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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Automotive Series
- Sprache: Englisch
The overall goal of vehicle design is to make a robust and reliable product that meets the demands of the customers and this book treats the topic of analysing and describing customer loads with respect to durability.
Guide to Load Analysis for Vehicle and Durability Engineering supplies a variety of methods for load analysis and also explains their proper use in view of the vehicle design process. In Part I, Overview, there are two chapters presenting the scope of the book as well as providing an introduction to the subject. Part II, Methods for Load Analysis, describes useful methods and indicates how and when they should be used. Part III, Load Analysis in view of the Vehicle Design Process, offers strategies for the evaluation of customer loads, in particular characterization of customer populations, which leads to the derivation of design loads, and finally to the verification of systems and components.
Key features:
• Is a comprehensive collection of methods for load analysis, vehicle dynamics and statistics
• Combines standard load data analysis methods with statistical aspects on deriving test loads from surveys of customer usage
• Sets the methods used in the framework of system dynamics and response, and derives recommendations for the application of methods in engineering practice
• Presents a reliability design methodology based on statistical evaluation of component strength and customers loads
• Includes case studies and illustrative examples that translate the theory into engineering practice
Developed in cooperation with six European truck manufacturers (DAF, Daimler, Iveco, MAN, Scania and Volvo) to meet the needs of industry, Guide to Load Analysis for Vehicle and Durability Engineering provides an understanding of the current methods in load analysis and will inspire the incorporation of new techniques in the design and test processes.
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Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
About the Editors
Contributors
Series Preface
Preface
Acknowledgements
Part One: Overview
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Durability in Vehicle Engineering
1.2 Reliability, Variation and Robustness
1.3 Load Description for Trucks
1.4 Why Is Load Analysis Important?
1.5 The Structure of the Book
Chapter 2: Loads for Durability
2.1 Fatigue and Load Analysis
2.2 Loads in View of Fatigue Design
2.3 Loads in View of System Response
2.4 Loads in View of Variability
2.5 Summary
Part Two: Methods for Load Analysis
Chapter 3: Basics of Load Analysis
3.1 Amplitude-based Methods
3.2 Frequency-based Methods
3.3 Multi-input Loads
3.4 Summary
Chapter 4: Load Editing and Generation of Time Signals
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Data Inspection and Correction
4.3 Load Editing in the Time Domain
4.4 Load Editing in the Rainflow Domain
4.5 Generation of Time Signals
4.6 Summary
Chapter 5: Response of Mechanical Systems
5.1 General Description of Mechanical Systems
5.2 Multibody Simulation (MBS) for Durability Applications or: from System Loads to Component Loads
5.3 Finite Element Models (FEM) for Durability Applications or: from Component Loads to Local Stress-strain Histories
5.4 Invariant System Loads
5.5 Summary
Chapter 6: Models for Random Loads
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Basics on Random Processes
6.3 Statistical Approach to Estimate Load Severity
6.4 The Monte Carlo Method
6.5 Expected Damage for Gaussian Loads
6.6 Non-Gaussian Loads: the Role of Upcrossing Intensity
6.7 The Coefficient of Variation for Damage
6.8 Markov Loads
6.9 Summary
Chapter 7: Load Variation and Reliability
7.1 Modelling of Variability in Loads
7.2 Reliability Assessment
7.3 The Full Probabilistic Model
7.4 The First-Moment Method
7.5 The Second-Moment Method
7.6 The Fatigue Load-Strength Model
7.7 Summary
Part Three: Load Analysis in View of the Vehicle Design Process
Chapter 8: Evaluation of Customer Loads
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Survey Sampling
8.3 Load Measurement Uncertainty
8.4 Random Sampling of Customers
8.5 Customer Usage and Load Environment
8.6 Vehicle-Independent Load Descriptions
8.7 Discussion and Summary
Chapter 9: Derivation of Design Loads
9.1 Introduction
9.2 From Customer Usage Profiles to Design Targets
9.3 Synthetic Load Models
9.4 Random Load Descriptions
9.5 Applying Reconstruction Methods
9.6 Standardized Load Spectra
9.7 Proving Ground Loads
9.8 Optimized Combination of Test Track Events
9.9 Discussion and Summary
Chapter 10: Verification of Systems and Components
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Generating Loads for Testing
10.3 Planning and Evaluation of Tests
10.4 Discussion and Summary
Appendix A: Fatigue Models and Life Prediction
A.1 Short, Long or Infinite Life
A.2 Cumulative Fatigue
Appendix B: Statistics and Probability
B.1 Further Reading
B.2 Some Common Distributions
B.3 Extreme Value Distributions
Appendix C: Fourier Analysis
C.1 Fourier Transformation
C.2 Fourier Series
C.3 Sampling and the Nyquist-Shannon Theorem
C.4 DFT/FFT (Discrete Fourier Transformation)
Appendix D: Finite Element Analysis
D.1 Kinematics of Flexible Bodies
D.2 Equations of Equilibrium
D.3 Linear Elastic Material Behaviour
D.4 Some Basics on Discretization Methods
D.5 Dynamic Equations
Appendix E: Multibody System Simulation
E.1 Linear Models
E.2 Mathematical Description of Multibody Systems
Appendix F: Software for Load Analysis
F.1 Some Dedicated Software Packages
F.2 Some Software Packages for Fatigue Analysis
F.3 WAFO—a Toolbox for Matlab
Bibliography
Index
This edition first published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
© 2014 Fraunhofer-Chalmers Research Centre for Industrial Mathematics
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Guide to load analysis for durability in vehicle engineering / editors, Par Johannesson, Michael Speckert ;
contributors, Klaus Dressler, Sara Loren, Jacques de Mare, Nikolaus Ruf, Igor Rychlik, Anja Streit and
Thomas Svensson -- First edition.
1 online resource.— (Automotive series ; 1)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by publisher; resource not viewed.
