Handbook of Vanilla Science and Technology E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 939

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018

Beschreibung

An updated guide to the production, science, and uses of vanilla Vanilla is a flavor and fragrance in foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and a wealth of other products. Now in its second edition, the Handbook of Vanilla Science and Technology provides a comprehensive and updated review of the science and technology used in these items' production and supply. Featuring contributions from an international range of experts, this revised edition covers a multitude of topics, including agricultural production, global markets, analytical methods, sensory analysis, food and fragrance applications, organic farming and fair trade, botanical diseases, and novel uses. The Handbook of Vanilla Science and Technology, Second Edition is a vital resource for producers, distributors, and scientists involved in vanilla's growth and utilization, and offers readers: * A guide to the cultivation, extraction, analysis, DNA sequencing, and marketing of vanilla * Information on the production of vanilla in a range of countries such as Mexico, Australia, Costa Rica, and India * Guidelines on the quality control of vanilla beans and extracts * Information on fair trade and the future of vanilla

Leseprobe

Handbook of Vanilla Science and Technology

Second Edition

Edited by

Daphna Havkin-Frenkel and Faith C. Belanger

Rutgers University NJ, USA

Copyright

This edition first published 2019

© 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Edition History

First edition published @ 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

9781405193252 Handbook of Vanilla Science and Technology

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐PublicationData

Names: Havkin‐Frenkel, D. (Daphna), 1951‐ editor. | Belanger, Faith C., editor.

Title: Handbook of vanilla science and technology / edited by Dr Daphna Havkin‐Frenkel, Rutgers University, NJ, US, Dr Faith C. Belanger, Rutgers University, NJ, US.

Description: Second edition. | Hoboken, NJ, USA : Wiley, [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index. |

Identifiers: LCCN 2018014797 (print) | LCCN 2018015790 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119377313 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119377290 (epub) | ISBN 9781119377276 (cloth)

Subjects: LCSH: Vanilla. | Vanillin. | Vanilla industry.

Classification: LCC SB307.V2 (ebook) | LCC SB307.V2 H36 2018 (print) | DDC 664/.52–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018014797

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Images: Courtesy of Daphna Havkin‐Frenkel

List of Contributors

Paul Bayman

Departamento de Biologıa

Universidad de Puerto Rico – Rıo Piedras

San Juan, Puerto Rico

Faith C. Belanger

Department of Plant Biology

School of Environmental and Biological Sciences

Rutgers University

New Brunswick

New Jersey, USA

Deborah Y.J. Booth

50 Clover Hill Road

Millington

New Jersey, USA

Richard J. Brownell Jr.

Vice President Vanilla Products

Virginia Dare Extract Company, Inc

New York City

New York, USA

Felix Buccellalto

Custom Essence Inc.

Somerset

New Jersey, USA

Kenneth M. Cameron

Department of Botany

University of Wisconsin

Madison

Wisconsin, USA

Alan Chambers

Tropical Research & Education Center

University of Florida

Homestead

Florida, USA

Paul Chavarriaga

International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)

Cali, Colombia

Fang Chen

BioDiscovery Institute and Department of Biological Sciences

University of North Texas

Denton

Texas, USA

Dawn Dean

Organic Vanilla Association

Barranco Village

Toledo District, Belize

Richard A. Dixon

BioDiscovery Institute and Department of Biological Sciences

University of North Texas

Denton

Texas, USA

Richard Exley

Australian Vanilla Bean

Karama

Northern Territory, Australia

Nicola S. Flanagan

Departamento de Ciencias Naturales y Matemáticas

Pontificia Universidad Javeriana

Cali, Colombia

Chaim Frenkel

Department of Plant Biology

School of Environmental and Biological Sciences

Rutgers University

New Brunswick

New Jersey, USA

Kathryn E. Galasso

Tufts University

Medford

Massachutsetts, USA

Rebeca Alicia Menchaca Garcia

Centro de Investigaciones Tropicales

Universidad Veracruzana

Xalapa de Enriquez

Mexico

Carlos Javier Hernandez Gayosso

Universidad Tecnόlogica

Puebla, Mexico

Nelle Gretzinger

249 Smith Street

Brooklyn

New York, USA

Thomas G. Hartman

Center for Advanced Food Technology

School of Environmental and Biological Sciences

Rutgers University

New Brunswick

New Jersey, USA

Daphna Havkin‐Frenkel

Department of Plant Biology

School of Environmental and Biological Sciences

Rutgers University

New Brunswick

New Jersey, USA

and

Bakto Flavors

North Brunswick

New Jersey, USA

Sylvia M. Heredia

Department of Botany and Plant Sciences

University of California

California, USA

Juan Hernández‐Hernández

Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones

Forestales, Agrıcolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP)

Veracruz, Mexico

Patrick G. Hoffman

PGH Consulting LLC

Freeland

Maryland, USA

Ivica Labuda

Georgetown University

Washington, D.C.

