Table of Contents
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FOREWORD
PREFACE
DEDICATION
INTRODUCTION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
World Halophytes Biodiversity, Ecophysiology
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Ecosystems For The Halophytes
Soil
Climate
Soil/Climate Interaction
World Halophytes Biodiversity
Halophytes Biodiversity in the Mediterranean Basin and Arab Region
Halophytes Biodiversity In Asia
The Region of China
The Region of Central Asia
The Region of West Asia
Halophytes Biodiversity in Europe
Halophyte Biodiversity in the Region of Australia
Halophyte Biodiversity in the Region of the Americas
North America
South America
Conclusion
REFERENCES
Classification of Halophytes
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Basis of Halophyte Classification
Conclusion
REFERENCES
Histo-Chemical Characteristics of Halophytes
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Moisture Contents of Halophytes
Dry Matter Contents of Halophytes
Lignification, Fiber, and Starch Contents of Halophytes
Salt Contents of Halophytes
Proteins and Amino Acids Contents of Halophytes
Lipids and Free Fatty Acids Contents of Halophytes
Reactive Oxygen Species
Plant Secondary Metabolites
Conclusion
REFERENCES
Energy in Halophytes
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Carbohydrates in Halophytes
Effect of Salinity on Carbohydrate Contents of Halophytes
Effect on Nonstructural Carbohydrates
Effect on Structural Carbohydrates
Effect of Season on Carbohydrate Contents of Halophytes
The Discrepancy in Energy Determination
Effect of Plant Factors
Effect of Animal Factors
Conclusion
REFERENCES
Proteins in Halophytes
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Protein Contents of Halophytes
Amino Acids in Halophytes
Effect of Salinity on Protein and Amino Acid Contents of Halophytes
Effect of Season on Protein and Amino Acid Contents of Halophytes
Utilization of Halophytic Proteins by Animals
Factors Affecting Microbial Protein Synthesis From Halophytic Sources
Conclusion
REFERENCES
Lipids in Halophytes
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Lipid and Fatty Acid Contents of Halophytes
Effect of Salinity on Lipid Contents and Compositions of Halophytes
Utilization of Halophytic Lipids by Animals
Interrelations Between Dietary Fat and Animal Metabolism
Effect of Type of Diet on Fat in the Rumen
Effect of Fat on Ruminal Digestion of Fiber
Effect of Fat on Ruminal Nitrogen Metabolism
Effect of Fat on Microbial Protein Synthesis
Conclusion
REFERENCES
Minerals and Ash in Halophytes
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
How Do Halophytes Vary in Ash and Ion Contents?
Effect of Halophyte Species on Mineral Compositions
Geographic Variations in Mineral Contents of Halophytes
Effect of High Ash Content on Animal Performance
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Plant Secondary Metabolites in Halophytes
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Occurrence of PSM's in Halophytes
Origin and Divisions of Plant Secondary Metabolites
Terpenes
Phenolic Compounds
Flavonoids
Non-flavonoids
Nitrogen-Containing Compounds
Alkaloids
Cyanogenic Glycosides And Glucosinolates
Non-Protein Amino Acids
Distribution Of PSM's In Plant Species And Organs
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Feeding and Nutritional Values of Halophytes to Ruminants
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
The Abundance of Halophyte Production
Quality Of Halophytes As Animal Feed
Halophyte Palatability
Animal Preference To Halophytes
Halophytic Nutrient Supply And Utilization By Animals
Ash and Mineral Contents of Halophytes
Factors Affecting Ash And Mineral Contents Of Halophytes
Irrigation with Saline Water
Plant Species
Stage of Maturity
Soil Type
Adequacy of Mineral Contents of Halophytes to Animals
Minerals Deficiency in Halophyte Included Diets
Minerals Abundance in Halophyte Included Diets
Protein and Amino Acid Contents of Halophytes
Feeding And Nutritive Value Of Halophytic Proteins
Feeding And Nutritive Value Of Halophytic Energy
Energy Digestibility
Overall Feeding Value Of Halophytes To Animals
Chemical Compositions of Halophytes
Voluntary Dry Matter Intake of Halophytes
Halophytic Nutrient Digestibility
The Response of Animals to Halophyte Included Diets
Conclusion
REFERENCES
Maximizing The Utilization Of Halophytes As Feed For Animals
Abstract
Introduction
Constraints of Feeding Halophytes
Consequences of Feeding Halophytes to Animals
Methods and Strategies to Maximize Utilization of Halophytes
Breeding Halophytes
Overcoming the Effects of Plant Secondary Metabolites
Overcoming the Effects of High Salt Contents
Intercropping
Washing Halophytes
Including Halophytes with other Ration Ingredients
Treatment of Halophytes Prior to Feeding
Mechanical Treatments
Drying
Haylage
Ensiling
Pelleting and Feed Cubes or Blocks
