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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
The book bridges the gap between existing health physics textbooks and reference material needed by a practicing health physicist as the 21st century progresses. This material necessarily encompasses emerging radiation-generating technologies, advances in existing technology, and applications of existing technology to new areas. The book is written for advanced undergraduate and graduate science and engineering courses. It is also be a useful reference for scientists and engineers.
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Seitenzahl: 1443
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016
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Table of Contents
Cover
Related Titles
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgments
A Note on Units
Part I: Overview of Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards
Chapter 1: Introduction to Twenty-First Century Health Physics
1.1 Overview of Twenty-First Century Health Physics
1.2 Health Physics Issues, Challenges, and Opportunities
1.3 Forecast of Possible Future Issues
References
Part II: Nuclear Fuel Cycle Issues
Chapter 2: Nuclear Fuel Cycle
2.1 Overview
2.2 Basic Fuel Cycle Options
2.3 Overview of the Twentieth-Century Nuclear Fuel Cycle
2.4 Twenty-First-Century Changes and Innovations
2.5 Nuclear Proliferation
2.6 Twentieth-Century Waste Disposal Options and Solutions
2.7 Twenty-First-Century Fuel Cycle Options
References
Part III: Accidents and Nuclear Events
Chapter 3: Nuclear Accidents and Radiological Emergencies
3.1 Overview
3.2 Design Considerations
3.3 Major Reactor Accidents
3.4 Emergency Preparedness Programs
3.5 Accident Phases
3.6 Emergency Preparedness Effectiveness
3.7 Reprocessing Waste Tanks
3.8 Waste Isolation Pilot Plant Accident
References
Chapter 4: Nuclear Terrorist Events Including INDs and RDDs
4.1 Overview
4.2 Nuclear Weapons Types
4.3 Nuclear Event Types
4.4 Accident Assumptions
4.5 Radiation Protection Considerations
4.6 Mass Casualty Considerations
4.7 Stakeholder Involvement
4.8 Contamination Remediation
References
Part IV: Nuclear Medicine and Public Health
Chapter 5: Nuclear Medicine
5.1 Overview
5.2 General Nuclear Medicine Categories
5.3 Side Effects from Radiation Therapy
5.4 Emerging Therapy Approaches
5.5 Evolving, Emerging, and New Therapy Approaches
5.6 Nanotechnology
5.7 Other Considerations
References
Chapter 6: Public Radiation Exposures and Associated Issues
6.1 Overview
6.2 Public Radiation Exposures and Associated Effects
6.3 Summary of Doses to the US Population
6.4 Public Dose Limits
6.5 Risk Communication
6.6 Public Involvement in Nuclear Licensing
6.7 Litigation
6.8 Environmental Protection
6.9 Unresolved Issues Associated with Major Reactor Accidents
References
Part V: Regulatory Issues, Limitations, and Challenges
Chapter 7: Regulatory Considerations
7.1 Overview
7.2 Twentieth-Century Regulatory Challenges
7.3 Twenty-First-Century Regulatory Challenges
7.4 Proactive Vice Reactive Philosophy
7.5 Accident Analysis and Risk Assessment
7.6 Licensing Process and Technical Basis
7.7 National and International Standards
7.8 Accidents Affecting Multiple Nations
7.9 Emergency Response
7.10 Emerging Issues
7.11 US Regulatory Improvements
7.12 Future Power Reactor Directions and Challenges
References
Part VI: Solutions to Problems
Solutions
Part VII: Appendices
Appendix A: Selected Data on Radionuclides of Health Physics Interest
A.1 Introduction
A.2 Alpha Decay
A.3 Beta Decay
A.4 Gamma Emission
A.5 Internal Conversion
A.6 Electron Capture
A.7 Positron Emission
A.8 Spontaneous Fission
References
Appendix B: Production Equations in Health Physics
B.1 Introduction
B.2 Theory
B.3 Examples of Production Equations
B.4 Alternative Derivation of the Production Equation
B.5 Conclusions
References
Appendix C: Key Health Physics Relationships
C.1 Introduction
C.2 Notation and Terminology
C.3 Key Relationships
References
Appendix D: Internal Dosimetry
D.1 Introduction
D.2 Overview of Internal Dosimetry Models
D.3 MIRD Methodology
D.4 ICRP Methodology
D.5 Biological Effects
D.6 ICRP 26/30 and ICRP 60/66/30 Terminology
D.7 ICRP 26 and ICRP 60 Recommendations
D.8 ICRP 103/66/100 Methodology
D.9 Human Respiratory Tract Model (HRTM)
D.10 Human Alimentary Tract Model (HATM)
References
