Hazardous Wastes E-Book

Richard J. Watts

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1525

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

Hazardous Wastes An illuminating, problem-solving approach to source area analysis, environmental chemodynamics, risk assessment, and remediation In the newly revised second edition of Hazardous Wastes: Assessment and Remediation, a team of distinguished researchers delivers a foundational and comprehensive treatment of all aspects of hazardous waste problems. The book offers two sections--one on assessment and the following on remediation--while exploring topics crucial to the study of environmental science and engineering at the senior or master's level. This latest edition includes a new emphasis on the chemistry of emerging contaminants, including perfluorinated compounds, 1,4-dioxane, methyl tert-butyl ether, and personal care products. It also offers updated data on contaminant Threshold Limit Value, Reference Dose, Slope Factor, Reference Concentration, and Inhalation Unit Risk. New remediation chapters also provide many design problems, incorporating economic analyses and the selection of various design alternatives. Approximately 200 new end-of-chapter problems--with solutions--have been added as well. Readers will also find: * A thorough introduction to hazardous wastes, including discussion of pre-regulatory disposal and hazardous waste legislation * Comprehensive discussions of common hazardous wastes, including their nomenclature, industrial uses, and disposal histories * In-depth explorations of partitioning, sorption, and exchange at surfaces, as well as volatilization * Extensive descriptions of the concepts of hazardous waste toxicology and quantitative toxicology Perfect for senior- and masters-level college courses in hazardous wastes in Environmental Science, Environmental Engineering, Civil Engineering, or Chemical Engineering programs, Hazardous Wastes: Assessment and Remediation will also earn a place in the libraries of professional environmental scientists and engineers.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

ORGANIZATION

USE OF THIS BOOK

Acknowledgments

Acronyms and Abbreviations

About the Companion Website

1 Introduction

1.1 PREREGULATORY DISPOSAL OF HAZARDOUS WASTES

1.2 HAZARDOUS WASTE LEGISLATION

1.3 CURRENT HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATION AND MANAGEMENT

1.4 THE NATURE OF HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT, ASSESSMENT, AND CONTROL

1.5 ANALYSIS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE PROBLEMS

1.6 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

Part I: Assessment

Part IA: Sources

2 Common Hazardous Wastes: Nomenclature, Industrial Uses, Disposal Histories

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

2.2 PETROLEUM

2.3 NONHALOGENATED SOLVENTS

2.4 HALOGENATED SOLVENTS

2.5 PESTICIDES

2.6 EXPLOSIVES

2.7 INDUSTRIAL INTERMEDIATES

2.8 POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS

2.9 POLYCHLORINATED DIBENZODIOXINS AND DIBENZOFURANS

2.10 METALS AND INORGANIC NONMETALS

2.11 NUCLEAR WASTES

2.12 EMERGING CONTAMINANTS

2.13 INFORMATION SOURCES ON CONTAMINANT NOMENCLATURE, STRUCTURE, AND PROPERTIES

2.14 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

3 Common Hazardous Wastes: Properties and Classification

3.1 COMMON CONCENTRATION UNITS

3.2 WATER SOLUBILITY

3.3 DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

3.4 LIGHT AND DENSE NONAQUEOUS PHASE LIQUIDS

3.5 FLAMMABILITY LIMITS

3.6 FLASH POINT AND IGNITION TEMPERATURE

3.7 CHEMICAL INCOMPATIBILITY

3.8 LABELS AND PLACARDS

3.9 CHEMICAL ABSTRACT SERVICE REGISTRY NUMBERS

3.10 PRIORITY POLLUTANTS

3.11 SUPPLEMENTAL DATA ON CONTAMINANT PROPERTIES

3.12 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

4 Source Analysis

4.1 MATERIALS BALANCES AND WASTE AUDITS

4.2 HAZARDOUS WASTE SITE ASSESSMENTS

4.3 ESTIMATION OF SOURCE CONCENTRATIONS FOR HAZARDOUS MATERIAL SPILLS

4.4 SOURCE SAMPLING

4.5 SOURCE SAMPLING PROCEDURES AND STRATEGIES

4.6 SAMPLING AWAY FROM THE SOURCE

4.7 PRIORITY POLLUTANT AND SAMPLE ANALYSES

4.8 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

Part IB: Pathways

5 Partitioning, Sorption, and Exchange at Surfaces

5.1 SORPTION THEORY

5.2 THE GOVERNING VARIABLES: SORBENT CHARACTERISTICS, CONTAMINANT HYDROPHOBICITY, AND THE SOLVENT

5.3 PROPERTIES OF SOILS AND OTHER SORBENTS

5.4 SORPTION ISOTHERMS

5.5 THE OCTANOL

–

WATER PARTITION COEFFICIENT

5.6 THE SOIL ADSORPTION COEFFICIENT AND THE SOIL DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT

5.7 THE RETARDATION FACTOR

5.8 REACTIONS OF METALS IN SOILS AND SOLIDS

5.9 SYNOPSIS OF THE PARTITIONING BEHAVIOR OF IMPORTANT HAZARDOUS METALS

5.10 ESTIMATION OF PARTITIONING AND POTENTIAL MOBILITY OF METALS

5.11 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

6 Volatilization

6.1 THE GOVERNING VARIABLES: VAPOR PRESSURE AND HENRY'S LAW

6.2 VOLATILIZATION FROM OPEN CONTAINERS

6.3 VOLATILIZATION FROM SOILS

6.4 VOLATILIZATION OF METALS AND INORGANIC NONMETALS

6.5 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

7 Abiotic and Biotic Transformations: Parallel Pathways

7.1 THE GOVERNING VARIABLES: CHEMICAL STRUCTURE, PRESENCE OF REACTIVE SPECIES, AND AVAILABILITY

7.2 RATES OF TRANSFORMATION

7.3 ABIOTIC TRANSFORMATIONS

7.4 BIOTIC TRANSFORMATIONS

7.5 COMMON THEMES AND PERSPECTIVES IN ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC TRANSFORMATIONS

7.6 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

8 Contaminant Release and Transport from the Source

8.1 THE CONTROLLING PROCESSES IN CONTAMINANT RELEASE AND TRANSPORT: SORPTION, VOLATILIZATION, TRANSFORMATION

8.2 MASS TRANSFER OF CONTAMINANTS IN THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE SUBSURFACE

8.3 ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT FOLLOWING VOLATILIZATION RELEASES