Biological Treatments
Feed Additives and Supplements
Feed Additives
Feed Supplements
Conclusion
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Halophytic Plants for Animal Feed: Associated
Botanical and Nutritional Characteristics
Authored by
Salah Abdelaty Attia-Ismail
Desert Research Center
Cairo
Egypt
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FOREWORD
As climate variability becomes more pronounced and many areas of productive land become marginal, the focus of attention must turn to ways to utilize what might otherwise be designated as wasteland. Approximately 1000 million hectares or seven per cent of the world's land area is salt affected. Estimates suggest that about 74 million hectares are salt-affected due to human causes (secondary salinity) of this, 40 million hectares are irrigated land in the world's semiarid and arid regions and 31 million hectares is non-irrigated land. Fortunately, there are ways to utilize this salt-affected land and indeed to use the abundant salty water that is often available nearby. That option is made possible by use of halophytic and salt tolerant plants. There is a rich literature on this. The real problem though, is how to use the biomass that can be produced from halophytic plants. Several possibilities exist, such as carbon sequestration, biomass fuel production, use in soil remediation (using plants as ‘salt pumps’) and of course as forage/fodder for livestock.
Researchers have been interested in aspects of halophyte utilization for many decades and dedicated research centers have been established in several countries. Interest in research on the halophytic and salt tolerant plants and their utilization peaked in the late 1980s to mid 1990s and several important international conferences and workshops were held in different places around the world with several compendium volumes published. Many research centers were established with the purpose to develop halophyte utilization. Renewed interest was sparked in the early part of the twenty-first century and it continues to this present time.
For many livestock the salt content of halophytic plants is too high or the secondary plant metabolite content makes diets composed of them unpalatable or anti-nutritional. High salt loads can exacerbate the physiological stress associated with high heat loads, leading to loss of appetite, and severe body weight loss and other symptoms. Many of these aspects were canvassed in the book Halophytic and Salt-Tolerant Feedstuffs: Impacts on Nutrition, Physiology and Reproduction of Livestock. But what remains to be done is to zero-in on the specifics to further explain the biochemistry, animal response when halophytes forage/fodders are presented and ingested.
The current book relates botanical to nutritional characteristics and discusses different aspects of halophytes on botanical, histological, ecological and nutritional basis (as fed to animals). This area represents a knowledge gap that this book fills. It discusses the utilization of halophytes as feed components to ruminants under both intensive and extensive conditions. It fills a gap in the literature and stimulate young researchers to pursue the still many unanswered questions. A clear understanding of the role of halophytic plants in livestock nutrition is critical, which makes this book a timely synthesis.
Victor R. Squires
Guest Professor, Institute for Desertification Studies, Beijing
Former, Director National Key Center for Dryland Agriculture and Land Use Systems
University of Adelaide
Australia
PREFACE
The State of Food and Agriculture (2007, FAO report) shows that despite unprecedented global economic growth, 1.1 billion people continue to live in extreme poverty and more than 850 million people suffer from chronic hunger while ecosystems are being threatened as never before. In 2017, the number of undernourished people is estimated to have reached 821 million – around one person out of every nine in the world (The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World – 2018, FAO report).
Agriculture faces major problems – and they are perhaps as old as the agriculture – such as salinization and aridization, the first being a very common process, but difficult to control and ameliorate. According to some estimation, between 7% (about 930 million hectares) and 10% (approximately 954 million hectares) of the land areas are salt-affected. From these areas, about 60-100 million hectares are the result of human activity: poor irrigation, in particular, increases the salinity of agricultural land. Almost half of the world's irrigation systems are affected by salinization and waterlogging. However, the advantage of irrigation is evident: although irrigation systems occupy about 15% of global agricultural system, productivity provided by these surfaces is at least two fold higher than non-irrigated land.
