Hazards in the Food Processing and Distribution Chain E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 376

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022

Beschreibung

Foodstuffs can be the vector of a variety of hazards that adversely affect the health of the consumer. Viruses are the leading causes of foodborne infectious diseases, and pathogenic bacteria and bacterial toxins are the leading agents of zoonotic diseases in Europe, not to mention other biological hazards, such as parasites, which can spread to humans through food. In addition to these biological dangers, chemicals used in agriculture, environmental pollutants and additives can all end up on the consumer's plate and ultimately damage their health. Hazards in the Food Processing and Distribution Chain covers both chemical and microbiological dangers, aiming to outline the principle of risk analysis with some examples to illustrate the reasoning involved in this process.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Foreword

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Chapter 1. Bacterial and Parasitic Hazards and Consumption of Meat

1.1. Meat contamination

1.2. Growth and survival in meat

1.3. Enterohemorrhagic

E. coli

1.4.

Taenia saginata

/

Cysticercus bovis

1.5. Other major hazards related to meat consumption

1.6. References

Chapter 2. Minimally Processed Seafood Products and Bacterial and Parasitic Hazards

2.1. Introduction to the seafood sector

2.2. European and French regulations on microbial hazards (bacteria and parasites) and product withdrawals and recalls

2.3. Bacterial hazards in seafood products

2.4. Parasitic hazards in seafood products

2.5. The emergence of bacterial and parasitic hazards in the seafood sector

2.6. References

Chapter 3. Microbial Contamination of Equipment Surfaces in Agro-Industries

3.1. Contamination of surfaces by micro-organisms

3.2. Biofilms in food-industry environments

3.3. The role of processing-line design on biofilm formation and its resistance to hygiene procedures in the agricultural and food-processing industries

3.4. Interfaces between material, liquid and air and areas contaminated by splashes or aerosols

3.5. Physiological state of bacteria within biofilms

3.6. Acknowledgments

3.7. References

Chapter 4. Contaminants as Chemical Hazards in Food

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Chemical risk analysis – state of the art

4.3. Applications

4.4. Current research

4.5. Prospects

4.6. References

Chapter 5. Contaminants as Chemical Hazards in Food

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Chemical risk analysis in food safety

5.3. Regulatory framework

5.4. Current research

5.5. Prospects

5.6. References

Conclusion

List of Authors

Index

List of Illustrations

Introduction

Figure I.1.

Food: possible sources of contamination (Haddad et al. 2015).

Figure I.2.

Evolution of the hazardousness of food (according to Federig...

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1.

Meat contamination routes throughout the food chain.

Figure 1.2.

Illustration of the cross-contamination mechanism from a pou...

Figure 1.3.

Clostridium botulinum: contamination, germination and toxino...

Figure 1.4.

AEEC, STEC and EHEC (according to Brugère et al. 2012).

Figure 1.5.

Clinical evolution of a human infection by a strain of enter

...

Figure 1.6.

Evolutionary cycle of Cysticercus bovis/Taenia saginata.

Figure 1.7.

Live cysticercus discovered in the myocardium of a bovine du...

Figure 1.8.

Live cysticercus discovered in a bovine masseter muscle –...

Figure 1.9.

Calcified cysticercus discovered in a bovine masseter muscle...

Figure 1.10.

Toxoplasma gondii cycle.

Figure 1.11.

Cycle of Trichinella spiralis.

Figure 1.12.

Amplification of the BSE agent through the use of meat and...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1.

Observation by scanning electron microscopy of a biofilm of L....

Figure 2.2.

Multi-criteria classification of parasites transmitted by food...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1.

Biofilm of Pseudomonas fluorescens observed by scanning electron...

Figure 3.2.

Scanning electron microscopy images of P. fluorescens biofilms d...

Figure 3.3.

Biofilm of Kocuria varians observed by scanning electron microsc...

Figure 3.4.

Biofilms of

E. coli

on stainless steel (hydrophilic) and...

Figure 3.5.

Drying of droplets deposited on materials that are hydrophobic to...

Figure 3.6.

Structure of deposits obtained after drying droplets containing 1...

Figure 3.7.

The role of the meniscus at the air/liquid/material interface on...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1.

Schematic representation of the different stages of risk analysis.

Figure 4.2.

Structure of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychl...

Figure 4.3.

Major food contamination incidents in Europe over the past 30...

Figure 4.4.

Structures of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooct...

Figure 4.5.

Structures of perfluorobutanesulfonate (PFBS), PFHxS and GenX

Figure 4.6.

Sources and routes of exposure to PFASs

Figure 4.7.

Chemical structures and diversity of chlorinated paraffins (CPs)

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1.

Dose–response relationship and determination of L/NOAEL...

Figure 5.2.

Consumption distribution

Figure 5.4.

Food safety agencies and political bodies at different geograp...

Figure 5.5.

Organization of the texts of the substance package applicable...

Figure 5.6.

Composition of a food flavoring.

Figure 5.7.

Use of Annex II to Regulation (EC) No.1333/2008 to verify the po...

Figure 5.8.

Categories of substances that may form part of the composition...