ISBN 978-1-118-70049-5 (Adobe PDF) -- ISBN 978-1-118-70050-1 (ePub) -- ISBN 978-1-118-64831-5
(hardback) 1. Trucks--Dynamics. 2. Finite element method. 3. Trucks--Design and construction.
I. Johannesson, Par, editor of compilation. II. Speckert, Michael, editor of compilation.
TL230
629.2′31— dc23
2013025948
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: 978-1-118-64831-5
About the Editors
Pär Johannesson (SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, Sweden) received his PhD in Mathematical Statistics in 1999 from Lund Institute of Technology, with a thesis on statistical load analysis for fatigue. During 2000 and 2001 he worked as a PostDoc at Mathematical Statistics, Chalmers, on a joint project with PSA Peugeot Citroën, where he stayed one year in the Division of Automotive Research and Innovations in Paris. From 2002 to 2010 he was an applied researcher at the Fraunhofer-Chalmers Research Centre for Industrial Mathematics in Göteborg, and in 2010 he was a guest researcher at Chalmers. He is currently working as a research engineer at SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, mainly on industrial and research projects on statistical methods for load analysis, reliability and fatigue.
Michael Speckert (Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Mathematics (ITWM), Germany) received his PhD in Mathematics from the University of Kaiserslautern in 1990. From 1991 to 1993 he worked at TECMATH in the human modelling department on optimization algorithms. From 1993 to 2004 he worked at TECMATH and LMS in the departments for load data analysis and fatigue life estimation in the area of method as well as software development. Since 2004 he has been working at the department for Dynamics and Durability at Fraunhofer ITWM as an applied researcher. His main areas of interest are statistical and fatigue-oriented load data analysis and multibody simulation techniques.
Contributors
Series Preface
The automotive industry is one of the largest manufacturing sectors in the global community. Not only does it generate significant economic benefits to the world's economy, but the automobile is highly linked to a wide variety of international concerns such as energy consumption, emissions, trade and safety.
The primary objective of the Automotive Series is to publish practical and topical books for researchers and practitioners in industry, and postgraduate/advanced undergraduates in automotive engineering. The series addresses new and emerging technologies in automotive engineering supporting the development of more fuel efficient, safer and more environmentally friendly vehicles. It covers a wide range of topics, including design, manufacture and operation, and the intention is to provide a source of relevant information that will be of interest and benefit to people working in the field of automotive engineering.
In 2006, six leading European truck manufacturers (DAF, Daimler, Iveco, MAN, Scania, and Volvo) commissioned a research project to produce a guide to load analysis oriented towards fatigue design of trucks. The project was run by Fraunhofer-Chalmers Research Centre for Industrial Mathematics (FCC) in collaboration with Fraunhofer ITWM, the SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, Mathematical Sciences at Chalmers University of Technology, and the industrial partners.
The project included an investigation of the current practice and future needs within load analysis, together with a survey on the state-of-the-art in load analysis for automotive applications. This book, Guide to Load Analysis for Durability in Vehicle Engineering, is the result of this research.
The guide presents a number of different methods of load analysis, explaining their principles, usage, applications, advantages and drawbacks. A section on integrating load analysis into vehicle design aims at presenting what methods are useful at each stage of the design process.
The Guide to Load Analysis for Durability in Vehicle Engineering covers a topic usually presented in separate works on fatigue, safety and reliability; signal processing, probability and statistics. It is up-to-date, has been written by recognized experts in the field and is a welcome addition to the Automotive series.
Thomas Kurfess August 2013
Preface
This work is the result of a collaboration between researchers and practitioners with an interest in load analysis and durability but with different backgrounds, for example, mathematical statistics, applied mathematics, mechanics, and fatigue, together with industrial experience of both load analysis problems and specific fatigue type problems. The project started in 2006 when the six European truck manufacturers: DAF, Daimler, Iveco, MAN, Scania, and Volvo, commissioned a research project to produce a Guide to Load Analysis oriented towards fatigue design of trucks. The project was run by Fraunhofer-Chalmers Research Centre for Industrial Mathematics (FCC) in collaboration with Fraunhofer ITWM, SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, Mathematical Sciences at Chalmers University of Technology, and the industrial partners. All the research groups involved have long experience and profound knowledge of load analysis for durability, where the Swedish group (FCC, SP and Chalmers) has the key competencies in statistics and random processes, and the German group (Fraunhofer ITWM) are experts in mathematical modelling of mechanical systems. The complete Guide was available in 2009, as planned, after a joint effort of ten staff years.
Transport vehicles are exposed to dramatically different operating conditions in different parts of the world and in different transport missions. The ultimate goal for the manufacturer is to make a design that exactly meets the needs of the customers, neither too strong nor too weak. The requirements need to be converted into, for example, a certain small risk of failure, a proper safety factor, or an economical expected life. In order to make a robust design it is as important to have a good working knowledge of the properties of the customer loads, as it is to have good working knowledge of the mechanical behaviour of the material and structure in question.
In the process of designing a robust and reliable product that meets the demands of the customers, it is important not only to predict the life of a component, but also to investigate and take into account the sources of variability and their influence on life prediction. There are mainly two quantities influencing the life, namely, the load the component is exposed to, and the structural strength of the component. Statistical methods present useful tools to describe and quantify the variability in load and strength. The variability in the structural strength depends on both the material scatter and the geometrical variations. The customer load distribution may be influenced by, for example, the application of the truck, the driver behaviour, and the market.
The development of information technology and its integration into vehicles have presented new possibilities for in-service measurements. Further, the design process has also moved to the computer. Both these tasks, together with demands for lightweight design and fuel efficiency, require a refined view on loads and lead to arenewed interest in load analysis.
During 2006 an initial one-year project was carried out, with the aim of preparing the ground for a Guide to Load Analysis. The project included an investigation of the current practice and future needs within load analysis, together with a survey of the state of the art in load analysis for automotive application.
