Handbook of Polymers for Pharmaceutical Technologies, Volume 3, Biodegradable Polymers E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1140

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

Polymers are one of the most fascinating materials of the present era finding their applications in almost every aspects of life. Polymers are either directly available in nature or are chemically synthesized and used depending upon the targeted applications.Advances in polymer science and the introduction of new polymers have resulted in the significant development of polymers with unique properties. Different kinds of polymers have been and will be one of the key in several applications in many of the advanced pharmaceutical research being carried out over the globe. This 4-partset of books contains precisely referenced chapters, emphasizing different kinds of polymers with basic fundamentals and practicality for application in diverse pharmaceutical technologies. The volumes aim at explaining basics of polymers based materials from different resources and their chemistry along with practical applications which present a future direction in the pharmaceutical industry. Each volume offer deep insight into the subject being treated. Volume 1: Structure and Chemistry Volume 2: Processing and Applications Volume 3: Biodegradable Polymers Volume 4: Bioactive and Compatible Synthetic/Hybrid Polymers

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Preface

Chapter 1: Bioactive Polysaccharides of Vegetable and Microbial Origins: An Overview

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Anticarcinogenic Polysaccharides

1.3 Anti-inflammatory/Immunostimulating Polysaccharides

1.4 Antiviral Polysaccharides

1.5 Antioxidant Polysaccharides

1.6 Other Biotechnological Applications

1.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 2: Chitosan: An Emanating Polymeric Carrier for Drug Delivery

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Preparation of Chitosan

2.3 Physicochemical Properties of Chitosan

2.4 Biological Activities of Chitosan

2.5 Pharmaceutical Applications of Chitosan

2.6 Functionalization of Chitosan

2.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives

References

Chapter 3: Fungi as Sources of Polysaccharides for Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications

3.1 Introduction

3.2 The Fungal Cell

3.3 Polysaccharides Produced by Fungi

3.4 Production and Extraction of Polysaccharides from Fungi

3.5 Fungal Polysaccharides in Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Applications

3.6 Commercial Exploitation of Fungal Polysaccharides in Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Applications

3.7 Conclusion and Future Perspective

References

Chapter 4: Environmentally Responsive Chitosan-based Nanocarriers (CBNs)

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Graft Copolymerized CBNs

4.3 pH-Sensitive CBNs

4.4 Thermosensitive CBNs

4.5 pH-Sensitive and Thermosensitive CBNs

4.6 pH- and Ionic-Sensitive CBNs

4.7 Photosensitive CBNs

4.8 Electrical-Sensitive CBNs

4.9 Magneto-Responsive CBNs

4.10 Chemo-Sensitive CBNs

4.11 Biodegradation of Chitosan and Its Derivatives

4.12 Toxicity of CBNs

4.13 Conclusions and Future Perspectives

References

Chapter 5: Biomass Derived and Biomass Inspired Polymers in Pharmaceutical Applications

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Biodegradable Polymers in Biomedical Applications – Relevant Aspects

5.3 Biodegradable Natural Polymers in Pharmaceutical Applications

5.4 Micro- and Nanocrystalline Natural Polymers and Fibrils – General Regulative Considerations

5.5 Concluding Remarks and Outlook

References

Chapter 6: Modification of Cyclodextrin for Improvement of Complexation and Formulation Properties

Abbrevations:

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Cyclodextrin and Its Degradation

6.3 Complexation by CDs and Release

6.4 Modifications and Scope with Respect to Pharmaceutical Application

6.5 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 7: Cellulose-, Ethylene Oxide- and Acrylic-Based Polymers in Assembled Module Technology (Dome Matrix®)

7.1 Dome Matrix® Technology

7.2 Polymers for Controlled Drug Release

7.3 Cellulose Derivatives

7.4 Acrylic Acid Polymers

7.5 Polymethacrylates

7.6 Polyethylene Oxide

7.7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 8: Structured Biodegradable Polymers for Drug Delivery

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Classification

8.3 Degradation Processes in Biodegradable Polymers

8.4 Responsive Stimuli-Sensitive Polymers

8.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects

References

Chapter 9: Current State of the Potential Use of Chitosan as Pharmaceutical Excipient

9.1 The World of Pharmaceutical Excipients

9.2 Chitosan

9.3 Activities Found for Chitosan

9.4 Properties of Chitosan

9.5 Applications as a Pharmaceutical Excipient

9.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 10: Modification of Gums: Synthesis Techniques and Pharmaceutical Benefits