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table I.1.

Main hazards encountered in foodstuffs

Table I.2.

List of 14 “reportable” allergens according to Europea...

Chapter 1

Table 1.1.

The biological hazards transmitted by meat and how they are contam...

Table 1.2.

Growth characteristics of

E. coli

O157:H7 (ANSES 2018)

Table 1.3.

Characteristics of disease caused by EHECs in humans. (According to...

Table 1.4.

Campylobacter jejuni/coli: characteristics

1

Table 1.5.

Salmonella enterica: characteristics

Table 1.6.

Yersinia enterolitica: characteristics

Table 1.7.

Listeria monocytogenes: characteristics

Table 1.8.

Staphylococcus aureus: characteristics

Table 1.9.

Clostridium botulinum: characteristics

Table 1.10.

Clostridium perfringens: characteristics

Table 1.11.

Toxoplasma gondii: characteristics

Table 1.12.

Trichinella

spp.

: characteristics

Table 1.13.

Hepatitis E virus: characteristics

Table 1.14.

ESB prion: characteristics

Chapter 2

Table 2.1.

Indigenous and non-indigenous pathogenic bacteria present in seafood products

Chapter 4

Table 4.1.

Example of conclusions and ranking following risk characterization

Table 4.2.

Assessment criteria used by the EFSA in the emerging risk identification...

Chapter 5

Table 5.1.

Extract from the Order of October 19, 2006 on enzymes authorized in France

Table 5.2.

Extract from Annex I to Regulation (EC) No.1334/2008

Table 5.3.

Extract from Annex III to Regulation (EC) No.1334/ 2008 setting the maximum...

Table 5.4.

Functional categories of food additives as defined by Regulation (EC) No.1333/2008

Table 5.5.

Extract from Section D of Annex II to Regulation (EC) No.1333/2008 for edible ices

Table 5.6.

Extract of the specifications for beet red (E162) as defined by Regulation (EC) No.231/2012

Table 5.7.

Extract from Annex III to Regulation (EC) No.1333/2008 concerning additives auth...

Table 5.8.

Extract from Part B of Annex VIII to Regulation (EC) No.889/2008 on processing...

Table 5.9.

Extract from the positive list of novel foods as defined by Regulation (EU) 2017/2470

Table 5.10.

Extract from the specifications of novel foods as defined by Regulation (EU) 2017/2470

Conclusion

Table C.1.

Examples of physical hazards carried by foodstuffs (according to FAO...

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Begin Reading

Index

End User License Agreement

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SCIENCES

Agronomy and Food ScienceField Directors – Jack Legrand and Gilles Trystram

Food Safety, Subject Heads –Thierry Benezech and Jeanne-Marie Membré

Hazards in the Food Processing and Distribution Chain

Coordinated byNabila Haddad

First published 2022 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd

27-37 St George’s Road

London SW19 4EU

UK

www.iste.co.uk

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

111 River Street

Hoboken, NJ 07030

USA

www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2022

The rights of Nabila Haddad to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s), contributor(s) or editor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ISTE Group.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2022941226

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-78945-093-4

ERC code:

LS9 Applied Life Sciences, Biotechnology, and Molecular and Biosystems Engineering

LS9_5 Food sciences (including food technology, food safety, nutrition)

Foreword

Nabila HADDAD

UMR SECALIM, Oniris, INRAE, Nantes, France

A great number of food-related hazards exist that can affect human health. Chemicals used in agriculture, environmental pollutants and pathogenic micro-organisms are just some examples of hazards that can ultimately end up on the consumer’s plate and in certain cases, adversely affect their health.

To address these hazards, the development of food safety standards, which began more than 20 years ago, is based on a formal process called “risk analysis”. Risk analysis consists of three distinct elements: risk assessment, risk management and risk communication.

The three volumes on the theme of “Food safety” make it possible to articulate this link between food safety and risk analysis. They were created by Jeanne-Marie Membré and Thierry Benezech, assisted by Nabila Haddad.

This volume, coordinated by Nabila Haddad, covers both chemical and microbiological hazards. Haddad, N. (2022). Hazards in the Food Processing and Distribution Chain, ISTE Ltd, London and John Wiley & Sons, New York.

The volume coordinated by Jeanne-Marie Membré summarizes information on microbial risk assessment from hazard identification to risk characterization. It is entitled “Microbiological risk assessment associated with the food processing and distribution chain”.

The volume coordinated by Thierry Benezech and Christine Faille completes the series. It deals with risk management and focuses on microbiological risks. Benezech, T., Faille C. (2022). Control/prevention of Biological Risks related to Food Contamination during their Processing/distribution and Consumer Use, ISTE Ltd, London and John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Acknowledgments

Nabila HADDAD

UMR SECALIM, Oniris, INRAE, Nantes, France

First of all, I would like to thank Jeanne-Marie Membré and Thierry Benezech, both of whom are responsible for the “Food safety” theme, for placing their trust in me for the coordination of this book.

I would also like to thank Gilles Trystram and Jack Legrand, Field Directors for Agronomy and Food Science in the SCIENCES collection at ISTE, who agreed to my coordinating the creation of this book.