In this scenario of food crisis and environmental problems, salinity and halophytes seem to act as two major key-factors.
The interest in the study of halophytes is still argued by theoretical reasons, and especially by the current context of human condition, regarded as a well-defined part of surrounding environment. Salinity has affected agriculture from millennia, having a deeply negative impact in agriculture and most likely, being involved in the fall of agriculture of some ancient flourishing civilizations.
There are several works – I refer here only on books, while the number of scientific publications must be huge – focused on different aspects of halophytes: biology, ecology, physiology, biochemistry, taxonomy.
However, in this field of study I learned that halophytes remain a fascinating and yet surprising topic and new approaches that bring additional data are always welcome.
Salah Abdelaty Attia-Ismail
Emeritus Professor
Desert Research Center
Cairo, Egypt
July 2019
DEDICATION
To the souls of my parents.
INTRODUCTION
Salt affected soils are found everywhere on earth. Climate dictates greatly the type of prevailing vegetation in a specific region. Generally, there is a close correlation between climate and vegetation which, in turn, is a sensitive indicator of the climate. Both climate and vegetation profoundly affect soil. While it is sometimes impossible for traditional plants to grow in the salt affected soils, the halophytes have the ability to grow and survive because they have a range of adaptive characteristics not only in morphological or structural features but also in metabolic and physiological processes. However, their classification has been debatable among scientists up to day.
Halophytes have been proposed as promising plants for many economic purposes. One of their uses is the utilization as dietary feed component for animals. The production of biomass and the quality of the natural vegetation of halophytes considerably vary from one place to another and from season to season and even from month to another depending on several factors, mainly environmental ones. Also, halophytic plant species vary greatly with respect to their chemical composition and nutritive value. Limitations of halophytic forages as feeds for animals could represent a problem in formulating rations because great variations exist in nutrient composition between halophytic feeds. The high salt contents of halophytes have implications on the feeding value of these plants.
This book discusses in depth the relations between botanical and nutritional characteristics of halophytes when utilized as animal feed components. The issues of histo-chemical aspects of halophytes are discussed with regard to their impact on nutrient compositions and availability to animals. The important nutrient contents of halophytes (e.g. energy, proteins, minerals as well as plant secondary metabolites, etc.) are considered in relation to their value to the animals. Eventually, a chapter was added to discuss how to maximizing the utilization of halophytes as feed for animals.
Professor Salah Attia-Ismail fully demonstrates this reality by his book, Halophytic Plants for Animal Feed: Associated Botanical and Nutritional Characteristics. Actually, his work intends and will manage to fill a gap in the study of halophytes. It is very important to know the nutritional characteristics of halophytes, as a potential feeding resource for animals and human. While desalinating salt-affected areas may prove difficult, expensive and tricky, it is rather realistic to focus on halophytic natural vegetation as a tool for rational use of halophytes’ as proteins, lipids, minerals and secondary metabolites – so much required for an increasing population who has to face an agricultural system affected by salinization and aridization.
Salah Attia-Ismail has collected important data about nutritional value of halophytes. However, this book is also important for general information about halophytes and it could, in this way, stimulate further investigation on this intriguing ecological group of plant – Halophytes.
Finally, I would be happy to read more books on this topic – written by Salah Attia-Ismail – published on Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Marius-Nicusor Grigore
Alexandru Ioan Cuza University” of Iasi
Iasi
Romania
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Salah Abdelaty Attia-IsmailI would like to greatly appreciate and highly value the assistance and consultations of Professor Victor R. Squires, Guest Professor, Institute for Desertification Studies, Beijing, Former Director National Key Center for Dryland Agriculture and Land Use Systems, University of Adelaide, Australia throughout the entire processing of this book.
Also, I am very grateful for the valuable criticism of the manuscript of this book made by Professor Marius-Nicusor Grigore of the Faculty of Biology, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iasi, Romania which is deeply acknowledged.
The enthusiasm of my colleagues at the Division of Animal and Poultry Production, Desert Research Center, Cairo, Egypt constituted a great push for me to work on this book.
The patience of my wife and the rest of my family (kids and grand kids) was huge enough.
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