USA

Keun Joong Lee

Schering‐Plough

Hialeah

Florida, USA

Pesach Lubinsky

Foreign Agricultural Service, USDA

Washington, DC

USA

Ana T. Mosquera‐Espinosa

Departamento de Ciencias Naturales y Matemáticas

Pontificia Universidad Javeriana

Cali, Colombia

Andrzej Podstolski

Faculty of Biology

Institute of Experimental Plant Biology

University of Warsaw

Warsaw, Poland

Andrea Porras‐Alfaro

Department of Biological Sciences

University of Western Illinois

Macomb

Illinois, USA

Elida Varela Quiros

Las Dos Manos Vainilla Ltda.

Detras Iglesia San Juan de Naranjo

Alajuela, Costa Rica

Arvind S. Ranadive

Premier Vanilla, Inc.

East Brunswick

New Jersey, USA

Gustavo A. Romero‐Gonzalez

Harvard University Herbaria

Cambridge

Massachusetts, USA

Francis P. Tangel

Flavor & Fragrance Specialties

Mahwah

New Jersey, USA

Stephen Toth

International Flavors & Fragrances Inc.

Union Beach

New Jersey, USA

Javier Tochihuitl Vazquez

Principal of the Career of Agroindustrial

Processes

Universidad Tecnolόgica de

Xicotepec de Juarez

Puebla, Mexico

Filip van Noort

Horticulture & Product Physiology Group

Wageningen University and Research

Wageningen, Netherlands

Stephanie Zabel

Harvard University Herbaria

Cambridge

Massachutsetts, USA

Charles M. Zapf

Technical Innovation Center

McCormick & Co. Inc.

Hunt Valley

Maryland, USA

Preface

Vanilla is the world's most popular flavor. It is a universally appreciated flavor on its own and it also provides smoothness and body when used in combination with other flavors. The aroma of vanilla extract is intoxicating and those who work with any aspect of vanilla become intoxicated with the subject. The vanilla orchid is indigenous to Mexico and was first used and cultivated by the Totonac Indians. Now vanilla cultivation, extraction, analysis, and marketing are major international industries. This book has a chapter covering each of these aspects of vanilla, as well as chapters on the biology of vanilla and the potential for biotechnological production of vanillin. There have been many new developments in vanilla research since publication of the first edition of the Handbook of Vanilla Science and Technology. In this second edition of the book there are seven new chapters and four updated chapters. Currently, there is considerable interest in expanding vanilla cultivation to additional geographical regions as well as breeding vanilla for specific traits. There are also expanded efforts to understand the basic biology of vanilla plants, including genetics and the vanillin biosynthetic pathway. These exciting topics are discussed in this new edition.

Part IProduction of Vanilla - Agricultural Systems and Curing

1Mexican Vanilla Production

Juan Hernández‐Hernández

1.1 Introduction

The vanilla species of commerce, Vanilla planifolia G. Jacks, known as “Mexican” or “Bourbon” vanilla, is native to tropical forests of southeastern Mesoamerica (Portères 1954; Soto‐Arenas 2003; Hágsater et al.2005). By at least the nineteenth century, V. planifolia was introduced into other tropical countries in Asia and Africa from the original Mexican cultivated stock (Bory et al.2008; Lubinsky et al.2008). Vanilla was used in pre‐Hispanic Mesoamerica for a variety of purposes: tribute, fragrance, cacao flavoring, medicinal, etc., and by numerous indigenous groups such as the Maya, Aztec, and Totonac. In this sense, vanilla is a gastronomic legacy that Mexico has imparted to the world.

Beginning in the mid‐ to late eighteenth century, the Totonac of the Papantla region of the state of Veracruz were the first and only vanilla exporters in the world for nearly 100 years, in part because of the exceptional quality of the vanilla that was produced. Gold medal prizes for Mexican vanilla were awarded in Paris (1889) and Chicago (1892) (Chávez‐Hita and González‐Sierra 1990), as Papantla was famed as, “the city that perfumed the world.” Initially, Mexican vanilla production depended on harvesting the fruits from the wild, which were the result of natural pollination by bees that are endemic to the New World tropics.

The Mexican monopoly on vanilla fell apart with the discovery of a method for hand pollination of vanilla in Belgium in 1836. This knowledge enabled other countries to become vanilla producers. By 1870, French colonies in the Indian Ocean, especially Reunion and Madagascar, surpassed Mexico as the leading producer. Madagascar has retained the leading role in production since that time (Bruman 1948; Bory et al.2008).