I especially wish to thank the authors of the various chapters, without whom this work would not have been possible.

Introduction

Nabila HADDAD

UMR SECALIM, Oniris, INRAE, Nantes, France

I.1. Purpose of the book

Food can be the vector of hazards of different kinds leading to adverse effects on consumer health. Viruses are the leading causes of food-borne infectious diseases, while pathogenic bacteria and bacterial toxins remain the leading agents of zoonotic diseases in Europe. Other biological hazards, such as parasites, can also contaminate humans through food. In addition to these biological hazards, chemicals used in agriculture, environmental pollutants and additives can ultimately also end up on the consumer’s plate, and, potentially, harm their health.

In the face of these hazards, for more than 20 years, the development of food safety standards has been based on a formal process known as “risk analysis”. Risk analysis consists of three distinct elements: risk assessment, risk management and risk communication.

Through three books published in Encyclopedie Sciences, key concepts relating to food safety will be described.

This book, on the theme of food safety, comes under risk assessment and is entitled “Hazards in the Food Processing and Distribution Chain”. It covers both chemical and microbiological hazards. The purpose of this book is to describe the principle of hazard analysis, drawing on several examples to illustrate the reasoning followed during this process. It also concerns replacing barrier effects.

We begin with a general introduction allowing us to specify the regulatory framework and definitions concerned with the subject matter. Foodborne diseases, as well as the main categories of foodborne hazards, are presented subsequently.

I.2. Food safety and hazardousness of foodstuffs

I.2.1. Regulatory framework and definitions

To protect consumer health and safety, the European food hygiene regulations have adopted a comprehensive, integrated approach to food safety to cover all activities across the food chain, from the farm to the fork. This legal framework aims to ensure the free movement of safe and healthy foodstuffs.

The term “food safety” refers to the harmlessness of foodstuffs, that is, the assurance that these foodstuffs will not cause damage to the consumer when they are prepared or consumed (in compliance with their intended use). Thus, the presence of a hazard at a dangerous “dose” (referred to as the “infectious dose”) in the ingested foodstuff is a food-safety issue.

NOTE.– food safety is not to be confused with food security, which refers to the supply of food in sufficient quantity and adequate quality.

Throughout the food chain, a foodstuff can be exposed to hazardous agents that cause it to be contaminated. According to European Regulation (EC) no.178/2002 of the hygiene package, the concept of “hazard” in food refers to any biological, chemical or physical agent present in food or animal feed, or the condition of such food or feed, having the potential to cause adverse effects on the health of consumers (Anonymous 2002). However, according to the said regulation, no hazardous foodstuff may be placed on the market, and it is considered hazardous if it is detrimental to health or unfit for human consumption (Anonymous 2002). In this context, the European legislator has placed primary responsibility for food safety on food business operators (Anonymous 2004).

I.2.2. Food hazardousness

Hazards may be introduced into foodstuffs at any time, during harvest, formulation and processing, packaging and labeling, transport, storage, preparation or service (Federighi et al. 2020) (Figure I.1). Thus, in order to ensure the safety of foodstuffs, it is necessary to take into consideration all aspects of the food production chain in its continuity, from primary production and production of animal feed up to the sale or supply of foodstuffs to the consumer. Indeed, each element can have a potential impact on the safety of foodstuffs.

Inherently, foodstuffs are rarely hazardous for the consumer, except in exceptional cases such as fugu or cane toad, popular dishes in certain regions of the world. As described by Federighi and Friand-Perrot (2009), when a foodstuff is contaminated, the hazards present in reservoirs are transferred to a target food, resulting in a contaminated foodstuff (Figure I.2) (Federighi and Friant-Perrot 2009). The harmful effect on the health of the consumer will only be potentially possible if the contaminated food is ingested (Federighi et al. 2020).

Until ingestion of the contaminated food, the hazardous nature of the foodstuff evolves according to different factors related to the process of production, distribution and preparation of the food (Federighi and Friant-Perrot 2009). Indeed, the hazardousness of the food may be exacerbated when the hazard present is found in conditions where it can multiply to reach the infectious dose or indeed produce virulence factors. Conversely, the hazardousness of the food can decrease over time, particularly if the foodstuff manufacturing process makes use of heat treatments, or if the formulation of the food enables the hazard to be eliminated.

In addition to the factors related to the processing/distribution/preparation of the foodstuff, the hazardousness of the food is also correlated with the receptivity of the host (i.e. the consumer) (Federighi et al. 2020). In fact, the contaminated food ingested must pass a certain number of barriers and defense mechanisms of the host (saliva, stomach, intestinal peristalsis, presence of bile salts, etc.) that will have an impact on its hazardousness (Federighi et al. 2020). In addition, host susceptibility can be varied according to their psychological and physiological state (concept of the population at risk, YOPIs).

In summary, in the food sector, a hazard is characterized by (i) its nature (biological, chemical or physical, etc.), (ii) its frequency of appearance in food and (iii) the severity of its effects on consumer health. Generally, morbidity and mortality are two indicators that are used to objectively characterize the manifestations of a hazard.