The main project that developed the Guide in 2007–2009 also included several seminars at the companies, with the aim of spreading the knowledge within the companies. The themes of the seminars were Basics on load analysis in 2007, Methods for load analysis in 2008, and Load analysis in view of the vehicle design process in 2009.
The Guide presents a variety of methods for load analysis but also their proper use in view of the vehicle design process. In Part I, Overview, two chapters present the scope of the the book as well as giving an introduction to the subject. Part II, Methods for Load Analysis, describes useful methods and indicates how and when they should be used. Part III, Load Analysis in View the Vehicle Design Process, offers strategies for the evaluation of customer loads, in particular the characterization of the customer populations, which leads to the derivation of design loads, and finally to the verification of systems and components. Procedures for generation and acceleration of loads as well as planning and evaluation of verification tests are also included. All through the book, the methods are accompanied by many illustrative examples.
To our knowledge there is no other comprehensive text available covering the same content, but most of the results and methods presented in this Guide are distributed in books and journals in various fields. Partial information on load analysis for durability is mainly found in journals on mechanics, fatigue and vehicle design as well as in text books on fatigue of engineering materials, but also in conference and research papers in other areas, such as signal processing, mathematics and statistics.
Our intended readership is those interested in designing for durability. The audience is probably advanced design engineers and reliability specialists. Especially, people interested in durability, fatigue, reliability and similar initiatives within the automotive industry, are the target group. The Guide should provide a better understanding of the currently used methods as well as inspire the incorporation of new techniques in the design and test processes.
Pär JohannessonGöteborg, March, 2013Michael SpeckertKaiserslautern, March, 2013
Acknowledgements
This book springs from the four-year project (2006–2009) Guide to load analysis for automotive applications commissioned by six European truck manufacturers: DAF, Daimler, IVECO, MAN, Scania, and Volvo. The project was run by Fraunhofer-Chalmers Research Centre for Industrial Mathematics (FCC) in Gothenburg, Sweden, together with Fraunhofer ITWM in Kaiserslautern, Germany, SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden in Borås, Sweden, and Mathematical Sciences at Chalmers University of Technology in Gothenburg, Sweden.
We are most grateful for the financial support from the industrial partners, as well as the valuable feedback on the Guide during the project. Among the many people involved, we are especially grateful to Peter Nijman at DAF, Christof Weber at Daimler, Massimo Mazzarino at IVECO, Manfred Streicher at MAN, Anders Forsén at Scania, and Bengt Johannesson at Volvo.
The Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research has supported the Swedish research teams through the Gothenburg Mathematical Modelling Centre (GMMC), which is gratefully acknowledged.
Part One
Overview
Chapter 1
Introduction
The assessment of durability is vital in many branches of engineering, such as the automotive industry, aerospace applications, railway transportation, the design of windmills, and off-shore construction. A fundamental element of the discussion is the very meaning of durability. A rather general definition is the following:
Durability is the capacity of an item to survive its intended use for a suitable long period of time.
In our context, durability may be defined as the ability of a vehicle, a system or a component to maintain its intended function for its intended service life with intended levels of maintenance in intended conditions of use.
The analysis of durability loads is discussed with truck engineering in mind, however, most of the contents are applicable also to other branches of industry, especially for applications in the automotive context. Properties of loads that cause fatigue damage are emphasized rather than the properties of extreme crash loads or acoustic loads. The fatigue damage mechanisms are assumed to be similar to those encountered in metal fatigue, but a few comments concerning rubber and composite material are given in Section 2.1.5.
In vehicle engineering the purpose of load analysis is:
to evaluate and quantify the customer service loads;
to derive design loads for vehicles, sub-systems, and components;
to define verification loads and test procedures for verification of components, sub-systems, and vehicles.
The Guide is divided into three parts, where the introductory part sets the scope. Part II, Methods for Load Analysis, presents different methods with the aim of providing an understanding of the underlying principles as well as their usage. It is important to know where and when each method is applicable and what merits and disadvantages it has. Part III, Load Analysis in View of the Vehicle Design Process, is organized according to the bullet list above, and describes what methods are useful in the different steps of the vehicle engineering process.
1.1 Durability in Vehicle Engineering
In vehicle engineering the aim is to design a vehicle with certain physical properties. Such properties can be specified in the form of ‘design targets’ for so-called ‘physical attributes’ such as durability, NVH (Noise Vibration Harshness), handling, and crash safety. Design variants are analysed, optimized, and verified by means of physical tests and numerical simulations for the various attributes. An often used view of the vehicle engineering process is illustrated in Figure 1.1, and can be summarized as follows:
Figure 1.1 The vehicle engineering process
Especially for trucks, durability is one of the most important physical attributes for the customer, and therefore durability needs to be highlighted in the development process. The vehicle engineering process in Figure 1.1 needs to be implemented with respect to load analysis for durability. The process illustrated in Figure 1.2 is frequently used in the automotive industry.
Figure 1.2 An implementation of the vehicle engineering process with respect to load analysis
Metal fatigue and other durability phenomena are degradation processes in the sense that an effect builds up over time. A certain force applied to a structure once or a few times may cause no measurable effect, but if it is applied a million times, the structure may fail. Loads in durability engineering need to be studied with regard to the fatigue phenomenon as well as with regard to the vehicle dynamics and the variation in customer usage.
Loads may be displacements (linear or rotational), velocities, accelerations, forces, or moments. They may represent road profiles, wheel forces, relative displacements of components, frame accelerations, or local strains. When we talk about load signals, we mean one- or multi-dimensional functions of time as they appear in the vehicle, for example, during customer usage, on test tracks, in test benches, or in virtual environments. Figure 1.3 shows an example of a measured service load, where a stress signal has been recorded for about 100 minutes on a truck transporting gravel. There we can observe different mean levels as well as different standard deviations of different parts of the load. The changes in the mean level originate from a loaded and an unloaded truck while the changes in the standard deviation derive from different road qualities.