8.4 SUBSURFACE TRANSPORT OF CONTAMINANTS

8.5 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

Part IC: Receptors

9 Concepts of Hazardous Waste Toxicology

9.1 OVERVIEW OF TOXICOLOGICAL MECHANISMS

9.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF MAMMALIAN PHYSIOLOGY

9.3 CONCEPTS AND MECHANISMS OF TOXICITY

9.4 CARCINOGENICITY

9.5 TOXIC RESPONSES OF COMMON HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS

9.6 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

10 Quantitative Toxicology

10.1 CLASSIFICATION OF TOXIC RESPONSES

10.2 ACUTE TOXICITY: THE LD

50

10.3 QUANTITATIVE EVALUATION OF ACUTE TOXICITY

10.4 CHRONIC INDUSTRIAL EXPOSURE: THE THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE

10.5 MAXIMUM CONTAMINANT LEVELS

10.6 QUANTIFYING THE TOXICITY OF NONCARCINOGENS

10.7 DOSE–RESPONSE RELATIONSHIPS FOR CARCINOGENS

10.8 SOURCES OF TOXICITY INFORMATION

10.9 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

11 Hazardous Waste Risk Assessment

11.1 PRINCIPLES, DEFINITIONS, AND PERSPECTIVES OF HAZARDOUS WASTE RISK ASSESSMENTS

11.2 HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT

11.3 ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENTS

11.4 SOURCES OF UNCERTAINTIES IN RISK ASSESSMENT

11.5 RISK MANAGEMENT AND RISK COMMUNICATION

11.6 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

Part II: Remediation and Treatment

12 Approaches to Hazardous Waste Minimization, Remediation, Treatment, and Disposal

12.1 WASTE AND MEDIA REQUIRING MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT

12.2 CONCEPTS OF WASTE MINIMIZATION AND POLLUTION PREVENTION

12.3 CONCEPTS IN HAZARDOUS WASTE REMEDIATION AND TREATMENT

12.4 REACTOR ANALYSIS APPLIED TO HAZARDOUS WASTE SYSTEMS

12.5 TREATMENT AND REMEDIATION PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGY SCREENING

12.6 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF OPTIMUM SYSTEM DESIGN AND TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES

12.7 MITIGATION OF RESIDUALS

12.8 SUSTAINABILITY OF TREATMENT PROCESSES

12.9 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

13 Design of Sorption‐ and Partitioning‐Based Treatment Processes

13.1 GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON DESIGN

13.2 ION EXCHANGE

13.3 PRECIPITATION

13.4 STABILIZATION AND SOLIDIFICATION

13.5 THERMAL DESORPTION/DISSOLUTION/TREATMENT

13.6 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

14 Design of Volatilization‐Based Treatment Processes

14.1 AIR STRIPPING

14.2 SOIL VAPOR EXTRACTION

14.3 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

15 Design of Abiotic Transformation‐Based Treatment Processes

15.1 ADVANCED OXIDATION PROCESSES

15.2 IN SITU CHEMICAL OXIDATION

15.3 ZERO VALENT IRON

15.4 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

16 Design of Biotic Transformation‐Based Treatment Processes

16.1 BIOTIC‐BASED TRANSFORMATION PROCESSES

16.2 DESIGN OF IN SITU BIOREMEDIATION SYSTEMS

16.3 EX SITU BIOREACTORS

16.4 OTHER ACTIVE BIOTREATMENT PROCESSES

16.5 MONITORED NATURAL ATTENUATION

16.6 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

17 Mitigation of Residuals

17.1 HAZARDOUS WASTE LANDFILLS

17.2 INCINERATION

17.3 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT POINTS AND CONCEPTS

PROBLEMS

REFERENCES

Appendix A: Hazardous Waste Lists

Appendix B: Water Solubilities of Common Hazardous Compounds

Appendix C: Specific Gravities of Common Hazardous Compounds

Appendix D: Supplementary Chemical Incompatibility Data

Appendix E: Values for Student's t Distribution

Appendix F: Random Numbers

Appendix G: Log 

K

ow

of Common Hazardous Compounds

Appendix H: Estimation of Octanol–Water Partition Coefficients

FRAGMENTS

STRUCTURAL FACTORS

Appendix I: Measured

K

oc

Values of Some Common Hazardous Compounds

Appendix J: Vapor Pressures and Henry's Law Constants for Common Hazardous Compounds

Appendix K: Saturation Concentrations in Air and Heats of Vaporization for Some Common Hazardous Compounds

Appendix L: Oral RfDs and Slope Factors (mg/kg·day)

−1

and Inhalation RfCs (mg/m

3

) and Inhalation Unit Risk (μg/m

3

)

−1

Appendix: References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Potential Number of Hazardous Waste Sites and Associated Cleanup ...

Table 1.2 Pathways of Releases of Hazardous Chemicals from National Priorit...

Table 1.3 Solid Wastes Exempt from RCRA Hazardous Waste Management

Table 1.4 Hazardous Waste Characteristics

Table 1.5 Summary of Source–Pathway–Receptor Analysis

Table 1.6 Important Parameters for Two Groundwater Contaminants

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Numbers of Possible Isomers for Alkanes

Table 2.2 Names of Straight‐Chain Alkanes Containing up to 20 Carbons

Table 2.3 Common Alkyl Groups

Table 2.4 IUPAC and CAS Rules for Naming Alkanes

Table 2.5 Prefixes for Substitution Groups

Table 2.6 Rules for Naming Alkenes

Table 2.7 Prescribed Names of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Table 2.8 IUPAC Rules for Numbering and Orienting Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Table 2.9 Rules for Naming Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons by the IUPAC Fu...

Table 2.10 Characteristics of Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, Crude Oil

Table 2.11 Characteristics of Common Petroleum Products

Table 2.12 Concentration of Benzene, Ethylbenzene, Toluene, and Xylenes (BT...

Table 2.13 Common Petroleum Distillates Used as Solvents

Table 2.14 IUPAC Nomenclature for Ketones

Table 2.15 Miscellaneous Nonhalogenated Solvents

Table 2.16 Pesticide Concentrations of Soils and Groundwater Near Pesticide...

Table 2.17 Partial List of Compounds Identified in Creosote

Table 2.18 Common Forms of Asbestos

Table 2.19 Distribution of Asbestos Applications for the Year 1988

Table 2.20 Stable and Radioactive Isotopes of Selected Elements

Table 2.21 Half‐Lives of Common Radioactive Isotopes

Table 2.22 Disposal Sites for Commercial Low‐Level Radioactive Wastes

Table 2.23 Summary of Contamination at U.S. Nuclear Weapons Sites

Table 2.24 Entry for DDT from the

Merck Index

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Water Solubility of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Table 3.2 Values of p

K

a

for Chlorophenols

Table 3.3 Values of p

K

a

for Organic Acids

Table 3.4 Values of p

K

a

for Organic Bases

Table 3.5 Water Solubilities of Common Hazardous Compounds

Table 3.6 Specific Gravities of Common Hazardous Compounds

Table 3.7 Vapor Density of Several Common Hazardous Compounds

Table 3.8 Upper and Lower Flammability Limits of Common Hazardous Compounds...

Table 3.9 Flash Points and Ignition Temperatures of Several Common Hazardou...

Table 3.10 Common Components of Fires and Explosions

Table 3.11 General Guidelines on Chemical Incompatibilities

Table 3.12 Incompatible Mixtures of Common Hazardous Chemicals

Table 3.13 The Nine Classes of Hazardous Materials Used by the DOT

Table 3.14 DOT Hazard Classifications and United Nations/North American Ide...