Figure I.1.Food: possible sources of contamination (Haddad et al. 2015). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/haddad/hazards.zip

Figure I.2.Evolution of the hazardousness of food (according to Federighi et al. 2020).For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/haddad/hazards.zip

I.2.3. The concept of risk

Alongside the concept of hazard, there is the concept of “risk”. In food safety, the risk is defined as “the function of the probability of an adverse effect on health and the severity of this effect resulting from one or more hazards in food” (Afnor 2010). In other words, the risk is the combination of the probability of damage and the severity of this damage.

Operators in the agricultural sector are in charge of hazard analysis and appreciation of the risks. These two approaches, notably found in HACCP, consist of (i) listing all hazards that present a risk of contamination of the food at all stages and (ii) identifying hazards to be eliminated, or reduced to an acceptable level. It also involves defining ways to control the identified hazards.

More broadly speaking, risk analysis is a systematic means of better assessing the various aspects linked to risk and predicting all of the consequences associated with its management. Risk analysis is largely the responsibility of States, which can result in regulatory decisions or normative-type incentive measures. This part will be further developed in book no. 2 covering the food safety theme, entitled “Microbiological Risk Assessment Associated with the Food Processing and Distribution Chain”.

I.3. Consequence of “hazardous” contaminated food: foodborne diseases

I.3.1. A public health issue

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the consumption of contaminated food is the origin of roughly 600 million individuals falling sick per year worldwide, or nearly one in 10 people (Anonymous 2015b; Havelaar et al. 2015). Among them, nearly 420,000 die as a result, leading to the loss of 33 million years of healthy life (Anonymous 2015b; Havelaar et al. 2015). Children under the age of 5 are particularly affected by such foodborne diseases, as they bear 40% of the disease burden attributable to these diseases and 125,000 die from them each year (Anonymous 2015b).

The majority of these foodborne diseases are diarrheal diseases, also known as foodborne infectious diseases. They affect 550 million people every year and are responsible for 230,000 deaths a year (Anonymous 2015b). Other serious consequences of foodborne diseases include renal and hepatic failure, brain and neural disorders, reactive arthritis, cancer and, in some cases, death.

Unsafe foods pose a real threat to global health, presenting a danger to all populations. Infants, young children, pregnant women, the elderly and people with an underlying disease are particularly vulnerable. Every year, 220 million children contract diarrheal diseases and 96,000 die of them. Unsafe foods create a vicious cycle of diarrhea and malnutrition, threatening the nutritional status of the most vulnerable.

I.3.2. A socio-economic issue

Foodborne diseases restrict socio-economic development by placing a heavy strain on healthcare systems and damaging national economies, trade, and tourism. The economic burden of foodborne diseases is considerable. Indeed, in 2018, the World Bank estimated that annual productivity losses due to these diseases amounted to US$95.2 billion in low- and middle-income countries and that the annual cost of treatment amounted to US$15 billion (Jaffee et al. 2019).

The impact of foodborne diseases on public health and on the economic system has often been underestimated owing to underreporting of cases and the difficulty in establishing cause-and-effect relationships between the contamination of foodstuffs and resulting disease or death.

I.4. The main categories of hazards found in foodstuffs

The hazards found in foodstuffs may be biological, chemical, physical, allergenic, nutritional or by their nature related to biotechnology (Table I.1).

Biological

Chemicals

Physical

Allergenic

Bacteria

Contaminants

Foreign bodies of endogenous origin

List of 14 “reportable” allergens

Viruses

Food additives

Foreign bodies of exogenous origin

Parasites

Pesticide residues

Prions

Residues of veterinary medicinal products

Table I.1.Main hazards encountered in foodstuffs

I.4.1. Biological hazards

There is a biological hazard when hazardous or pathogenic organisms are introduced into foods, which thus become a food safety concern for consumers. Biological hazards include bacteria, viruses and parasites that have a significant impact on public health. They are the origin of foodborne infectious diseases. The majority of these foodborne infectious diseases are zoonoses, their agents having an animal reservoir, the starting point for potential transmission to humans.

Foodborne diseases due to enteropathogenic biological agents are called foodborne infections (Dubois-Brissonnet and Guillier 2020). Foodborne infections can be sporadic (isolated cases) or collective (foodborne outbreaks) when two or more people are infected from a single food source. In France, foodborne outbreaks are subject to mandatory reporting.

Hazardous organisms that are introduced into food may come from the environment (e.g. soil bacteria and agricultural runoff water), inadequate sanitation practices or cross-contamination occurring during transport, handling, processing and storage (e.g. poor food hygiene practices).

Throughout the food processing and distribution chain, biological hazards, unlike other hazard categories, are able to:

– persist or survive until reaching the consumer’s plate;

– multiply where conditions permit, for example when the cold chain is broken;

– or, decrease or even disappear, mortality caused by environmental factors.

The nature and extent of bacterial proliferation depend in part on the nature of the food, the packaging conditions and the storage environment.