Although Mexico has lost its standing as the major vanilla exporter, it continues to be the center of origin and genetic diversity for this important orchid. Cultivation in Mexico endures to the present, mostly by the Totonac, who have continued to use their vanilla crop as a means to obtain cash, and because it is part of their historical and cultural fabric.

The area of vanilla production in Mexico is found between the coast and Sierra Madre Oriental on the Gulf, from sea level to a height of 700 m, where the climate is hot, humid, and tropical. Average temperatures are around 24 °C, relatively humidity is 80%, and average annual precipitation is 1,200 to 1,300 mm. A marked dry season occurs from March to June. In winter, there are humid, cool winds of low intensity called “nortes” that bring cool temperatures to the area, which is believed to stimulate the flowering in vanilla.

The state of Veracruz accounts for 70% of national production. Oaxaca and Puebla together produce most of the remaining 30%, and small quantities of vanilla are also supplied by San Luis Potosí, Hidalgo, Chiapas, and Quintana Roo. The municipality (municipio) of Papantla, located in northern Veracruz and inhabited by Totonac communities, is the largest producer in the country, and is the center of vanilla curing and commercialization.

An estimated 4,000 families are engaged in vanilla cultivation, mostly indigenous people, who exclusively sell green vanilla. Six private companies and four farmer cooperatives also exist, and participate in curing and selling of vanilla to national and international markets.

Annual production in Mexico varies from 80 to 200 tons of green vanilla (10–30 tons cured vanilla beans), depending on climatic conditions and the intensity of flowering, among other factors. In 2008/2009, according to estimates by the Consejo Nacional de Productores de Vainilla, 150 tons of green vanilla beans were produced (ca. 20 tons cured vanilla beans).

The principal limiting factors to vanilla production in Mexico are:

drought and high temperatures, which occur during flowering and fruit development;

the fungus

Fusarium oxysporum

, which causes mortality and reduces the productive life of individual cultivated areas (

vainillales

); and

high production costs and low prices for vanilla.

1.1.1 The Mexican Vanilla Legend

The Mexican vanilla legend, which is an oral Papantla tradition, is compiled and interpreted by Professor J. Núñez‐Domínguez (Curti‐Diaz 1995):

At the summit of a mountain close to Papantla, was the temple of Tonacayohua, the goddess of food and planting crops. During the reign of King Teniztli III, one of his wives gave birth to a daughter whose beauty was so great that she was named Tzacopontziza (“Bright Star at Sunrise”), and was consecrated to the cult of Tonacayohua.

As time passed, a young prince named Zkatán‐Oxga (“Young Deer”) and Tzacopontziza fell in love, knowing that this sacrilege was condemned by death.

One day, Bright Star at Sunrise left the temple to look for tortillas to offer to Tonacayohua, and fled with the young prince to the jagged mountains in the distance. Not before long, a monster appeared and surrounded them by a wall of flames, and ordered them to return.

When the couple returned to the temple, a group of irate priests had been waiting for them, and before Zkatán‐Oxga could say anything, the young lovers were shot with darts, and their bodies were brought to a temple where their hearts were removed, and their carcasses were thrown down into a canyon.

In the place where the bodies landed there was a herb, and its leaves started to wilt as if the scattered blood of the victims had scorched the plant like a curse. Sometime later a new tree began to grow, and within days its vigorous growth covered all the ground around it with its brilliant foliage.

When finally it stopped growing, next to its trunk began to grow an orchid that climbed and also was amazingly vigorous. Within a short amount of time, it had branched and covered the trunk of the tree with its fragile and elegant leaves, and protected by the tree, the orchid grew more until finally it took the form a woman lying in the embrace of her lover.

One day the orchid became covered with small flowers and the whole area was filled with an exquisite aroma. Attracted to the pleasant smell, the priests and the pueblo came to observe, and no one doubted that the blood of the young lovers had transformed into the tree and the climbing orchid.

To their surprise, the beautiful little flowers also transformed into large, thin fruits. When the fruits matured, they released a sweet, subtle perfume whose essence invoked the innocent soul of Bright Star at Sunrise and the most exotic fragrances.

This is how the vanilla was born, the one that is called “

Caxixanath

” (Recondite Flower), which is a sacred plant and a divine offering in Totonac temples.

1.2 Cultivation Methods

Vanilla is a hemi‐epiphytic orchid that in cultivation needs a tree to provide physical support, shade, and organic material.

In Mexico, vanilla is cultivated in different settings:

in environments similar to the natural habitat, i.e. a forest composed of mostly secondary vegetation (“

acahual

”), which is the “traditional” style;

intercropped with other crops such as coffee or orange;

“intensively”, with

Erythrina

sp. or

Gliricidia sepium

as support trees; and

“intensively”, in shade houses.

