of various international professional societies including the International Society of Analytical Scientists, Indian Council of Chemists, International Congress of Chemistry and Environment, Indian Chemical Society, etc.

[email protected]@outlook.com

Chapter 1

Removal of Organic Dyes from Industrial Effluents: An Overview of Physical and Biotechnological Applications

Mehtap Ejder-Korucu1, Ahmet Gürses*,2, Çetin Doğar3, Sanjay K. Sharma4 and Metin Açιkyιldιz5

1Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Arts, Department of Chemistry, Kars, Turkey

2Ataturk University, K.K. Education Faculty, Department of Chemistry, Erzurum, Turkey

3Erzincan University, Education Faculty, Department of Science Education, Erzincan, Turkey

4Green Chemistry & Sustainability Research Group, Department of Chemistry, JECRC University, Jaipur, India

5Kilis 7 Aralιk University, Faculty of Science and Arts, Department of Chemistry, Kilis, Turkey

*Corresponding author:[email protected]

Abstract

The textile industry produces a large amount of dye effluents, which are highly toxic as they contain a large number of metal complex dyes. The use of synthetic chemical dyes in various industrial processes, including paper and pulp manufacturing, plastics, dyeing of cloth, leather treatment and printing has increased considerably over the last few years, resulting in the release of dye-containing industrial effluents into the soil and aquatic ecosystems. The textile industry generates highly polluted wastewater and its treatment is a very serious problem due to high total dissolved solids (TDS), the presence of toxic heavy metals and the non-biodegradable nature of the dyestuffs present in the effluents. There are many processes available for the removal of dyes by conventional treatment technologies including biological and chemical oxidation, coagulation and adsorption, but they cannot be effectively used individually.

Many approaches, including physical, chemical and/or biological processes have been used in the treatment of industrial wastewater containing dye, but such methods are often very costly and not environmentally safe. Furthermore, the large amount of sludge generated and the low efficiency of treatment with respect to some dyes have limited their use.

Keywords: Natural dyes, acid dyes, disperse dyes, cationic dyes, adsorption, membrane filtration, ion exchange, irradiation, electrokinetic coagulation, aerobic and anaerobic degradation

1.1 Introduction

Water, which is one of the abundant compounds found in nature, covers approximately three-fourths of the surface of the earth. Over 97% of the total quantity of water is in the oceans and other saline bodies of water and is not readily available for our use. Over 2% is tied up in polar ice caps and glaciers and in atmosphere and as soil moisture. As an essential element for domestic, industrial and agricultural activities, only 0.62% of water found in fresh water lakes, rivers and groundwater supplies, which is irregularly and non-uniformly distributed over the vast area of the globe, is accessible [1].

A reevaluation of the issue of environmental pollution made at the end of the last century has shown that wastes such as medicines, disinfectants, contrast media, laundry detergents, surfactants, pesticides, dyes, paints, preservatives, food additives, and personal care products which have been released by chemical and pharmaceutical industries, are a severe threat to the environment and human health on a global scale [2]. The progressive accumulation of more and more organic compounds in natural waters is mostly a result of the development of chemical technologies towards organic synthesis and processing. The population explosion and expansion of urban areas have had an increased adverse impact on water resources, particularly in regions in which natural resources are still limited. Currently, water use or reuse is a major concern which needs a solution. Population growth leads to a significant increase in default volumes of wastewater, which makes it an urgent imperative to develop effective and low-cost technologies for wastewater treatment [3].

Especially in the textile industry, effluents contain large amounts of dye chemicals which may cause severe water pollution. Also, organic dyes are commonly used in a wide range of industrial applications. Therefore, it is very important to reduce the dye concentration of wastewater before discharging it into the environment. Discharging large amounts of dyes into water resources, organics, bleaches, and salts, can affect the physical and chemical properties of fresh water. Dyes in wastewater that can obstruct light penetration and are highly visible, are stable to light irradiation and heat and also toxic to microorganisms. The removal of dyes is a very complex process due to their structure and synthetic origins [4].