Figure 1.3 A measured service load of a truck transporting gravel
1.2 Reliability, Variation and Robustness
The overall goal of vehicle design is to make a robust and reliable product that meets the demands of the customers; see Bergman and Klefsjö [22], Bergman et al. [23], O'Connor [172], Davis [64] and Johannesson et al. [126] on the topic of reliability and robustness. In order to achieve this goal it is important not only to predict the life of a component, but also to investigate and take into account the sources of variability and their influence on life prediction. There are mainly two quantities influencing the life of the component, namely, the load the component is exposed to, and the structural strength of the component. Statistical methods provide useful tools to describe and quantify the variability in load and strength, see Figure 1.4. The variability in the structural strength depends on both the material scatter and geometrical variations. The customer load distribution may be influenced by the application of the vehicle, the driver behaviour, and the market. From a component designer's point of view, the varying vehicle configurations on which the component, for example, a bracket, is to be used are yet another variation source. For example, for trucks, the same design may well be used on semi-trailer tractors as well as on two- and three-axle platform trucks. This adds to the load variation, as these truck configurations have considerably different dynamic properties. Further, the verification is often performed using test track loads, which represent conditions that are more severe than those of a normal customer. Even though the test track conditions are well controlled, they also exhibit variation, which is illustrated by its distribution in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4 Distributions of customer loads, test track loads and structural strength
The conventional strategy for reliability improvement has been to utilize feedback from testing and field usage in order to understand important failure mechanisms and to find engineering solutions to avoid or reduce the impact of these mechanisms. Based on past experience it has also been the practice to perform predictions of future reliability performance in order to find weak spots and subsequently make improvements already in the early design stages. However, the conventional reliability improvement strategy has strong limitations, as it requires feedback from usage or from testing. Thus, it is fully applicable only in the later stages of product development when already much of the design is frozen and changes incur high costs. Therefore, we propose putting effort into load analysis also in the early design stage, and not primarily in the verification process. In this context, understanding load variation is an important aspect of engineering knowledge.
In industry, the method of Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is often used for reliability assessments. Studies of FMEA have indicated that the failure modes are in most cases triggered by unwanted variation. Therefore, the so-called Variation Mode and Effect Analysis (VMEA) has been developed, which takes the quantitative measures of failure causes into account; see Johannesson et al. [127], Chakhunashvili et al. [54] and Johannesson et al. [125]. The VMEA method is presented at three levels of complexity: basic, enhanced and probabilistic. The basic VMEA can be used when we only have vague knowledge about the variation. The sensitivity and variation size assessments are made by engineering judgements and are usually made on a 1–10 scale. When better judgements of the sources of variation are available, the enhanced VMEA can be used. The probabilistic VMEA can be used in the later design stages where more detailed information is available. It can, for example, be more detailed material data, finite element models for calculating local stresses, and physical experiments in terms of load and strength. The different sources of uncertainty can be measured in terms of statistical standard deviation. The load-strength model described in Section 7.6 is an implementation of the probabilistic VMEA for the application of fatigue and durability problems. Both FMEA and VMEA are methods well suited for use in the framework of Design for Six Sigma (DfSS). The above topics are further discussed in Bergman et al. [23] and Johannesson et al. [126].
1.3 Load Description for Trucks
Here we give a description of the typical features of loads for the truck application, and discuss the so-called load influentials.The particular durability loads which affect trucks are governed by their applications. The application decides where the truck will be used and how it may be used. The main factors governing the loads are
The vehicle utilization
, that is the particular use of the truck, given the utilization profile described by, for example, the transport mission and yearly usage.
The operational environment
, that is, the road conditions and other environmental conditions that the truck will experience.
The vehicle dynamics
, for example, the transfer of external road input to local loads will be affected by the particular tyres and the suspension of the truck.
The driver's behaviour
, that is, the driver's influence on the load such as speed changes, braking, and the ability to adapt to curves.
Legislation
, for example, the speed limits, and allowed weight and size of trucks, in different regions and countries.
Loads that will act on a truck can be described by using the above load influentials, that is, by making a description of the vehicle utilization, the operational environment, the vehicle dynamics, and so on. One such approach is given in Edlund and Fryk [87]. The different load influentials are preferably described as simply as possible, for example, by classifying the types of roads, or by describing each road by some few parameters. Such approaches have been developed especially for the vertical road input, see for example, Bogsjö [30], Bogsjö et al. [33], Öijer and Edlund [175, 176] and the references therein, but also for lateral loads, see for example, Karlsson [132].
It is desirable to separate the load description into a vehicle-independent load environment and a description of the vehicle-dependent load influentials. The vehicle usage and the vehicle dynamics can then be connected to the vehicle independent load environment description, in order to compute the load distribution for the customer population of interest for a specific vehicle, see the schematic view in Figure 1.5. Here, the vehicle usage is the vehicle utilization together with the driver's behaviour, both of which are dependent on the specific vehicle. The load environment is independent of the specific vehicle and includes the operational environment as well as legislation.
Figure 1.5 The customer load distribution can be described in terms of the vehicle-independent load environment together with the vehicle usage and the vehicle dynamics
The vehicle utilization may be described and classified, by for example
Transport cycle
(Long distance—Distribution—Construction).
Transport mission
(Timber—Waste—Trailer—Distribution—and so on).
Yearly usage
.
Pay load or gross combination weight
.
The operational environment may be described by a number of influential variables, such as
Road surface quality
(Smooth—Rough—Cross-country).
Hilliness
(Flat—Hilly—Very Hilly).
Curve density
(Low—Moderate—High).
Altitude
(Sea level—High altitudes).