Bacteria can be responsible for two forms of foodborne diseases. In the first case, bacteria are able to pre-form toxins in food, which will be at the origin of the disease in consumers (e.g. Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins, the botulinum toxin of Clostridium botulinum or Bacillus cereus emetic toxin) (Aldsworth et al. 2018). We then speak of food poisoning. In the second case, the bacteria contaminating foodstuffs are ingested and then colonize the host’s digestive tract, thus causing the infection. This group includes Salmonella spp., Campylobacter jejuni, Listeria monocytogenes, certain strains of Escherichia coli (Shiga-producing), etc. (Aldsworth et al. 2018) Many of these pathogenic bacteria are also capable of producing toxins, the major difference with the first group being that they must be ingested “live” in order to induce disease (Aldsworth et al. 2018).

Unlike bacteria, animal viruses and parasites are generally unable to multiply on foodstuff or in the production environment but only within their host (Aldsworth et al. 2018). Viruses at the origin of foodborne diseases are generally responsible for gastroenteritis (norovirus, rotavirus, etc.) but they can also cause viral hepatitis (hepatitis A and E viruses). Food parasites are responsible for a wide variety of diseases, such as digestive disorders (Cryptosporium, Gardia, Anisakis and Diphyllobothrium), allergic manifestations (Trichinella), hepatobiliary disorders and cirrhosis (Fasciola hepatica and Echinococcus).

Other foodborne biological hazards include prions, also known as infectious protein particles, which are infectious organisms made of proteins. They cause certain diseases in humans and animals, including Creutzfeld-Jacob disease, a progressive and fatal disease of the nervous system.

I.4.2. Chemical hazards

There are various types of chemical hazards in the food industry including:

– contaminants;

– food additives;

– chemicals from food processing;

– pesticides/agricultural products;

– residues of veterinary medicinal products.

The functions of food additives, pesticides and residues of veterinary medicinal products are relatively clearly defined. Given the diverse and varied nature of contaminants, this term requires a clear definition. According to the Codex Alimentarius (2012) (Codex 2012), a contaminant is defined as follows:

Any substance not intentionally added to feed or food, which is present in such food as a result of the production (including operations carried out in crop husbandry, animal husbandry and veterinary medicine), manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of such feed or food or as a result of environmental contamination. The term does not include insect fragments, rodent hairs and other extraneous matter.

This definition therefore implicitly includes natural toxins, including the toxic metabolites of certain molds whose presence in human and animal diets is not intentional (mycotoxins).

Many environmental contaminants, accidentally or deliberately released into the environment, can contaminate the food chain. These chemicals are often but not always the result of human activities. Some of these contaminants may have been manufactured for industrial purposes and due to their high stability, they do not break down easily. Other environmental contaminants exist in their natural state, but their mobility or available quantity may be increased by industrial activity. In both cases, these contaminants can thus circulate in the environment and enter the food chain at higher concentrations than normal. Their effects on human health can be extremely serious, and severe consequences have notably been reported in the case of poisoning due to the ingestion of metals present in foodstuffs, such as lead, mercury and cadmium (Moy 2018).

Food additives are compounds added to foodstuffs for technological purposes at the stage of manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packaging, transport or storage of foodstuffs and are therefore found in the composition of the end product. These substances have specific functions and contribute to guaranteeing the sanitary quality of food (preservatives and antioxidants), improving the appearance and taste of a foodstuff (colors, sweeteners and flavor enhancers), conferring a particular texture (thickeners and gelling agents) or guaranteeing the stability of the product (emulsifiers, anti-caking and stabilizers) (Moy 2018). There are two types of additives: natural, that is, derived from micro-organisms, algae, plants, mineral and synthetic extracts.

I.4.3. Physical hazards

Physical hazards, also called foreign bodies or dense contaminants, are defined as “any particle of matter present in a food product whose nature or texture is not expected by the consumer or customer” (Zuber 2007). The term “dense contaminant” is used to distinguish this foreign matter from other contaminants of a chemical or biological nature. Typically, the following can be distinguished:

– foreign bodies of endogenous origin (those brought by raw materials and their packaging);

– foreign bodies of exogenous origin (those incorporated during the process).

Physical hazards are generally associated with unsanitary production, processing, handling, storage and distribution conditions. The presence of foreign bodies, notably hard and/or pointed or sharp, in a food product, represents a real hazard to the consumer in the event of accidental ingestion. These foreign bodies can cause lacerations, punctures and injuries or may present a choking hazard.

Examples of foreign matter that can be observed in food include, notably, hair, metal fragments, pieces of plastic, wood shavings and glass. These foreign bodies have become the leading source of consumer complaints in the food industry (ANSES 2014).

I.4.4. Allergens

Food allergy is defined as an adverse effect subsequent to the ingestion of food. It results from an inadequate immune response that usually involves either immunoglobulin E, cellular mechanisms or both. Allergens responsible for triggering the allergic reaction are peptides or proteins in nature, but certain carbohydrate groups also have allergenic properties. Depending on their severity, symptoms of an allergic reaction can range from a skin rash or mild itching in the mouth to migraines and even an anaphylactic shock and death.