Table 3.15 Hazard Ranking of the National Fire Protection Association

Table 3.16 Flammability and Hazard Data for Common Hazardous Chemicals

Table 3.17 Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) Registry Numbers for Common Haz...

Table 3.18 U.S. EPA Priority Pollutants

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Procedures for the Simple Randomized Sampling of RCRA Hazardous W...

Table 4.2 Summary of Methods for Drilling Monitoring Wells

Table 4.3 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 600 Series for Priority Poll...

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 USDA Soil Particle Size Separates

Table 5.2 Clay Mineral Groups

Table 5.3 Metal Oxides, Oxyhydroxides, and Hydroxides Commonly Found in Soi...

Table 5.4 Typical Soil Bulk Densities

Table 5.5 Representative Values of Soil Porosity

Table 5.6 Average Organic Matter Contents and Ranges of Mineral Surface Soi...

Table 5.7 Octanol

–

Water Partition Coefficients for Common Hazardous C...

Table 5.8 Measured

K

oc

Values for Selected Hazardous Compounds

Table 5.9 Regression Equations for Estimating

K

oc

Table 5.10 Guidelines for Using Correlation Equations to Obtain

K

oc

Table 5.11 Ranges of

K

d

(mL/g) for Selected Elements in Soils and Clays of ...

Table 5.12 Sorbent Selectivity for Divalent Metals

Table 5.13 Regression Coefficients for the Propagation Velocities of

C

/

C

0

 =...

Table 5.14 Regression Coefficients for the Propagation Velocities of

C

/

C

0

 =...

Table 5.15 Regression Coefficients for the Propagation Velocities of

C

/

C

0

 =...

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Vapor Pressures and Henry's Law Constants for Common Hazardous Ch...

Table 6.2 Saturation Concentrations in Air and Heats of Vaporization for So...

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Rules for the Determination of Oxidation State

Table 7.2 Effect of Substituent Groups on Reactivity Toward Electrophilic A...

Table 7.3 Hydrolysis Rate Data for Selected Compounds

Table 7.4 First‐Order Rate Constants and Arrhenius Constants for the Hydrol...

Table 7.5 Selected Half‐Reactions and Standard Reduction Potentials at 25 °...

Table 7.6 Procedure for Balancing Redox Reactions

Table 7.7 Second‐Order Rate Constants of Selected Compounds for Reactivity ...

Table 7.8 Second‐Order Rate Constants (M

−1

sec

−1

) of Selected C...

Table 7.9 Biochemical Transformation Reactions

Table 7.10 Relationship Between Abiotic and Biotic Oxidations and Reduction...

Table 7.11 Importance of Abiotic and Biotic Processes in the Natural Enviro...

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Atmospheric Stability Classes for Use with the Pasquill–Gifford D...

Table 8.2 Hydraulic Conductivities of Soil Textural Classes

Table 8.3 Values for the Error Function

Table 8.4 Spreadsheet Data Used to Generate Figure 8.16

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Common Phase I Biotransformation Reactions

Table 9.2 Common Toxic Compounds and Corresponding Receptors

Table 9.3 EPA Categories for Carcinogenic Groups

Table 9.4 Selected Group A Chemicals (Confirmed Human Carcinogens)

Table 9.5 Carcinogenicity of Common Pesticides Under the EPA Carcinogenicit...

Table 9.6 Toxic Effects of Common Hazardous Compounds

Table 9.7 Toxic Responses to Increased Lead Concentrations in the Blood

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Hodge–Sterner Table for Degree of Toxicity

Table 10.2 LD

50

Values (Oral Rat) of Some Common Hazardous Compounds

Table 10.3 Classifications for Acute Toxicity

Table 10.4 The Transformation from Percentages to Probits

Table 10.5 Threshold Limit Values of Some Common Hazardous Compounds

Table 10.6 Maximum Contaminant Levels for Selected SDWA Compounds

Table 10.7 Oral Reference Doses and Reference Concentrations of Some Common...

Table 10.8 Oral Slope Factors and Inhalation Unit Risk of Some Common Hazar...

Table 10.9 Toxicity and Hazardous Characteristics

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Procedure for Identifying Surrogates in Risk Assessment

Table 11.2 Common Correlation Equations for

K

ow

and Bioconcentration Factor...

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Hierarchy of Source Removal and Remediation Methods

Table 12.2 Second‐Order Rate Constants for the Reductive Dehalogenation of ...

Table 12.3 Technology Characteristics and Screening Criteria

Table 12.4 Uniform Series Present Worth Factors for 6% and 8% Interest

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Granular Activated Carbon Mass Loading Values for Selected Hazar...

Table 13.2 Common Operating Criteria for Ion Exchange Systems

Table 13.3 Summary of Recommended Design Criteria for Ion Exchange Systems...

Table 13.4

K

sp

Values for Common Hazardous Compounds

Table 13.5 Tabulated Empirical Constants for Use in Determining Henry's Law...

Table 13.6 Values of

K

F

for Different Classes of Contaminants

Table 13.7 Boiling Point Temperatures for Common Contaminants

Table 13.8 Hydrolysis Half‐Lives for Chlorinated Contaminants at Different ...

Table 13.9 Select NAPL Compounds and Steam Co‐Distillation and Boiling Poin...

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Physical Characteristics of Water

Table 14.2 Characteristics of Common Packing Materials

Table 14.3 Critical Surface Tension of Packing Materials

Table 14.4 Design Procedure for Packed Tower Air Strippers Using the Fundam...

Table 14.5 Design Procedure for Packed Tower Air Strippers Using the Pilot ...

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Second‐Order Rate Constants for the Oxidation of Common Organic ...

Table 15.2 Second‐Order Rate Constants for the Oxidation of Contaminants by...

Table 15.3 Guidelines for Applying Permanganate to the Subsurface

Table 15.4 Reaction Rates of Sulfate Radical with Selected Compounds

Table 15.5 Second‐Order Rate Constants for the Reductive Dehalogenation of ...

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Known Bacteria for Biodegradation of Selected Organic Contaminan...

Table 16.2 Selected Cultures Used for the Field‐Scale Bioaugmentation of Gr...

Table 16.3 Contaminant Biodegradation Potential and Preferred Conditions...

Table 16.4 Common Terminal Electron Acceptors

Table 16.5 Selected Redox Half Reactions for Possible Electron Acceptors an...

Table 16.6 Site Conditions Generally Favorable or Unfavorable for In Situ B...

Table 16.7 Biodegradation Rate Data for Selected Contaminants

Table 16.8 Generic Half‐Reactions for Organic Redox Reactions

Table 16.9 Energy Distribution Factors for Biomass Synthesis

Table 16.10 Procedure for Determining the Stoichiometric Electron Acceptor ...