Climate
(Temperature, humidity, dust, etc.).
The driver's behaviour also causes variations in the load. The origin of the variation is the driver's influence on the way of driving the vehicle, such as speed changes, braking, and acceleration. A specific driver may be characterized by his or her load severity, while a population of drivers may be described by the distribution of their load severities.
Further, the loads can be classified according to their origin, namely external excitations, for example, coming from the road, and internal excitations, for example, coming from the engine and transmission.
1.4 Why Is Load Analysis Important?
Lack of durability is not only a problem for customers, also the producers suffer. Failures reduce company profitability through call-backs, warranty costs and bad will. In other words, good durability leads to good quality, company profitability and customer satisfaction; see Bergman and Klefsjö [22]. In order to make a good durability assessment there are many influences that need to be considered and most of those are not fully known beforehand. This is illustrated by Figure 1.6 showing a schematic view of engineering fatigue design.
Figure 1.6 Schematic view of fatigue design
The numerical procedures for calculating stresses and strains of mechanical systems are nowadays excellent and quite accurate, however, the calculations are surrounded by uncertainties. On the input side, loads are approximated by simplifications of the service environment; material strength is represented by empirical characteristics; geometry is given by specifications where defects like scratches, inclusions, pores and other discontinuities are neglected because of lack of information. On the output side, the stresses and strains are further processed using empirical fatigue models, such as the Wöhler curve, the Palmgren-Miner rule, and Paris' law. These rough models introduce model errors and their parameters are empirically determined, often from quite limited information, for example, data in the literature on similar materials, a number of fatigue tests, or previous experience. Thus, in order to evaluate the output of the fatigue assessment, it is necessary to reflect on the uncertainties in load as well as the uncertainties in strength defined by material and geometry input. However, it should be noted that also the numerical procedures may have significant model errors, especially for non-linear modelling of, for example, welded joints in FEM (Finite Element Models) and tyres in MBS (Multi-Body Simulation). Moreover, load analysis is not only important when analysing the load input, but also for the numerical simulation process, the evaluation of measurements, and the physical verification tests.
The Guide is mainly devoted to the load input problem; how should the service environment be evaluated and represented in the design process? However, in order to correctly understand and treat the load information some basic knowledge about the other pieces is necessary. Further, methods are developed which handle the overall uncertainty problem by using the load-strength model, which is presented in Chapter 7.
1.5 The Structure of the Book
The material is organized into three parts.
Part I Overview
Part I contains, apart from the introduction, Chapter 2 presenting some basic concepts of fatigue assessment and how to apply those to different kinds of loads. It is indicated how the type of system or component affects the choice of suitable load analysis methods to be applied. Finally, it is emphasized that fatigue prediction is affected by a number of sources of variation and uncertainty, which need to be treated and quantified in a reasonable way.
Part II Methods for Load Analysis
Part II gives an account of the different methods that are useful for load analysis. Apart from presenting how the methods work, we also aim to describe their assumptions, relevance, merits, disadvantages, and applicability.
Chapter 3 Basics on Load Analysis
Chapter 3 gives a broad background of load analysis. Section 3.1 treats amplitude-based methods, where the rate of the load signal is neglected in the analysis, thus focusing on the fatigue mechanism. Methods described are rainflow cycle counting, level crossing counting, and other counting methods. In Section 3.2 frequency-based methods are studied, focusing on the power spectral density (PSD). Section 3.3 introduces the case of multi-input loads.
Chapter 4 Load Editing and Generation of Time Signals
There are many situations where modifying load signals is necessary. Section 4.1 discusses which properties of loads are essential for durability, and how to define the criteria for the equivalence of loads. Frequently, measured data are incorrect in the sense that the data show some deviation from what was intended to measure. Besides measurement noise, there are essentially three types of disturbances, namely offsets, drifts and spikes. Methods for inspection and correction of load signals are treated in Section 4.2. Editing of load signals in the time domain is studied in Section 4.3, where amplitude-based methods such as hysteresis filtering are considered, as well as frequency-based methods such as low or high pass filtering. Load editing in the rainflow domain is the topic of Section 4.4, especially rescaling, superposition, and the extrapolation of rainflow matrices are discussed. In some cases the time signal is not available, but only, for example, the rainflow matrix. Section 4.5 presents methods for generating load signals from condensed load descriptions.
Chapter 5 Response of Mechanical Systems
When analysing loads it is necessary to consider the mechanical structure that the loads act on. The role in durability applications of multi-body simulations, ‘from system loads to component loads’, and finite element models, ‘from component loads to local stress-strain histories’, are reviewed in Section 5.2 and Section 5.3, respectively. The issue of invariant system loads is addressed in Section 5.4, that is, the question of getting realistic excitations before measurements on prototypes have been made.
Chapter 6 Models for Random Loads
Load signals in customer usage vary in a more or less unpredictable manner. The load variability can be modelled by using random processes, which are treated in Chapter 6. Statistical modelling of load signals and their durability impact, in terms of damage, are discussed in connection with range-pair counts and level crossing spectra. Two main classes of random loads are treated: Gaussian loads, which model the frequency content, and Markov loads, which model the turning points of a load. The main topic is to compute the expected damage of a random load. Furthermore, the uncertainty in a measured damage number is treated.
Chapter 7 Load Variation and Reliability
The reliability of a component depends on both the load it is subjected to and its structural strength. The sources of variability in load and strength are discussed, and different reliability approaches are reviewed. Our recommendation is to use a second-moment reliability method. Thus, a load-strength model, adopted to the fatigue application, is developed in Section 7.6. The safety factor can then be formulated in terms of a reliability index. In Section 7.6.9 a compromise between statistical modelling and engineering experience is proposed by combining a statistically determined safety factor with a deterministic safety factor based on engineering judgement.