Today, 14 “reportable” allergens are listed in European Regulation no. 1169/2011 concerning consumer information on foodstuffs, known as INCO (Table I.2) (Anonymous 2011).

Ingredients recognized as allergens, used in the manufacture of a product and present in the final product, must be stated in writing:

– on the label of prepacked foodstuffs (direct sale) according to the “INCO” regulation;

– in close proximity to those that are presented loose or already cooked (for example, canteens, restaurants, caterers or even butchers), according to decree no. 2015-447 of April 17, 2015 (Anonymous 2015a).

The labeling rules apply only to ingredients intentionally introduced by the manufacturer into the product recipe.

Allergens

Additional information

Cereals containing gluten, namely wheat

Rye, barley, oats or their hybridized strains, and products made from these cereals.Except for wheat-based glucose syrups including dextrose, wheat-based maltodextrins, glucose syrups based on barley, cereals used for making alcoholic distillates, including ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin.

Crustaceans and products thereof

Eggs and products thereof

Fish and products thereof

Except for fish gelatin used as a carrier for vitamin or carotenoid preparations, fish gelatin or Isinglass is used as a fining agent in beer and wine.

Peanuts and products thereof

Soybeans and products thereof

Except fully refined soybean oil and fat, natural mixed tocopherols (E306), natural D-alpha tocopherol, natural D-alpha tocopherol acetate, and natural D-alpha tocopherol succinate from soybean sources, phytosterols and phytosterol esters derived from vegetable oils from soybean sources, plant stanol ester produced from vegetable-oil sterols from soybean sources.

Milk and products thereof (including lactose)

Except whey used for making alcoholic distillates including ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin, lactitol.

Nuts

Namely almonds (

Amygdalus communis

L.), hazelnuts (

Corylus avellana

), walnuts (

Juglans regia

), cashews (

Anacardium occidentale

), pecan nuts (

Carya illinoinensis

(Wangenh.) K. Koch), Brazil nuts (

Bertholletia excelsa

), pistachio nuts (

Pistacia vera

), macadamia or Queensland nuts (

Macadamia ternifolia

) and products thereof. Except for nuts used for making alcoholic distillates including ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin.

Celery and products thereof

Mustard and products thereof

Sesame seeds and products thereof

Sulfur dioxide and sulfites

At concentrations of more than 10 mg/kg or 10 mg/L in terms of the total SO

2

which are to be calculated for products as proposed ready for consumption or as reconstituted according to the instructions of the manufacturer.

Lupin and products thereof

Mollusks and products thereof

Table I.2.List of 14 “reportable” allergens according to European Regulation No. 1169/2011 (Anonymous 2011)

The incidental presence of major allergens (unintentional contamination by contact with other products on the production line, during storage or transport) is not impossible. As a result, food manufacturers must assess the risks of contamination and make every effort to reduce them. Labeling of the type “may contain traces of…” or “likely to contain…” is only a last resort in the event that it is not possible to control the risk of incidental contamination.

In this context, food allergies should not be confused with adverse effects caused by food via non-immunological mechanisms. Often referred to as “intolerances”, these have diverse origins such as enzymatic deficiencies (e.g. lactose intolerance linked to a decrease in lactase activity) or indeed pharmacological interactions inducing the release of histamine and tyramine. Celiac disease is also not considered an allergy.

I.5. Structure of the book

This book consists of five chapters, written by scientists who are experts in their respective fields. The different chapters address the analysis of food hazards, based on a review of the scientific literature produced in recent years. The purpose is not to tend towards exhaustively covering hazards conveyed by food, but rather to open minds to the current state of knowledge and the outlook envisaged. The interested reader will be able to deepen their knowledge of each of the hazards presented (bacterial, viral, parasitic or chemical) through the numerous references mentioned in the text and the reference list.

I.6. References

Afnor (2010). ISO 12100:2010. Sécurité des machines – Principes généraux de conception – Appréciation du risque et réduction du risque.

Aldsworth, T., Dood, C.E.R., Waites, W. (2018). Food microbiology. In

Food Science and Technology

, Campbell-Platt, G. (ed.). Wiley, Hoboken, NJ.

Anonymous (2002). Règlement (CE) no. 178/2002 du Parlement européen et du Conseil du 28 janvier 2002 établissant les principes généraux et les prescriptions générales de la législation alimentaire, instituant l’Autorité européenne de sécurité des aliments et fixant des procédures relatives à la sécurité des denrées alimentaires.

Journal officiel de l’Union Européenne

, 31, 1–24.

Anonymous (2004). Règlement (CE) no. 852/2004 du Parlement Européen et du Conseil du du 29 avril 2004 relatif à l’hygiène des denrées alimentaires.

Journal officiel de l’Union Européenne

, 139, 1–54.

Anonymous (2011). Règlement (UE) no. 1169/2011 du Parlement Européen et du Conseil du 25 octobre 2011 concernant l’information des consommateurs sur les denrées alimentaires.

Journal officiel de l’Union Européenne

, 304, 18–63.

Anonymous (2015a). Décret n° 2015-447 du 17 avril 2015 relatif à l’information des consommateurs sur les allergènes et les denrées alimentaires non préemballées.