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Synthesis of Modified Gums

10.3 Characterization

10.4 Pharmaceutical Applications of Modified Gums

10.5 Conclusion and Future Prospective

References

Chapter 11: Biomaterials for Functional Applications in the Oral Cavity via Contemporary Multidimensional Science

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Free Radical Formation, Antioxidants and Relevance in Health

11.3 Oral Diseases: Oxidative Stress and the Role of Antioxidant Defenses in the Oral Cavity

11.4 Biomaterials and Intelligent Design of Functional Biomaterials

11.5 In-Vitro Developments of Free Radical Defense Mechanisms and Drug-Delivery Systems

11.6 Practical In-Vitro Applications of Chitosan-Based Functional Biomaterial Prototypes in Dentistry

11.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 12: Role of Polymers in Ternary Drug Cyclodextrin Complexes

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Cyclodextrins (Cycloamyloses, Cyclomaltoses, Schardinger Dextrins)

12.3 Role of Biodegradable/Water-Soluble Polymers in Efficacy of Inclusion Complexes

12.4 Solubility, Dissolution and Bioavailability Enhancement: Case Studies

12.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 13: Collagen-Based Materials for Pharmaceutical Applications

13.1 Introduction

13.3 Preparation Methods of Collagen-Based Biomaterials

13.4 Pharmaceutical Applications of Collagen-Based Products

13.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 14: Natural Polysaccharides as Pharmaceutical Excipients

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Natural Polysaccharides

14.3 Conclusion

References

Chapter 15: Structure, Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Applications of Biodegradable Polymers

15.1 Introduction

15.2 History of Polymers

15.3 Concept of Biodegradability

15.4 Biodegradable Polymers and Their Classification

15.5 Biocompatibility of Biodegradable Polymers

15.6 Biodegradable Polymers in Pharmaceutical Applications

15.7 Development of Various Biodegradable Polymer Systems for Drug Delivery

15.8 Future Prospects

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 16: Preparation and Properties of Biopolymers: A Critical Review

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Nature of Biopolymers

16.3 Common Biopolymers

16.4 Biopolymers in Drug Development

16.5 Biobased Polymers Production

16.6 Properties of Biopolymers

16.6 Conclusion and Remarks

Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 17: Engineering Biodegradable Polymers to Control Their Degradation and Optimize Their Use as Delivery and Theranostic Systems

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Nanotechnology

17.3 Nanostructured Biodegradable Polymers

17.4 Design Strategies for Fluorescent Biodegradable Polymeric Systems

17.5 Conclusions and Perspectives

References

Index

Handbook of Polymers for Pharmaceutical Technologies

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-1-119-04142-9

To my parents and teachers who helped me become what I am today.

Vijay Kumar Thakur

Preface

At present, the world is facing serious problems related to environmental pollution and the preservation of the ecological system. A large portion of these problems have been attributed to nondegradable polymeric materials. Currently, various petrochemical and pharmaceutical industries are producing distinct synthetic polymers; after use, these materials are wasted, and this leads to environmental toxicity because of the nondegradable nature of these polymers. Despite their vital use in almost every field of life, nondegradable polymeric materials play a sound role in enhancing environmental and ecological disorders. The biggest challenge is the disposal of nondegradable polymer materials that are adversely affecting wild and marine life. Major hurdles are faced in the disposal of the long-lived materials employed in, for example, packaging, catering, engineering and medical applications, and this has resulted in the disturbance of the ecological system.

Biodegradable polymer materials are considered an important alternative and a possible solution to resolve these problems. Biodegradable materials are produced biologically (through microorganisms) as well as through chemical synthetic protocols. Over the last few decades, considerable interest has been devoted to biodegradable polymers because of the prominent role their use can play in addressing the serious environmental problems posed by nondegradable materials. These biodegradable polymers, especially those derived from natural resources, are rapidly replacing synthetic polymers. Biodegradable polymers are biomaterials intended to degrade in-vivo, either by enzymatic, microbial or chemical process, and produce biocompatible and/or nontoxic byproducts which are metabolized and converted into simpler compounds. Microorganisms and enzymes easily decompose these degradable materials into carbon dioxide, methane, water, inorganic compounds and biomass. These compounds are then redistributed via elemental cycles, including the carbon, nitrogen and sulphur cycles, followed by excretion by normal physiological pathways. Because of the advantage of being converted into nontoxic products within the biological system, these polymers have gained much attention from researchers.