Part III Load Analysis in View of the Vehicle Design Process
The idea of Part III is to present load analysis in view of the vehicle design process, and describe which methods are appropriate in the different stages of design. Recall the vehicle design process presented in Figure 1.2 on page 5, which also represents the structure of Part III.
A brief description of the tasks to be solved may start at the end of the process, namely the verification of the final design. A question that arises is: ‘How many specimens should be tested with which loads, such that a given reliability target can be verified?’ First, the reliability target needs to be formulated in terms of engineering quantities. It may be given as a safety factor based on engineering experience, for example, by using in-house standards at the company. However, we promote the use of safety factors derived by using the load-strength interference, see Figure 1.4, thus including statistical modelling in order to take care of the uncertainties in load and strength.
It is important to follow the reliability requirements throughout the design process. The design and verification loads should thus be determined with respect to the customer population that the vehicle is aimed for. Customer loads may, for example, be obtained from measurement campaigns on public roads, either with professional test drivers along a planned route, or by selecting suitable that of customers. It is often practical to define a design load that is more severe than a typical customer, and the concept of a severe target customer, say, the 95%-customer, is widely used. The design load is often represented as driving schedules on the proving ground.
Finally, the task is to derive verification loads for testing, and relate the corresponding test results to the reliability target. As has been illustrated above, a statistical point of view should be taken in the design process, which is especially the case when performing and evaluating the verification tests. However, it is also important to use previous experience and engineering judgement, for example, in matters of how to accelerate testing without changing the failure modes.
Chapter 8 Evaluation of Customer Loads
The main task of Chapter 8 is to assess the customer load distribution. Apart from defining the load of interest (e.g. the load on the steering arm), it is important to define which population it represents, e.g. all potential customers, a specific application (e.g. timber trucks), or a specific market (e.g. the European market). In this context, principles of survey sampling are discussed. Further, the uncertainty in the calculated load severity is evaluated. In Chapter 8 we discuss three strategies for estimating the customer load distribution:
Random sampling
: Choose customers randomly, however, not necessarily with equal probabilities, and measure their loads.
Customer usage and load environment
: Estimate the proportion driven on different road types, and combine this with measurements from the different road types.
Vehicle-independent load description
: Define models for customer usage, road types, driver influence, and legislation, which can then be combined with a model for the vehicle dynamics.
Chapter 9 Derivation of Design Load Specifications
The topic of Chapter 9 is to derive loads for design and verification purposes. The basic specification is the severity of the load, which needs to be related to the design approach taken. Load time signals can be derived using simple synthetic loads, random load models, modification of measured signals, standardized load sequences, test track measurements, or can be defined through an optimized mixture of test track events.
Chapter 10 Verification of Systems and Components
Chapter 10 is devoted to the verification process; principles of verification, generation and acceleration of loads, and planning and evaluation verification of tests. Three verification approaches are discussed:
Highly Accelerated Life Testing
, HALT, based on the idea that failures give more information than non-failures and give rise to improvements regardless of severities that exceed what is expected.
Load-Strength analysis based on characterizing tests
. Strength and load properties are investigated by characterizing experiments. Uncertainties are evaluated within a statistical framework to verify the design against reliability targets by means of established safety factors.
Probability-based formal procedures
, with test plans based on formal consistent rules that, by experience, give safe designs. Typically, a low quantile in the strength distribution is verified by testing.
Chapter 2
Loads for Durability
We discuss the basic engineering methods used for fatigue and load analysis, as well as some special features that are important when designing for durability. The classic Wöhler and Palmgren-Miner models for fatigue prediction are presented for loads with increasing complexity. A way to consider fatigue is to view it as caused by load cycles, and different ways to count and plot load cycles are discussed. Depending on the use and safety demands of the systems and the components, different design strategies are reviewed. Further, different kinds of mechanical systems require different load analysis methods, and these principles are reviewed. Finally, the role of load uncertainties, caused by scatter and lack of knowledge, in fatigue prediction, is emphasized for various stages of design.
2.1 Fatigue and Load Analysis
A short introduction to fatigue and load analysis is given which introduces some basic concepts for high cycle fatigue (HCF), i.e. the fatigue regime of some ten thousand or more cycles to failure, that are needed for the next sections. These topics will be revisited and explained in more detail in Chapter 3 and Appendix A.
2.1.1 Constant Amplitude Load
The simplest kind of load condition is the constant amplitude load, see Figure 2.1a. A common model for the high-cycle fatigue damage is the SN-curve, also called the Wöhler curve
2.1
where is the number of cycles to fatigue failure, and is the stress amplitude of the applied load. The material parameters are: , describing the fatigue strength of the material; , the damage exponent; and , the fatigue limit.
Figure 2.1 Different types of loads. (a) Constant amplitude load, (b) Block load, (c) Variable amplitude load, narrow band, (d) Variable amplitude load, broad band
2.1.2 Block Load
The next generalization is to consider block loads, i.e. blocks of constant amplitude loads following after each other, see Figure 2.1b. The Palmgren-Miner [183, 161] damage accumulation hypothesis then states that each cycle with amplitude uses a fraction of the total life. Thus the total fatigue damage is given by
2.2
where is the number of cycles with amplitude . Fatigue failure occurs when the damage exceeds one.
2.1.3 Variable Amplitude Loading and Rainflow Cycles
The loads that a vehicle experiences in service are seldom constant amplitude loads or block loads. In Figures 2.1c and 2.1d, two so-called variable amplitude loads are shown. The first one is a narrow band load, the second a broad band load. For an example of a real load, see Figure 1.3 on page 5, which shows a measured service load of a truck for 100 minutes.
One way to deal with varying amplitude loads is to form load cycles and then use damage accumulation methods on the counted cycles, cf. Equation (2.2). The load cycles are formed by pairing the local maxima with the local minima, using some kind of cycle counting algorithm. There are many definitions of cycle counting procedures in the literature, see Collins [58].