Journal officiel de la République française

, 26.

Anonymous (2015b). WHO estimates of the global burden of foodborne diseases: Foodborne diseases burden epidemiology reference group 2007–2015. Report, World Health Organization, Geneva.

ANSES (2014). Fiche outil – Dangers physiques dans les aliments : corps étrangers [Online]. Available at:

https://www.anses.fr/fr/system/files/GBPH2013sa0170.pdf

.

Codex (2012).

Codex Alimentarius Commission Procedural Manual

. FAO, Rome.

Dubois-Brissonnet, F. and Guillier, L. (2020). Les maladies d’origine microbienne alimentaire.

Cahiers de nutrition et de diététique

, 55, 30–38.

Federighi, M. and Friant-Perrot, M. (2009). Les éléments et facteurs de la maîtrise de la sécurité des aliments. In

Sécurité des Patients, Sécurité des Consommateurs. Convergences et Divergences

, Laude, A. (ed.). Presses Universitaires de France, Paris.

Federighi, M., Kooh, P., Guillier, L., Audiat-Perrin, F., Merad, M. (2020). Infections d’origine alimentaire : bilan de la surveillance et perspectives.

Le Point Vétérinaire

, 404, 1–7.

Haddad, N., Guillou, G., Membré, J.-M. (2015).

Omics and QMRA: Challenges and Promises of the Future

. International Association of Food Protection, Cardiff and Wells.

Havelaar, A.H., Kirk, M.D., Torgerson, P.R., Gibb, H.J., Hald, T., Lake, R.J., Praet, N., Bellinger, D.C., De Silva, N.R., Gargouri, N. et al. (2015). World Health Organization global estimates and regional comparisons of the burden of foodborne disease in 2010.

PLoS Medicine

, 12, e1001923.

Jaffee, S., Henson, S., Unnevehr, L., Grace, D., Cassou, E. (2019).

The Safe Food Imperative: Accelerating Progress in Low and Middle-Income Countries

, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Moy, G.C. (2018). Regulatory toxicology. In

Food Science and Technology

, Campbell-Platt, G. (ed.). Wiley, Hoboken, NJ.

Zuber, F. (2007). Détection des corps étrangers dans les produits alimentaires.

Les Techniques de l’ingénieur

, F1210 V1, 1–19.

1Bacterial and Parasitic Hazards and Consumption of Meat

Jean-Michel CAPPELIER

UMR SECALIM, Oniris, INRAE, Nantes, France

Average meat consumption in the European Union now stands at 84 kg of meat per capita per year, with pork accounting for 41 kg, poultry 28 kg and beef 15 kg (FranceAgriMer 2019). The global average is around 43 kg of meat per capita per year, representing a total consumption of more than 330 million tons in 2020 compared with 67 million tons in 1957, a 5-fold increase in 60 years, according to the FAO. This figure is expected to continue to rise, reaching 470 million tons in 2050, with 76% of this increase coming from emerging countries. In China, meat consumption rose from 7 million tons in 1978 to 86 million tons in 2017, including 55 million tons of pork.

While excessive meat consumption is nowadays increasingly associated with an increased risk of developing certain cancers, such as colorectal cancer and also breast cancer (Dialo et al. 2019), meat has long been considered a potential source of biological hazards responsible for foodborne diseases (Fegan and Jenson 2018). Meat-producing animals can carry bacteria, parasites or viruses and zoonotic agents, which can contaminate meat consumers. Meat can also serve as a vector for pathogens of human origin that contaminate meat during meat processing or preparation operations.

According to European Regulation 853/2004, the term “meat” is defined as any edible part of all production animals (domestic ungulates, poultry, rodents, lagomorphs, wild game and farmed game), including blood and offal. In this chapter, we will narrow this definition by equating meat with the muscle flesh and offal of the main production animals: ruminants, pigs and poultry.

According to data published by the EFSA (European Food Safety Authority 2018) on foodborne outbreaks reported by the member states of the European Union between 2010 and 2017, meat, all species combined, is at the origin of almost 20% of cases in which the agent responsible has been identified, making “meat and meat products” the food category most frequently involved in food-poisoning outbreaks in the European Union.

1.1. Meat contamination

The biological hazards transmitted by meat are of different kinds: bacteria, viruses, parasites, and unconventional transmissible agents (UTAs). Table 1.1 shows the main hazards potentially transmitted by meat consumption, according to the main modalities of meat contamination.

Table 1.1.The biological hazards transmitted by meat and how they are contaminated. The main meat contamination the modality for each agent is indicated in bold

Hazards located inside the digestive tract of food-producing animals, transmitted to meat through fecal contamination

Campylobacter jejuni/coliSalmonella enterica

EHEC

Listeria monocytogenesClostridium botulimunClostridium perfringens

Staphylococcus aureus

Yersinia enterolitica

Hazards located inside the digestive tract of food-producing animals, transmitted to meat by bacteremia digestive in origin

Clostridium perfringens

Clostridium botulinum

Salmonella enterica

Listeria monocytogenes

Hazards located inside the muscles or organs of food-producing animals

Cysticercus bovis

Cysticercus cellulosae

Toxoplasma gondii

Sarcocystis hominis

Sarcocystis suihominis

Trichinella spiralis

Prion ESB

Hepatitis E virus (genotypes III and IV)

Yersinia enterolitica

Mycobactérium bovis

Bacillus anthracis

Brucella

spp.