Currently, an increasing number of applications have been developed in which biomaterials, including biodegradable polymers, can effectively offer a replacement for common synthetic nondegradable materials for pharmaceutical applications. In medical fields biodegradable polymers have been used in a number of applications, including controlled and targeted drug delivery. Biodegradable and biocompatible polysaccharides of different origin, including fungal origin, such as cell wall polysaccharides (e.g., chitin, chitosan, glucans, mannans) and extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) (e.g., pullulan, scleroglucan), have also been widely studied and proposed for a wide range of applications. Due to their properties, such polysaccharides have attracted increasing interest for pharmaceutical and biomedical applications, including in immunology and drug delivery systems. Many polysaccharides of different origins are currently being investigated for such uses in in-vitro, in-vivo and clinical trials. Moreover, there are already several commercial polysaccharides available, although most of them are marketed as natural products and their clinical use is still not widespread. Biodegradable polymeric systems as drug carriers are being envisioned as an appropriate tool for temporal and spatial controlled drug delivery. The targeted delivery of drugs has been made possible by confining drugs inside biodegradable nontoxic capsules by numerous techniques. These approaches are demonstrated to be particularly effective in the treatment of cancer cells.

Unfortunately, despite impressive features and incontestable importance, the high production costs and inferior physico-mechanical properties of certain biodegradable polymers in comparison to other polymers are still obstacles for their widespread applications in industries and needs to be addressed. Thus, dedicated efforts are still required for replacing various items of common usage with biodegradable materials, and the main future concern will be regarding the materials used for pharmaceutical applications. In medicine, where function is more important than cost—biobased materials have already been used in a few crucial applications. Scientists in collaboration with pharmaceutical industries are extensively developing different types of biodegradable pharmaceutical materials. This third volume of Handbook of Polymers for Pharmaceutical Technologies is primarily focused on the biodegradable pharmaceutical polymers and deals with their different physiochemical, processing and application aspects. Numerous critical issues and suggestions for future work are comprehensively discussed in this book with the hope that it will provide a deep insight into the state-of-art of biodegradable pharmaceutical polymers. The prime topics extensively described herein include: bioactive polysaccharides of vegetable and microbial origins: an overview; chitosan: an emanating polymeric carrier for drug delivery; fungi as sources of polysaccharides for pharmaceutical and biomedical applications; environmentally responsive chitosan-based nanocarriers (CBNS); biomass-derived and biomass-inspired polymers in pharmaceutical applications; current state on the potential use of chitosan as pharmaceutical excipient modification of cyclodextrin for improvement of complexation and formulation properties; modification of gums: synthesis techniques and pharmaceutical benefits of cellulosic, ethylene oxide and acrylic-based polymers in assembled module technology: structured biodegradable polymers for drug delivery; biomaterials for functional applications in the oral cavity via contemporary multidimensional science; role of polymers in ternary drug cyclodextrin complexes; collagen-based materials for pharmaceutical applications; and natural polysaccharides as pharmaceutical excipients.

We would like to thank Martin Scrivener of Scrivener Publishing for the invaluable help in the organization of the editing process. We would also like to thank our parents for their continuous encouragement and support.

Vijay Kumar Thakur, Ph.D. Washington State University - U.S.A. Manju Kumari Thakur, M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D. Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India June 2015

About the Editors

Vijay Kumar Thakur, Ph.D.

Email: [email protected]

Dr. Vijay Kumar Thakur has been working as Research Faculty (staff scientist) in the School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering at Washington State University, USA, since September 2013. His former appointments include being a research scientist in Temasek Laboratories at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, and a visiting research fellow in the Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering at LHU-Taiwan. His research interests include the synthesis and processing of biobased polymers, nanomaterials, polymer micro/nanocomposites, nanoelectronic materials, novel high dielectric constant materials, electrochromic materials for energy storage, green synthesis of nanomaterials, and surface functionalization of polymers/nanomaterials. He did his post doctorate in Materials Science at Iowa State University and his PhD in Polymer Science (2009) at the National Institute of Technology. In his academic career, he has published more than 80 SCI journal research articles in the field of polymers/materials science and holds one United States patent. He has also published 15 books and thirty book chapters on the advanced state-of-the-art of polymers/materials science with numerous publishers.

Manju Kumari Thakur, M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D.

Email: [email protected]

Dr. Manju Kumar Thakur has been working as an Assistant Professor of Chemistry at the Division of Chemistry, Govt. Degree College Sarkaghat Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India, since June 2010. She received her BSc in Chemistry, Botany and Zoology; MSc, MPhil in Organic Chemistry and PhD in Polymer Chemistry from the Chemistry Department at Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India. She has rich experience in the field of organic chemistry, biopolymers, composites/nanocomposites, hydrogels, applications of hydrogels in the removal of toxic heavy metal ions, drug delivery, etc. She has published more than 30 research papers in several international journals, co-authored five books and has also published 25 book chapters in the field of polymeric materials.