Table 16.11 Groundwater Parameters Used to Confirm Contaminant Loss Under N...

Table 16.12 Site Characteristics That Require Characterization for Implemen...

Table 16.13 Plume Characteristics Based on Dissolved Contaminant Mass and C...

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Enthalpies of Combustion for Common Contaminants

Appendix A

Table A.1 Hazardous Wastes from Nonspecific Sources (The F List)

Table A.2 Hazardous Wastes from Specific Sources (The K List)

Table A.3 Hazardous Wastes from Commercial Products, Intermediates, and Resi...

Appendix D

Table D.1 Explosive Combinations of Some Common Chemicals

Table D.2 Water Reactive Chemicals

Table D.3 Generation of Toxic Products from Incompatible Chemicals

Appendix H

Table H.1 Common Fragment Constants

Table H.2 Rules for Estimating

K

ow

Using Hansch and Leo's Fragment Method

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Production rates of four industrial chemicals.

Figure 1.2 Excavation of a leaking underground storage tank (UST) at a close...

Figure 1.3 Aboveground storage tanks, an alternative to USTs.

Figure 1.4 A pit‐pond‐lagoon system from the surface disposal of hazardous w...

Figure 1.5 A soil pit used for the improper disposal of drums of hazardous w...

Figure 1.6 State‐by‐state documentation of groundwater use in the United Sta...

Figure 1.7 Critical path for determining if a waste is hazardous under RCRA....

Figure 1.8 A RCRA Notification of Hazardous Waste Activity form.

Figure 1.9 A RCRA Hazardous Waste Manifest form.

Figure 1.10 A typical truck used for hazardous waste transport.

Figure 1.11 Quantities of hazardous waste generated by each of the EPA's 10 ...

Figure 1.12 Primary waste generation rates by industry.

Figure 1.13 Physicochemical states of RCRA wastes.

Figure 1.14 Quantity of hazardous waste generation in 1986 by RCRA waste cod...

Figure 1.15 RCRA waste generation rates by industry.

Figure 1.16 Ownership of hazardous waste management facilities.

Figure 1.17 A low‐profile air stripping system for the pump‐and‐treat remedi...

Figure 1.18 Protective clothing used in hazardous waste management.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Structure of ethene.

Figure 2.2 A fuel farm used to store jet fuel.

Figure 2.3 A vapor degreasing system used for metal parts cleaning.

Figure 2.4 A pesticide rinse and formulation area.

Figure 2.5 Telephone poles in storage that have been treated with Penta.

Figure 2.6 Transformers in a maintenance storage yard.

Figure 2.7 Process schematic of an electroplating system.

Figure 2.8 Cadmium use in products throughout the United States, based on we...

Figure 2.9 Lead use in products throughout the United States, based on weigh...

Figure 2.10 Mercury use in products throughout the United States, based on w...

Figure 2.11 The atomic structure of three hydrogen isotopes.

Figure 2.12 Decay process for

238

U to the stable element

206

Pb; individual s...

Figure 2.13 Burial of low‐level nuclear waste at the Hanford nuclear facilit...

Figure 2.14 Locations of nuclear weapons facilities throughout the United St...

Figure 2.15 High‐level nuclear waste volumes for the three largest sites....

Figure 2.16 Basis for the management of nuclear wastes at the Hanford nuclea...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Relative proportions of the weak acid pentachlorophenol and its s...

Figure 3.2 Migration and fate of (a) LNAPLs and (b) DNAPLs in the subsurface...

Figure 3.3 The Pensky–Martens closed‐cup system used for determining the fla...

Figure 3.4 Use of placards in transportation.

Figure 3.5 Placards with locations of DOT hazard information.

Figure 3.6 Examples of placards commonly used in the transportation industry...

Figure 3.7 A National Fire Protection Association placard for identifying ha...

Figure 3.8 A typical NFPA placard with locations of hazard numbers.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Management of drums containing hazardous wastes at a 90‐day RCRA ...

Figure 4.2 Procedure for performing a materials balance to serve as a basis ...

Figure 4.3 Irresponsible management of containers and an aging tank provide ...

Figure 4.4 A pile of contaminated soil awaiting sampling to assess the degre...

Figure 4.5 Sampling grid developed for Example 4.3. The shaded sampling unit...

Figure 4.6 Sampling devices for tanks and drums.

Figure 4.7 Devices for sampling soils and sludges.

Figure 4.8 Three‐dimensional sampling grid used for drums and tanks.

Figure 4.9 Sampling a potentially dangerous drum with an organic vapor analy...

Figure 4.10 Components of a typical monitoring well.

Figure 4.11 A portable rig drilling a monitoring well.

Figure 4.12 A hollow‐stem auger drilling system.

Figure 4.13 A mud rotary borehole drilling system.

Figure 4.14 Schematic of a gas chromatograph.

Figure 4.15 Schematic of an atomic absorption spectrophotometer.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Relative proportions of minerals, organic matter, water, and air ...

Figure 5.2 Relationship between soil class and particle size distribution....

Figure 5.3 Structure of some common secondary minerals.

Figure 5.4 Generalized structure of humic acids.

Figure 5.5 Organic carbon content as a function of soil depth.

Figure 5.6 A typical Langmuir isotherm plot.

Figure 5.7 A typical Freundlich isotherm plot.

Figure 5.8 Correlation between log octanol

–

water partition coefficient...

Figure 5.9 Variables affecting the partitioning of metals in soils.

Figure 5.10

E

h

–pH diagram for cadmium.

Figure 5.11 Relative mobility of metals in soils.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Ranges and relative values of Henry's law constants.

Figure 6.2 Open drums in a storage area——a potential source of toxic air emi...

Figure 6.3 Mass balance on an area receiving volatile emissions.

Figure 6.4 Distribution of contaminants in soils—a basis for volatilization....

Figure 6.5 Contaminant staining approximately 20 cm below the soil surface, ...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Curve describing Michaelis–Menten kinetics.

Figure 7.2 Effect of pH on hydrolysis rates.

Figure 7.3 Relationship between carbon oxidation state and potential for oxi...

Figure 7.4 Pathway for the abiotic reduction of carbon tetrachloride.

Figure 7.5 Common microorganisms found in hazardous waste systems.

Figure 7.6 Micrograph of a common bacterium,

Rhodococcus

spp.

Figure 7.7 Ribonuclease, a common enzyme.

Figure 7.8 The Embden–Meyerhof pathway.

Figure 7.9 The tricarboxylic acid cycle.

Figure 7.10 The electron transport system.

Figure 7.11 Biodegradation pathway for

n

‐alkanes.

Figure 7.12 Pathway for the aerobic biodegradation of benzene.

Figure 7.13 Biodegradation of naphthalene.

Figure 7.14 Reductive dehalogenation of PCE.

Figure 7.15 Biodegradation pathways of DDT.

Figure 7.16 Aerobic degradation of 2,4‐D.