1.2.1 “Traditional”/Acahual

Acahual refers to a secondary forest or fallow that is regenerating, in many cases following maize cultivation. These sites are where vanilla is primarily cultivated, and are very similar to the natural habitat of the species. Over 90% of vanilla growers, mostly from indigenous groups, use this setting, which is almost always less than 1 ha.

Species commonly encountered in acahual are used as support trees for vanilla. They include: “laurel” (Litcea glaucescens), “pata de vaca” (Bahuinia divaricata), “cojón de gato” (Tabernaemontana sp.), “cacahuapaxtle” or “balletilla” (Hamelia erecta), and “capulín” (Eugenia capuli), among others (Curti‐Diaz 1995). A relatively low density of vanilla plants is cultivated without irrigation and with minimal overseeing. Consequently, yields are low, varying between 50 and 500 kg of green vanilla/ha, with an average yield of 200 kg/ha.

This “traditional” style of cultivation is also used where vanilla is intercropped with coffee, where the vanilla benefits from the abundant organic matter and shade typical of such cafetales. Support trees in this setting are trees that are used to provide shade to the coffee, such as Inga sp., or are species introduced to the site, such as Erythrina sp.

The advantage of the coffee‐vanilla production system is that the grower diversifies his/her economic activities, obtaining two products from one site.

Establishing a “traditional” vainillal requires an initial investment of around $2,000 USD/ha, with maintenance costs typically totaling $1,500 USD per year.

1.2.2 Intensive System (Monoculture)

This system is normally practiced in deforested areas that have been used to cultivate another crop. The name of this system is “pure cultivation” (Chauds 1970), and the first step consists of planting support trees. After a year, when there is sufficient shade (50%), the vanilla is planted (Pennigton et al.1954). This system is utilized by growers with more economic means, in lots of 0.5 to 2 ha per grower.

Support trees that are regularly used are “pichoco” (Erythrina sp.) and/or “cocuite” (Gliricidia sepium), two leguminous trees with the capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen and that can be propagated clonally through cuttings. Per ha, 1,000 to 5,000 support trees are planted, as are 2,000 to 10,000 cuttings of vanilla (2 vanilla plants/support tree). The planting distances between trees are 1 × 2 m, 2 × 2 m, 1.5 × 2.5 m, and 3 × 3 m.

This system of vanilla cultivation has the advantage of relatively high yields, but generally only in the fourth or fifth year after planting (second or third harvest). After this time, yields decline drastically, most likely due to the difficulties of managing mature plants in such a confined space (especially for adequate shade and ventilation).

Yields of green vanilla beans vary from 1 to 2 tons per ha in rain‐fed systems, and 2 to 4 tons per ha with a higher density of plantings (10,000 plants per ha) and with irrigation.

Establishing a monoculture of vanilla from a cleared area requires around $10,000 USD to cover the costs of establishing support trees and the high density of plantings. Maintenance costs per year average $7,500 USD.

1.2.3 Vanilla Cultivation in Existing Orange Groves

Orange trees are excellent support trees for vanilla, because their branches are durable and grow laterally and are able to support a good quantity and distribution of shoots (Figure 1.1). These features help mitigate the problem of the shoots shading out other shoots. The canopy of orange trees is capable of providing vanilla plants with sufficient sunlight throughout the year. In most systems with orange trees as supports, vanilla flowers in the second year.

Figure 1.1 Vanilla vines growing on orange trees as a support.

This system is one of the best ventilated, with a low incidence of pests and diseases. Yields are higher and costs of production are lower because orange trees in coastal Veracruz have been extensively cultivated for decades.

Many of the vanilla growers started off cultivating oranges and continue to do so when managing vanilla. The vanilla plants are established when the orange grove is producing. Orange trees that are selected as supports have an average height of 4 m and a well‐formed canopy. Dry branches (“chupones”) are pruned, as are those in the interior of the canopy that impede the spread of vanilla plants as they are growing or block out too much sunlight.

Densities of orange tree plantings vary between 204 to 625 individuals per ha. Trees are spaced on a grid of 4 × 4 m, 5 × 5 m, 6 × 6 m, and 7 × 7 m, and 3 to 6 cuttings of vanilla are planted per orange tree, yielding a total of between 1,224 and 1,875 vanilla plants per ha.

Growers manage 1 to 5 ha and harvest 500 to 2,500 kg of green vanilla/ha, although most obtain 1 ton.

Establishing vanilla cultivation in an existing orange grove requires a minimum initial investment of $7,000 USD/ha. The orange trees represent an economically sustainable resource in the sense that they do not have to be purchased or planted. Annual maintenance costs average $6,000 USD/ha per year.

1.2.4 Shade Houses