Chapter 1

Bioactive Polysaccharides of Vegetable and Microbial Origins: An Overview

Giuseppina Tommonaro*,1, Annarita Poli1, Paola Di Donato1,2, Gennaro Roberto Abbamondi, Ilaria Finore1 and Barbara Nicolaus1

1National Council of Research of Italy, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Pozzuoli (NA), Italy

2University of Napoli “Parthenope,” Department of Sciences and Technologies, Napoli, Italy

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

Natural products play a dominant role in the discovery of leads to develop drugs for the treatment of human diseases. In recent years, some bioactive polysaccharides isolated from natural sources have attracted much attention in the field of biochemistry and pharmacology because of their biological activities as anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulating, antioxidant agents, etc. The high potential for some of these compounds suggested that they could be developed as drugs. This chapter presents the most relevant findings on the latest research concerning bioactive polysaccharides isolated from vegetables and microbial sources.

Keywords: Exopolysaccharides, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, bioplastic, microbial source, plants

1.1 Introduction

The bioactive compounds that are synthesized in nature, in order to protect a living organism, have been selected from a wide variety of possibilities until reaching optimal activity after several hundreds of million years. The high potential for some of these products suggested that they could play a dominant role in the discovery of lead compounds for the development of drugs for the treatment of human desease. Recently, some bioactive polysaccharides isolated from natural sources have attracted much attention in the field of biochemistry and pharmacology: polysaccharides or their glycoconjugates were shown to exhibit multiple biological activities, including anticarcinogenic, anticoagulant, immunostimulating, antioxidant, etc.

Nowadays, the increased demand for the exploration and use of natural sources for white biotechnology processes has led to a renewed interest in biopolymers, in particular, in polysaccharides both of vegetable and microbial origins. Polysaccharides are naturally occurring polymers of aldoses and/or ketoses connected together through glycosidic linkages. They are essential constituents of all living organisms and are associated with a variety of vital functions which sustain life. These biopolymers possess complex structures because there are many types of inter-sugar linkages involving different monosaccharide residues. In addition, they can form secondary structures which depend on the conformation of component sugars, molecular weight, inter- and intrachain hydrogen bondings. On the basis of structural criteria, it is possible to distinguish homoglycans and heteroglycans, if they are made up by the same type or by two or more types of monomer units; linear and branched polymers, with different degrees of branching; neutral or charged (cationic or anionic). Moreover, on the basis of their biological role, polysaccharide from vegetables can also be distinguished in structural elements, such as cellulose and xylans, and in energy-reserve polysaccharides such as starch and fructans. In the case of polysaccharides produced by microorganisms, they can be classified into three main groups according to their location in the cell: cytosolic polysaccharides, which provide a carbon and energy source for the cells; polysaccharides that make up the cell walls, including peptidoglycans, techoid acids and lipopolysaccharides, and polysaccharides that are exuded into the extracellular environment in the form of capsules or slime, known as exopolysaccharides (EPSs). Since the latter are completely excreted into the environment, they can be easily collected by cell culture media precipitation by cold ethanol after removal of cells [1]. The elucidation of the polysaccharide structures are very important to clarify the physicochemical and biological properties of these biopolymers and to attribute, and in some cases predict, their biotechnological applications. Several chemical and physical techniques are used to determine the primary structure of these molecules: chemical degradation and derivatization, combined with chromatographic methods and mass spectrometry analysis, are used to determine the sugar composition, their absolute configuration and the presence and the position of possible substituents [2].

Since polysaccharides are biodegradable materials expressing biocompatibility, they could act as versatile tools for applications in biomedical fields such as drug delivery, tissue engineering, bioadhesives, prostheses and medical devices [3–7]. These polymers present several derivable groups on molecular chains that make polysaccharides a good substrate for chemical modification, such as acetylation, sulphation, silanation or oxidation, producing many kinds of polysaccharide derivatives with additional and different properties and bioactivities. The carboxymethyl pullulan conjugated with heparin represents an example of chemical modification for tissue engineering applications. Moreover, considering the presence of hydrophobic moieties in the chain of polysaccharide, the formation of self-assembled micelles can be possible, making natural EPSs like pullulan, dextran, levan or bacterial cellulose ideal candidates for drug solubility and stability [6,8,9].