Figure 7.17 Cometabolic degradation of 4,4′‐dichlorobiphenyl.

Figure 7.18 Pathways for the transformation of 1,1,1‐trichloroethane.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Atmospheric and subsurface transport—the most common pathways of ...

Figure 8.2 A mass balance around a control volume—the basis for mass fluxes ...

Figure 8.3 Conceptual basis for contaminant dispersion in the atmosphere and...

Figure 8.4 Puff release for an instantaneous release of hazardous chemicals....

Figure 8.5 Plume formation for a continuous release of hazardous air emissio...

Figure 8.6 Representation of puffs from instantaneous releases in two and th...

Figure 8.7 Representation of continuous source plumes in two and three dimen...

Figure 8.8 Horizontal dispersion coefficients for puff releases.

Figure 8.9 Vertical dispersion coefficients for puff releases.

Figure 8.10 Horizontal dispersion coefficients for continuous releases with ...

Figure 8.11 Vertical dispersion coefficients for continuous releases with th...

Figure 8.12 Common physical features of subsurface systems.

Figure 8.13 Effect of retardation on the contaminant profile of a continuous...

Figure 8.14 Effect of first‐order transformation rate constant on contaminan...

Figure 8.15 Schematic diagram of groundwater contamination from a leaking US...

Figure 8.16 Dimethyl phthalate profile for the contaminated well of Example ...

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Pathways of chemicals in a “bioreactor”—the human body.

Figure 9.2 Dermal cells and layers of the skin.

Figure 9.3 The lungs and respiratory system.

Figure 9.4 Microstructure of the respiratory system.

Figure 9.5 The digestive system.

Figure 9.6 The circulatory system.

Figure 9.7 Perfusion of tissues by capillaries.

Figure 9.8 The liver and hepatic system.

Figure 9.9 The kidney.

Figure 9.10 An overview of the physiological and biochemical mechanisms of t...

Figure 9.11 Conjugation of phenol to form a glucuronide.

Figure 9.12 Common Phase II reactions.

Figure 9.13 The concept of structural affinity demonstrated by the lock and ...

Figure 9.14 The structure of DNA.

Figure 9.15 Adducts to DNA for 2‐naphylamine and benzo[

a

]pyrene.

Figure 9.16 The three steps in cancer development.

Figure 9.17 Bioactivation of benzo[

a

]pyrene.

Figure 9.18 The biotransformation of TCE.

Figure 9.19 Mechanisms of acetylcholinesterase function and inhibition.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Variation of characteristics in a biological community or bioche...

Figure 10.2 Toxicity effects based on a natural log cumulative Gaussian dist...

Figure 10.3 Probit transformation of the cumulative dose–response curve.

Figure 10.4 Relationship between probability and the probit value.

Figure 10.5 Differences in potency between two compounds based on slopes of ...

Figure 10.6 Dose–response function with a no‐effect region.

Figure 10.7 Dose–response relationship for carcinogens.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Two extremes of potential risk from contaminated sites. Site A i...

Figure 11.2 Typical soil concentrations of hazardous chemicals away from the...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Priorities in hazardous waste management, minimization, and prev...

Figure 12.2 Potential options for wastes in hazardous waste minimization and...

Figure 12.3 General scheme of pump‐and‐treat groundwater remediation.

Figure 12.4 LNAPL and source removal from a groundwater system.

Figure 12.5 Pockets of DNAPLs in a groundwater system.

Figure 12.6 Dynamics of desorption in controlling the remediation and treatm...

Figure 12.7 Effects of sorption on groundwater remediation through (1) asymp...

Figure 12.8 Common reactors in waste management: (a) batch reactor, (b) cont...

Figure 12.9 Application of reactor theory to pollution prevention implementa...

Figure 12.10 Application of reactor theory to a contaminated groundwater sys...

Figure 12.11 Basis for loading equations. (a) Surface loading; (b) volumetri...

Figure 12.12 A typical GAC contactor.

Figure 12.13 Dynamics of gravity‐flow granular activated carbon treatment....

Figure 12.14 An in situ thermal treatment system.

Figure 12.15 A full‐scale operating air stripper.

Figure 12.16 An operating ex situ SVE system.

Figure 12.17 A full‐scale advanced oxidation process treatment system.

Figure 12.18 Injection of ISCO reagents into contaminated groundwater.

Figure 12.19 Installation of a permeable reactive barrier.

Figure 12.20 Ex situ soil slurry bioreactor.

Figure 12.21 Pouring a mixture of reduced energy sources into a borehole to ...

Figure 12.22 Capital costs and operation and maintenance costs related to re...

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Physical characteristics of granular activated carbon contactors...

Figure 13.2 The microstructure of granular activated carbon.

Figure 13.3 Relative contaminant concentration,

C

/

C

0

, as a function of servi...

Figure 13.4 System configuration for pilot‐scale GAC evaluation.

Figure 13.5 Data from a GAC pilot‐scale operation.

Figure 13.6 Plot of service time as a function of bed depth––the basis for G...

Figure 13.7 Structure of a synthetic cation‐exchange resin.

Figure 13.8 Components used in an ion exchange treatability study.

Figure 13.9 Conceptual view of the effect of ionic strength on activity of C...

Figure 13.10 Various metal complexes present in wastes.

Figure 13.11 Effect of hydroxide concentration on the water solubility of va...

Figure 13.12 Effect of pH and the proportion of sulfide/bisulfide on the sol...

Figure 13.13 Process configuration for a batch precipitation process.

Figure 13.14 Process configuration for a continuous flow precipitation proce...

Figure 13.15 Jar test assembly for bench‐scale testing of optimum precipitan...

Figure 13.16 Effect of temperature on the Henry's law constants vs. temperat...

Figure 13.17 Increase in water solubility of naphthalene with increasing tem...

Figure 13.18 Cross section of the vacuum well and heater wells of a thermal ...

Figure 13.19 Plan view of a thermal conductive heating system.

Figure 13.20 A six phase alternating current cycle.

Figure 13.21 (a) Three phase and (b) six phase heating configurations.

Figure 13.22 Steam enhanced injection for subsurface remediation.

Figure 13.23 Extraction of groundwater during ISTR with subsequent treatment...

Figure 13.24 Treatability study system for steam enhanced extraction.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Physical characteristics of an air stripper.

Figure 14.2 Mass balance and reactor analysis of a packed tower air stripper...

Figure 14.3 A typical gas pressure drop curve..

Figure 14.4 Pilot system for the determination of

K

L

a

.

Figure 14.5 Schematic of an in situ soil vapor extraction (SVE) system.

Figure 14.6 Effect of soil particle size on soil permeability for soil vapor...

Figure 14.7 Use of (a) an impermeable barrier and (b) air discharge wells to...

Figure 14.8 Pilot system with one vacuum well and several monitoring wells....

Figure 14.9 Data from the testing of an SVE pilot system.

Figure 14.10 Analysis of pilot vacuum results to determine the radius of inf...