The rainflow counting method is generally accepted as being the best cycle counting procedure to date, and has become the industrial de facto standard. It was first presented by Endo in 1967, see Endo et al. [89, 90, 157]. There are now several versions of the rainflow counting algorithm, which are reviewed in Section 3.1.3, where the 4-point algorithm is explained in detail. Here the definition by Rychlik [198] is illustrated in Figure 2.2, which is especially useful for understanding the statistical and mathematical properties of rainflow cycles.
Figure 2.2 The definition of the rainflow cycle, as given by Rychlik [198]. From each local maximum one should try to reach above the same level, in the backward (left) and forward (right) directions, with as small a downward excursion as possible. Thus, the maximum of the two minima and , representing the smallest deviation from the maximum , is defined as the corresponding rainflow minimum . The :th rainflow cycle is defined as
With regard to the damage accumulation, there are many theories in the literature, see Fatemi and Yang [92] for a review. The most popular one is the simple linear Palmgren-Miner, damage accumulation rule; Palmgren [183] and Miner [161], which in combination with rainflow cycle counting can be seen as the industrial state of the art for engineering applications. The validity of the rainflow cycle method has been studied by, for example, Dowling [76], and Jono [129]. The conclusion of Dowling's confirmation experiment was:
… the counting of all closed hysteresis loops as cycles by means of the rain flow counting method allows accurate life predictions. The use of any method of cycle counting other than range pair or rain flow methods can result in inconsistencies and gross differences between predicted and actual fatigue lives.
The range-pair method was independently developed in 1969 by de Jonge [68, 69], and extracts the same cycles as the rainflow method. Further, in Jono [129] it is experimentally shown that the Palmgren-Miner rule works well if the damaging events are the rainflow cycles of the plastic strain.
2.1.4 Rainflow Matrix, Level Crossings and Load Spectrum
The main part of load analysis for durability is connected to the fatigue life regime. We will here demonstrate some basic procedures for load analysis and introduce the rainflow matrix, load spectrum, level crossings and rainflow filter. These topics will be revisited in Chapter 3, where they are extended and explained in more detail. The analysis is here exemplified using two measured signals, from two different trains of the same type, running from Oslo to Kristiansand in Norway, see Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3 Stress signals from two trains in Norway, measured near a weld just above the boogie
The first step in the analysis is to extract the peaks and valleys of the signal, which are here called Turning Points (TP). It is also customary to remove small cycles from the measured signal that may originate from measurement noise or cause negligible damage. This is of particular importance in fatigue testing, where it is often necessary to accelerate the testing and hence reduce the time of testing, but still have an appropriate load signal giving the correct damage. In our case the sample frequency of the signals is 200 Hz, resulting in about 7.5 million sample points, which is reduced to about 500 000 cycles. The proper way to remove small cycles is to use the so-called rainflow filter, which removes the turning points in the signal that constitute rainflow cycles with ranges smaller than a given threshold. By applying a rainflow filter with a threshold range of 4 MPa, the number of cycles is reduced to about 25 000, which means an acceleration by a factor of 20, but in this case keeping 99.8% of the original damage (based on the Palmgren-Miner rule and a damage exponent of ).
From the rainflow filtered signals we extract the rainflow cycles, and obtain the rainflow matrices presented in Figures 2.4 and 2.5. The two figures represent the same set of rainflow cycles, but are presented in different ways. In Figure 2.4 the min-max format is used, which means that the x-axis is the minimum of the cycle, and the y-axis is the maximum of the cycle, and the colour represents the frequency of occurrence. The min-max format is the most convenient format for further statistical or mathematical analysis of the rainflow matrix, for example, extrapolation of the rainflow matrix or generation of time signals, see Sections 4.4 and 4.5. The most common way in fatigue applications is to present the rainflow matrix in amplitude-mean (or range-mean) format, where the x-axis represents the mean value of the cycle, and the y-axis the amplitude (or range) of the cycle, see Figure 2.5. In the amplitude-mean format it is easier to relate to the fatigue properties of the load, where the amplitude distribution is the most important one. However, it should be kept in mind that the two formats represent the same cycle information, only presented in different manners.
Figure 2.4 Rainflow matrices from the two Norway measurements, presented in min-max format
Figure 2.5 Rainflow matrices from the two Norway measurements, presented in amplitude-mean format
We can observe some differences in the rainflow matrices from the two measurements. Measurement 2 has a higher mean value, and also a wider rainflow matrix, due to the fluctuating mean value of the signal, compared to measurement 1. The fluctuating mean value of measurement 2 was found to be caused by a drift in the measuring device. The stresses were calculated from strain gauges that are sensitive to temperature variations. The temperature fluctuations at the measurement point give rise to strains but in this case not to stresses in the structure. Consequently, the fluctuating mean is an artificial stress component. This effect had already been removed from measurement 1 by removing a moving average from the time signal, but it had not been removed from measurement 2. Methods for data inspection and correction are presented in Section 4.2.
Since the rainflow matrix may be hard to interpret, due to its two-dimensional nature, simpler characteristics like level crossings and rainflow amplitudes are useful. The level crossing spectrum can be calculated directly from the time signal, but also from the rainflow matrix. The two measurements have quite different level upcrossing spectra, see Figure 2.6a, which reflects the previous observation that measurement 2 has a higher mean value than measurement 1. Furthermore, we can observe that the shape of the tails of the level crossings seems to be different.
Figure 2.6 Level upcrossing spectrum and load spectrum from Norway measurements
Another useful one-dimensional characteristic of a signal is the load spectrum, which here and by most authors is defined as the distribution of rainflow cycle amplitudes in the signal, and is obtained from the rainflow matrix. The load spectrum is also called range-pair count, see Section 3.1.4. It is often presented as the cumulative count of cycles with amplitudes larger than a given amplitude, as a function of the amplitude. For the Norway measurements there seem to be differences for small amplitudes, while for large amplitudes the two measurements have about the same characteristics, see Figure 2.6b.