Listeria monocytogenes

Staphylococcus aureus

Hazards present in humans: meat contamination during handling

Staphylococcus aureus

Human enteric virus (Norovirus, Hepatitis A virus, Rotavirus, Hepatitis E virus (genotypes I and II

))

E. coli

pathogènes

Salmonella enterica

Persistent hazard in the production environment: contamination during the manufacturing process

Listeria monocytogenes

Salmonella entericaCampylobacter jejuni

Yersinia enterolitica

Staphylococcus aureus

Figure 1.1.Meat contamination routes throughout the food chain.

Meat contamination can occur through different routes, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. If we apply the 5M method, the origin of the contamination may be the animal itself (Material), staff handling the meat (Manpower), the equipment used for preparation (Machine), handling errors (Method) or the environment in which operations are carried out (Milieu).

1.1.1. Contamination by the food-producing animal

The food-producing animal can carry hazards during its lifetime. This can of course occur in infectious diseases that are accompanied by septicemia, therefore in diseased animals that will normally be excluded from the food chain during ante- and post-mortem health inspections, when the disease is accompanied by clinical signs or lesions (e.g. systemic tuberculosis by Mycobacterium bovis, Anthrax by Bacillus anthracis, Brucellosis by Brucella spp., etc.). These zoonotic hazards, which are not only transmitted to humans through food but also through inoculation or inhalation, are not detailed in this chapter.

This particular case aside, two main localizations can be responsible for meat contamination. First, the hazard may be present in the muscle masses of the living animal or in other organs. This is exclusively the case for parasites whose cycle involves muscle localization of larval forms that will be responsible for contamination of the meat consumer (Cysticercus bovis, Cysticercus cellulosae, Trichinella spp., Toxoplasma gondii, Sarcocystis hominis and suihominis). It is also the case for the Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) prion, localized in the central nervous tissue.

Bacterial hazards can also be responsible for in vivo organ contamination. This is the case with Yersinia enterolitica, potentially present in the head lymph nodes in pigs, or the hepatitis E virus, present in the livers of pigs. In addition, in the event of mastitis of Staphylococcus in dairy cows, the presence of the bacteria in milk may lead to superficial contamination of the muscle when the udder is removed at the slaughterhouse; in some cases of clinical Listeriosis in cattle, Listeria monocytogenes septicemia may be accompanied by the contamination of different organs.

In these specific cases, the slaughter process, and therefore the four other “Ms”, are not involved in meat contamination: indeed, these hazards are already present in the muscles or organs of the animal arriving at the slaughterhouse and will, therefore, necessarily be found in the meat at the end of the process.

The other localization corresponds to the digestive tract. Indeed, the main reservoir of many zoonotic agents is the digestive tract of production animals. Meat can then be contaminated in two ways. The first relates to the animal slaughter/dressing process². In the course of this process, fecal contamination can occur, mainly at two specific stages: skinning, which consists of removing the skin from animals (ruminants and equidae) and evisceration, which consists of removing the animal’s digestive tract and viscera.

During skinning, contact may occur between the skin, soiled by fecal matter containing microorganisms from the digestive tract, and the subcutaneous tissues, resulting in the transfer of these microorganisms from the skin to subjacent tissues.

During evisceration, the transfer of germs from the DT may also occur from both ends of the digestive tract or through the tearing of the latter. This “fecal” contamination represents the main contamination modality for Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella enterica and enterohemorrhagic E. coli, which are the top three causes of zoonoses identified in the European Union. These contaminations, therefore, have animals (raw material) as their source, but they are favored by errors committed during the other four Ms (Method, Machine, Milieu and Manpower).

In order to minimize these transfer risks, strict rules of good hygiene practices are applied throughout the slaughter/dressing process and in particular during these two stages of removal and evisceration. This “fecal” contamination may also be at the origin of cross-contamination that occurs later, at the food preparation stage, by the consumer for example. This modality is described in particular for Campylobacter jejuni and poultry meat. Contamination occurs at the slaughterhouse, where Campylobacter jejuni can pass from the digestive tract to the skin of poultry.

During the consumer's handling or cutting of raw poultry prior to cooking, material (refrigerator shelf, worktop, knife and chopping board) can become contaminated, as can the hands of the cook. This can then lead to contamination of other food, such as lettuce, if it is placed on the same medium or cut with the same knife, or handled by the cook’s hands. It is this cross-contamination that will cause campylobacteriosis in the consumer since the lettuce will be consumed raw, whereas Campylobacter left on the poultry will be destroyed by cooking (Figure 1.2). The phenomenon of cross-contamination can occur at all stages of the production chain and also at the consumption stage, through the material used.

Figure 1.2.Illustration of the cross-contamination mechanism from a poultry carcass contaminated with Campylobacter jejuni.

Figure 1.3.