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Fine bubble contact ozone contactor.

Figure 15.2 Sidestream ozone contactor.

Figure 15.3 A typical ozone/hydrogen peroxide reactor.

Figure 15.4 A typical ozone/ultraviolet light reactor.

Figure 15.5 Illustration of in situ chemical oxidation wells.

Figure 15.6 A direct push injection system.

Figure 15.7 Pathway of TCE oxidation by permanganate.

Figure 15.8 Conceptual basis for contaminant desorption‐ or NAPL dissolution...

Figure 15.9 (a) Sorbed and (b) NAPL contaminants treated with hydroxyl radic...

Figure 15.10 Hydroxyl radical vs. sulfate radical distribution in activated ...

Figure 15.11 Structure of iron(II)‐ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA)....

Figure 15.12 A persulfate treatability study using volatile organic acid (VO...

Figure 15.13 A zero valent iron permeable reactive barrier.

Figure 15.14 Detailed features of a zero valent iron permeable reactive barr...

Figure 15.15 Permeable reactive barriers; (a) continuous permeable reactive ...

Figure 15.16 Equipment used for flow‐through permeable reactive barrier colu...

Figure 15.17 Typical results from a permeable reactive barrier reactor pilot...

Figure 15.18 Plot of −ln(

C

/

C

0

) vs. detention time (

θ

) for a column.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Energy profile of biochemical reactions in the presence and abse...

Figure 16.2 Bacterial growth rates (

μ

) across varying substrate concent...

Figure 16.3 Injection wells used for bioaugmentation of groundwater with

Deh

...

Figure 16.4 Hierarchy of electron acceptors during oxidative and reductive b...

Figure 16.5 Selected enzymatic pathways for aerobic PAH biodegradation.

Figure 16.6 Biodegradation of chlorinated solvents under oxidative and reduc...

Figure 16.7 (a) PCE and TCE degradation, (b)

cis

‐1,2‐DCE stall during PCE an...

Figure 16.8 An in situ groundwater bioremediation system.

Figure 16.9 Biometry flask system for performing bioassessment and biotreata...

Figure 16.10 Aerial view of an ex situ soil bioreactor.

Figure 16.11 An operating bioventing system.

Figure 16.12 Conceptual site model for natural attenuation.

Figure 16.13 Contracting, stable, and expanding plumes of petroleum hydrocar...

Figure 16.14 Hierarchy of electron acceptors as MNA proceeds.

Figure 16.15 Schematic of a Thiessen polygon network.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 A general schematic of a hazardous waste landfill.

Figure 17.2 Plan view of a RCRA hazardous waste landfill.

Figure 17.3 Cross section view of a hazardous waste landfill.

Figure 17.4 A typical liner and leachate system.

Figure 17.5 Cross section of a hazardous waste landfill cover.

Figure 17.6 Schematic of a liquid injection incinerator.

Figure 17.7 Schematic of a rotary kiln incinerator.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

Acknowledgments

Acronyms and Abbreviations

About the Companion Website

Begin Reading

Appendix A: Hazardous Waste Lists

Appendix B: Water Solubilities of Common Hazardous Compounds

Appendix C: Specific Gravities of Common Hazardous Compounds

Appendix D: Supplementary Chemical Incompatibility Data

Appendix E: Values for Student's t Distribution

Appendix F: Random Numbers

Appendix G: Log Kow of Common Hazardous Compounds

Appendix H: Estimation of Octanol–Water Partition Coefficients

Appendix I: Measured Koc Values of Some Common Hazardous Compounds

Appendix J: Vapor Pressures and Henry's Law Constants for Common Hazardous Compounds

Appendix K: Saturation Concentrations in Air and Heats of Vaporization for Some Common Hazardous Compounds

Appendix L: Oral RfDs and Slope Factors (mg/kg·day)−1 and Inhalation RfCs (mg/m3) and Inhalation Unit Risk (μg/m3)−1

Appendix: References

Index

End User License Agreement

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Hazardous Wastes

Assessment and Remediation

Second Edition

Richard J. WattsWashington State UniversityPullman, WA, USA

Amy L. TeelWashington State UniversityPullman, WA, USA

Courtney M. GardnerWashington State UniversityPullman, WA, USA

This second edition first published 2023© 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Edition HistoryJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd (1e, 1998)

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Richard J. Watts, Amy L. Teel, and Courtney M. Gardner to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA

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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyIn view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Watts, Richard J., 1953‐ author. | Teel, Amy Lea, author. | Gardner, Courtney Maye, author.Title: Hazardous wastes : assessment and remediation / Richard John Watts, Amy Lea Teel, Courtney Maye Gardner.Description: Second edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2022029670 (print) | LCCN 2022029671 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119634065 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119634041 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119634058 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Hazardous wastes.Classification: LCC TD1030 .W38 2023 (print) | LCC TD1030 (ebook) | DDC 628.4/2–dc23/eng/20220812LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022029670LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022029671

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © EPA, public domain

Preface

Hazardous waste courses have recently been established at many universities throughout the United States; they vary in focus from management (regulations, manifest forms, etc.) to the design of unit processes for treating wastes disposed of under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). This book is based on two courses developed at Washington State University to provide senior and M.S. students with the scientific principles of hazardous waste management and engineering. In developing the courses, and subsequently this book, we considered fundamental concepts that should be presented in an introductory hazardous waste class. After determining the knowledge required of entry‐level engineers and scientists by consulting firms, industry, and government, and assessing the knowledge needed by graduate students in advanced hazardous waste classes, we developed material that covers the following topics:

terminology, nomenclature, and properties of hazardous wastes and materials;

behavior of hazardous chemicals in surface impoundments, soils, groundwater, and treatment systems;

assessment of the toxicity and risk associated with exposure to hazardous chemicals;

strategies to find information on nomenclature, transport and behavior, and toxicity for hazardous compounds; and

application of the scientific principles of hazardous wastes to the design of remediation and treatment systems.

In selecting the material for the book, we made an effort to avoid duplication of topics presented in standard environmental engineering, environmental science, and hydrogeology courses currently offered by most institutions. We also endeavored to develop material that would be fundamental in nature and to design a text that would be an educational document rather than a training manual.

The text contains a wide range of fundamental materials for students of different backgrounds. For example, organic chemistry nomenclature is provided in Chapter 2 for civil engineering students who have not completed a class in organic chemistry. In addition, fundamental material is provided on soil chemistry, metabolic pathways, human physiology, and engineering economics for students who have not had exposure to these topics.

ORGANIZATION

The book is divided into two major parts—“Assessment” and “Remediation.” In addition, the Assessment section is further divided into three subsections: “Sources,” “Pathways,” and “Receptors.” After an introductory chapter that describes hazardous waste problems and hazardous waste legislation, Chapter 2 of “Sources” provides information on nomenclature and structure of common hazardous contaminants, what industrial operations have generated the different classes of waste materials and the types of contamination that have resulted from their disposal. In Chapter 3, the basic properties of common contaminants, such as water solubility, density, and chemical incompatibility, are covered. Source analysis, focusing on waste audits in industrial facilities, assessment of contaminated sites, sampling, and chemical analysis, is the topic of Chapter 4.