The load spectrum can also be illustrated using a histogram, see Figure 2.7a, but in the linear scale we do not see the important large amplitude cycles. However, we can put weight according to the damage of the corresponding cycle amplitudes, see Figure 2.7b. This damage histogram shows how the damage is distributed among the different amplitudes. In our case the damage is distributed among many cycles, and the largest cycle contributes to about 2% of the total damage, where we used damage exponent .
Figure 2.7 The rainflow cycle amplitude histogram and the corresponding damage histogram for Norway measurements
2.1.5 Other Kinds of Fatigue
There are still many areas in fatigue and load analysis that are not well understood, mainly due to the difficulty of modelling the physical phenomenon in question. Such problems, for example, are the durability assessment of non-metallic materials like rubber, ceramics, composite materials, glue joints, and plastics. Other problematic topics are high temperature fatigue and environmental effects like dust, humidity and corrosion. These topics will not be specifically covered in the Guide, but many of the methods presented are still useful. We will here briefly review load analysis in these situations, mainly pointing out the difficulties and the special care that needs to be taken. Note that the effects above can easily override other fatigue phenomena, which leads to the important topic of balanced model complexity, and where special efforts in fatigue modelling should be made.
2.1.5.1 Low Cycle Fatigue
The presentation in the Guide focuses on the high cycle fatigue (HCF) phenomenon, and no special attention is paid to low cycle fatigue (LCF). However, many of the methods and results are also applicable in the case of LCF, for example, rainflow cycle counting and other counting methods, load editing methods, response of mechanical systems, random load models, and reliability methods.
2.1.5.2 Non-metallic Materials
Materials like rubber are sensitive not only to the amplitudes of the load, but also to the deflection speed. There exists a strain rate effect, but the main effect of the increased load frequency is heating of the material. When modelling loads on rubber components, and especially when making accelerated tests, it is important to keep the temperature at a reasonable level, so that the material properties are representative of service conditions. This can be done by reducing the frequency of the applied load, or in testing by cooling the component. Rubber is also sensitive to environmental effects, and exhibits degrading due to ageing. For variable amplitude loads, rainflow counting together with Palmgren-Miner still seems to be a good engineering method. Surveys on rubber fatigue are presented in Mars and Fatemi [153], treating fatigue approaches, and in Mars and Fatemi [154], discussing factors affecting the fatigue life. For brittle materials, like ceramics, plastics and composites, the fracture strength is the most important property, while cumulative fatigue is rarely applicable in practice. For plastics and glue joints the phenomenon of ageing of the material may result in a significant loss in strength.
2.1.5.3 High Temperature Fatigue
Sometimes it is necessary to the consider the thermomechanical load, though only a small number of automotive components experience thermomechanical load cycles that result in significant low-cycle fatigue. Mostly it is components related to the engine, like cylinder heads, exhaust manifolds, and crankcases. In this case, the low-cycle fatigue problem is connected to the start-stop cycles, rather than to the combustion cycle. Consequently, it is the slowly varying temperature that is most important to model correctly. Compared to room temperature fatigue, there are several complicating factors that need to be considered when modelling the loads and making life assessments, like ageing of the material, creep, cyclic viscoplastic behaviour, stress-strain behaviour, and a proper fatigue criterion. Thermomechanical fatigue assessments for the automotive industry have been considered in for example, Charkaluk et al. [55], Thomas et al. [233], applied to cast-iron exhaust manifolds, and with an example on an aluminium cylinder head. The most fundamental model for low cycle fatigue is the Coffin-Manson relationship between plastic strain and fatigue life (see Tavernelli and Coffin [231]), which corresponds to the Wöhler curve for the high cycle fatigue.
2.1.5.4 Environmental Effects
Many engineering structures experience some form of alternating stress and are in addition exposed to harmful environments during their service life. Loads due to environmental effects, like corrosion and dust, are difficult to model, but may be important to consider depending on the component and on the application environment. Corrosion fatigue is the mechanical degradation of a material under the joint action of corrosion and cyclic load, see, for example, Roberge [197]. The most important effect of a corrosive environment is that the fatigue strength decreases and especially that the fatigue limit disappears. Hence, for load analysis it is also important to consider cycles below the conventional fatigue limit. An important relation in corrosion is the Arrhenius equation, modelling the time-dependent degradation process. Other environmental effects like dust and humidity are discussed in Karlberg et al. [131].
2.2 Loads in View of Fatigue Design
The appropriate method for load analysis in a certain situation is tightly coupled to the type of design approach that is applicable. A useful categorization of vehicle design approaches when considering load analysis is
Fatigue life
—Cumulative damage,
design for a finite life, typically structural components.
Fatigue limit
—Maximum load,
design for an infinite life, typically engine components.
Sudden failures
—Maximum load,
design for rare events, typically structural components.
Safety critical components
—‘Zero’ failure,
design for high reliability, typically steering components.
2.2.1 Fatigue Life: Cumulative Damage
The design concept of fatigue life and cumulative damage is typically appropriate for structural components, such as the frame, the cabin, and the axles of a truck. The fatigue regime considered is finite fatigue life, using, for example, the Wöhler curve for life prediction together with the Palmgren-Miner damage accumulation hypothesis. Questions that arise are how cycles should be counted for variable amplitude loads, what load information is relevant, and how the load should be filtered when making accelerated fatigue tests.
It is generally agreed that in most cases fatigue can be treated as a rate independent process. Thus, the most important properties of the local loads for fatigue analysis are the values and configuration of the local extremes. Therefore, the load can be seen as a sequence of cycles formed by combining local maxima with local minima. However, the transformation from external loads to local loads may be highly rate dependent, which is discussed in the following section on system response.