Using quantitative problem solving, “Pathways” provides a conceptual basis for understanding the behavior of hazardous chemicals, whether they are present in soil and groundwater systems, in hazardous waste landfills, in storage tanks, or in treatment systems such as air stripping towers. Chapter 5 covers partitioning phenomena, including theory, isotherms, and estimating sorption in soil–water systems. In Chapter 6, material on the theory of volatilization is presented, including equations for estimating volatilization rates from surface impoundments and soils. Concepts of abiotic and biotic transformations as a basis for the natural attenuation of contaminants at hazardous waste sites and the design of treatment systems are covered in Chapter 7. The material in Chapters 5 through 7 is integrated in Chapter 8, in which the atmospheric and subsurface transport of hazardous chemicals away from the source is presented.

If a hazardous contaminant moves in the environment by one of the routes described in “Pathways,” receptors (e.g., humans or wildlife) may be affected—the basis for the “Receptors” part of the book. Chapter 9 deals with fundamental human and mammalian toxicology and explains the ways in which chemicals may be toxic. Quantitative toxicology and industrial hygiene are covered in Chapter 10, which serves as a basis for assessing the toxicity of hazardous contaminants. Chapter 11 emphasizes all of the concepts from previous chapters by addressing risk assessment. Risk is a function of exposure (covered under “Pathways”) and hazard (covered under “Receptors”). Using the material of Chapters 2 through 10, the student not only becomes capable of conceptualizing hazardous waste dynamics and exposure through quantitative problem solving, but also develops the ability to perform elementary risk assessments.

In Part 2, “Remediation,” the fundamental principles of sources, pathways, and receptors are applied to hazardous waste management, remediation, and treatment. Remediation and treatment designs may be considered applications of the pathways covered in Part 1. An overview of pollution prevention, remediation, treatment, and disposal is presented in Chapter 12. The principles learned in “Pathways” are then applied to the design of hazardous waste remediation systems in Chapters 13–17, based on each of the four chemodynamic pathways: sorption, volatilization, abiotic transformation, and biotic transformation.

USE OF THIS BOOK

Hazardous Wastes: Assessment and Remediation contains enough material to allow flexibility in teaching a one‐semester hazardous waste course or a two‐semester sequence. If the class is taught in an environmental science or hydrogeology program where students do not have a design emphasis, Chapters 1 through 11 will provide a science‐based hazardous waste course. A civil engineering course with a 50% design content would include Part 2, “Remediation,” but omit parts of Chapters 5, 9, 10, and 11. Another option is a two‐semester sequence in hazardous waste engineering. The first semester would emphasize engineering science and use Chapters 1 through 11; the second semester would consist of the design of hazardous waste treatment systems and could use Chapters 12–17.

Chapter 2, “Common Hazardous Wastes: Nomenclature, Industrial Uses, Disposal Histories,” should no doubt be covered, at least in part, if students have not completed organic chemistry. If organic chemistry is a prerequisite for the class, covering Chapter 2 may not be necessary. One option for students with a background in organic chemistry may be to rapidly cover Chapter 2 so that they have familiarity with chemicals germane to hazardous waste management (e.g., chlorinated solvents, PCBs, dioxins). Another alternative would be to provide information on classes of chemicals at specific points of the text. For example, detailed information on solvents could be presented in Chapter 6, “Volatilization,” because most solvents are volatile organic compounds.

Some sections of the text have less problem‐solving content and may receive less emphasis in lectures and be deferred to the student as reference material. Some of these sections include 2.6, “Explosives”; 2.10, “Metals and Inorganic Nonmetals”; 4.6, “Sampling away from the Source”; 11.3, “Ecological Risk Assessments”; and a number of topics in Chapters 9 and 10 on toxicology.

Based on the flexibility inherent in the text, potential emphases of a one‐semester course include (1) hazardous wastes with a science emphasis, and (2) hazardous wastes with engineering science and design components.

Hazardous Wastes (Science Emphasis)

A fundamental approach to the concepts of hazardous wastes, with the study of both currently generated hazardous wastes and the assessment and characterization of contaminated sites, would focus on the majority of Part 1, “Assessment”:

Chapter

Topic

1

Introduction

2

Common Hazardous Wastes: Nomenclature, Industrial Uses, Disposal Histories

3

Common Hazardous Wastes: Properties and Classification

4

Source Analysis

5

Partitioning, Sorption, and Exchange at Surfaces

6

Volatilization

7

Abiotic and Biotic Transformations: Parallel Pathways

8

Contaminant Release and Transport from the Source

9

Concepts of Hazardous Waste Toxicology

10

Quantitative Toxicology

11

Hazardous Waste Risk Assessment

Hazardous Wastes (Engineering Design Emphasis)

Because engineering science (covered in Part 1B, “Pathways”) serves as the basis for engineering design, a one‐semester hazardous waste class with approximately 50% engineering design content would focus on both Part 1 (“Assessment”) and Part 2 (“Remediation”):

Chapter

Topic

1

Introduction

2

Common Hazardous Wastes: Nomenclature, Industrial Uses, Disposal Histories

5

Partitioning, Sorption, and Exchange at Surfaces

6

Volatilization

7

Abiotic and Biotic Transformations: Parallel Pathways

12

Approaches to Hazardous Waste Minimization, Remediation, Treatment, and Disposal

13

Design of Sorption‐ and Partitioning‐Based Remediation Processes

14

Design of Volatilization‐Based Treatment Processes

15

Design of Abiotic Transformation‐Based Treatment Processes

16

Design of Biotic Transformation-Based Treatment Processes

17

Mitigation of Residuals

Other emphases may also be created using appropriate sections of the text. Some other potential areas of emphasis include contaminated site management, RCRA hazardous waste management, contaminant fate and transport, and hazardous waste risk assessment.

Metric units are used in most cases throughout the book, with English units following parenthetically. The only cases in which English units receive primary emphasis are in the presentation of historical or anecdotal information, which occurs mostly in Chapters 1 and 2.

November 2022

Richard J. Watts

Amy L. Teel

Courtney M. Gardner

Washington State University

Pullman, WA, USA

Acknowledgments

Completion of this text would have not been possible without the assistance of a group of gracious colleagues and students. Jim Hoover was instrumental in obtaining photographs of the Hanford nuclear reservation. Several colleagues and former students provided input for the book. We thank Susanne Borchert (Jacobs), Piper Roelen and Clint Jacob (Landau Associates), Roland Rueber and Mike Foget (SHN Consulting Engineers and Geologists), Jered Newcombe (HDR), Pamela Dugan (Carus Corporation and EutroPHIX), Savannah Volkoff (Geosyntec), and John Haselow (Redox Tech) for providing valuable information and photographs. Lauryn Guerressi reviewed the new chapters of the second edition of the text and checked problem solutions. Numerous former students provided assistance including Jay Bower, Brett Freeborn, Dan Haller, Michael Harrington, Jimmy Howsakeng, Alex Jones, Pat McGuire, and Cindy Spencer. Finally, we acknowledge our spouses, children, and families for providing support while we completed this effort.

Acronyms and Abbreviations

AA

Atomic absorption

ACGIH

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

ACMA

Agricultural Chemicals Manufacturing Association

ADI

Acceptable daily intake

AOPs

Advanced oxidation processes

ARARs

Applicable or relevant and appropriate requirements

BCF

Bioconcentration factor

BDST

Bed depth service time

BTEX

Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes

BTU

British thermal unit

CAA

Clean Air Act

CAS

Chemical Abstract Service

CCA

Copper chrome arsenate

CDI

Chronic daily intake

CEC

Cation exchange capacity

CERCLA

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act

CERCLIS

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Information System

CFR

Code of Federal Regulations

CHP

Catalyzed H

2

O

2

propagations

CMA

Chemical Manufacturers Association

CMC

Critical micelle concentration

CSI

Common sense initiative

CSTR

Continuous stirred tank reactor

CWA

Clean Water Act

2,4‐D

2,4‐Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid

DBCP

1,2‐Dibromo‐3‐chloropropane

DCA

Dichloroethane

DCE

Dichloroethylene

DDT

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

DEET

N

,

N

‐Diethyl‐

m

‐toluamide

DNAPL

Dense nonaqueous phase liquid

DOT

Department of Transportation

DREs

Destruction removal efficiencies

DSMA

Disodium methyl arsenate

E

a

Activation energy

EBDC

Ethylene‐bis‐dithiocarbamate

ECD

Electron capture detector

ED

Effective dose

EDB

Ethylene dibromide

ELP

Environmental Leadership Program

EP

Extraction procedure (toxicity test)

EPA

Environmental Protection Agency

EPCRA

Emergency Planning and Community Right‐to‐Know Act

FID

Flame ionization detector

fCv

Final chronic value

GAC

Granular activated carbon

GC

Gas chromatography

GIS

Geographical information systems

GPS

Global positioning system

HAP

Hazardous air pollutant

HI

Hazard index

HLW

High‐level wastes (nuclear)

HPDE

High‐density polyethylene

HPLC

High‐performance liquid chromatography

HQ

Hazard quotient

HRS

Hazard ranking system

HSWA

Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984

IARC

International Agency for Research on Cancer

ICP

Inductively coupled plasma

ISCO

In situ chemical oxidation

ISTR

In situ thermal remediation

IUPAC

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists

IUR

Inhalation unit risk

LD

Lethal dose

LED

Light‐emitting diode

LEPC

Local emergency planning committee

LFL

Lower flammability limit

LLW

Low‐level wastes (nuclear)

LNAPL

Light nonaqueous phase liquid

MCL

Maximum contaminant level

MEK

Methyl ethyl ketone

MIBK

Methyl isobutyl ketone

MNA

Monitored natural attenuation

MPN

Most probable number

MS

Mass spectrometer

MSDS

Material safety data sheet

MSMA

Monosodium methyl arsenate

NAAQS

National ambient air quality standards

NCP

National contingency plan

NFPA

National Fire Protection Association

NIMBY

Not in my back yard

NOAEL

No observed adverse effect level

NOD

Natural oxidant demand

NOx

Nitrogen oxides

NPDES

National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System

NPL

National priorities list

nZVI

Nanoscale zero valent iron

OCDD

Octachlorodibenzo‐

p

‐dioxin

OSF

Oral slope factor

OU

Operable unit

OVA

Organic vapor analyzer

P2

Pollution prevention

PA

Preliminary assessment

PAHs

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

PCBs

Polychlorinated biphenyls

PCDDs

Polychlorinated dibenzo‐

p

‐dioxins

PCDFs

Polychlorinated dibenzofurans

PCE

Perchloroethylene

PCP

Pentachlorophenol

PFR

Plug flow reactor

PID

Photoionization detector

POCHs

Principal organic hazardous constituents

PPA

Federal Pollution Prevention Act (of 1990)

PRBs

Permeable reactive barriers

PRP

Potentially responsible party

PW

Present worth

QSARs

Quantitative structural‐activity relationships

RCRA

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

RfC

Reference concentration

RfD

Reference dose

RI/FS

Remedial investigation/feasibility study

ROD

Record of decision

ROI

Radius of influence

SARA

Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (of 1986)

SCAP

Superfund Comprehensive Accomplishments Plan

SDWA

Safe Drinking Water Act

SERC

State Emergency Response Commission

SF

Slope factor

SI

Site inspection

SOC

Soil organic carbon

SOM

Soil organic matter

STEL

Short‐term exposure limit

SVE

Soil vapor extraction

2,4,5‐T

2,4,5‐Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid

TCA

Trichloroethane

TCDD

2,3,7,8‐Tetrachlorodibenzo‐

p

‐dioxin

TCE

Trichloroethylene

TEF

Toxicity equivalent factor

TLV

Threshold limit value

TNT

2,4,6‐Trinitrotoluene

TOC

Total organic carbon

TOD

Total oxidant demand

TPH

Total petroleum hydrocarbons

TRI

Toxics release inventory

TCLP

Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure

TRV

Terrestrial reference value

TSCA

Toxic Substances Control Act

TSDR

Treatment, storage, disposal, and recycling (facilities)

TWA

Time‐weighted average

UFL

Upper flammability limit

UN/NA

United Nations/North American

USTs

Underground storage tanks

VOA

Volatile organic analysis

VOCs

Volatile organic compounds

WHO

World Health Organization

ZVI

Zero valent iron

About the Companion Website

This book is accompanied by a companion website.

www.wiley.com/go/Watts/HazardousWastes2e

This website includes solutions to end‐of‐chapter problems.

1Introduction

Waste materials are a part of the high standard of living to which we have become accustomed in an industrialized society. The manufacture of products that we use in everyday life results in the generation of wastes, some of which may be persistent, toxic, flammable, corrosive, or explosive. For example, the production of computer and semiconductor components requires halogenated solvents. Aircraft construction and maintenance activities generate petroleum, solvent, and heavy metal wastes. The synthesis of plastics, paints, and pesticides produces organic solvents, by‐products, and sludges. Every industry that has produced manufactured goods has also generated wastes.

Industries, municipalities, and government currently generate between 30 and 60 million tons of hazardous waste per year in the United States that are subject to federal regulations. Hazardous waste not covered by federal legislation but regulated by states is conservatively thought to add another 230 to 260 million tons per year, with some estimates as high as 750 million tons per year (OTA 1983; Baker and Warren 1992). Therefore, even conservative estimates put the annual rate of hazardous waste generated in the United States at 1 ton per person (Hileman 1983