Appendix E: Health Physics-Related Computer Codes
E.1 Overview
E.2 Code Descriptions
E.3 Code Utilization
E.4 Code Documentation
References
Appendix F: Systematics of Charged Particle Interactions with Matter
F.1 Introduction
F.2 Overview of External Radiation Sources
F.3 Tissue-Absorbed Dose from a Heavy Ion or Proton Beam
F.4 Determination of Total Reaction Cross-Section
F.5 Calculational Considerations
References
Appendix G: Angular Absorbed Dose Dependence of Heavy Ion Interactions
G.1 Introduction
G.2 Basic Theory
G.3 Differential Scattering Cross-Section
G.4 Model Calculations
References
Appendix H: Basis for Radiation Protection Regulations
H.1 Overview
H.2 Risk
H.3 Basic Epidemiology
H.4 Dose–Response Relationships
H.5 Risk Models
H.6 BEIR VII Uncertainties
H.7 Doubling Dose
H.8 Probability of Causation
H.9 Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program Act
H.10 Future Dose Limits
H.11 Future Regulations
References
Periodic Table of the Elements 1
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
Part I: Overview of Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 5: Nuclear Medicine
Figure 5.1 Depth dose curves for 20 (left curve), 40 (middle curve), and 60 (right curve) MeV protons in water. The peak dose is normalized to unity. This Figure was initially published in Bevelacqua (2010c).
Figure 5.2 Normalized absorbed dose distribution from 27 internal devices generating a spectrum of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 MeV protons in water. The absorbed dose is proportional to the plotted circle radius. This Figure was initially published in Bevelacqua (2010c).
Figure 5.3 The 1% isodose distribution (relative to the peak absorbed dose) from 27 internal devices generating a spectrum of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 MeV protons in water. The dose is proportional to the plotted circle radius. The 1% absorbed dose distribution is viewed from the
x
-axis. This Figure was initially published in Bevelacqua (2010c).
Figure 5.4 The 1% isodose distribution (relative to the peak absorbed dose) from 27 internal devices generating a spectrum of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 MeV protons in water. The dose is proportional to the plotted circle radius. The 1% absorbed dose distribution is viewed from the
x–y
plane. This Figure was initially published in Bevelacqua (2010c).
Figure 5.5 Angular macroscopic cross-section (1/cm-sr) as a function of center-of-mass angle for protons on water at 19.8 MeV. This Figure was initially published in Bevelacqua (2012).
Figure 5.6 Normalized absorbed dose distribution as a function of center-of-mass angle for 40 MeV (top curve), 60 MeV (middle curve), and 80 MeV (bottom curve) protons on water. The curves correspond to the distance from the device where the proton energy degrades to 19.8 MeV (i.e., 1.1, 2.7, and 4.8 cm for 40, 60, and 80 MeV, respectively). This Figure was initially published in Bevelacqua (2012).
Figure 5.7 Absorbed dose profiles for 0.5 (far left curve), 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.3 (far right curve) MeV protons in water. The absorbed dose curves peak at a greater depth with increasing proton energy. For all energies, the total proton fluence is 5.0 × 10
9
p/cm
2
. The protons are delivered by an internal radiation-generating device. This Figure was initially published in Bevelacqua (2014).
Figure 5.8 Absorbed dose profiles for 3.0 (far left curve), 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, and 8.0 (far right curve) MeV
4
He ions in water. The absorbed dose curves peak at a greater depth with increasing
4
He ion energy. For all energies, the total ion fluence is 5.0 × 10
8 4
He ions/cm
2
. The ions are delivered by an internal radiation-generating device. This Figure was initially published in Bevelacqua (2014).
Figure 5.9 Absorbed dose profiles for 10.0 (far left curve), 20.0, 25.0, 30.0, 40.0, and 50.0 (far right curve) MeV
12
C ions in water. The absorbed dose curves peak at a greater depth with increasing
12
C ion energy. For all energies, the total ion fluence is 1.0 × 10
8 12
C ions/cm
2
. The ions are delivered by an internal radiation-generating device. This Figure was initially published in Bevelacqua (2014).
Figure 5.10 Absorbed dose profiles for 30.0 (far left curve), 50.0, 70.0, 90.0, and 110.0 (far right curve) MeV
20
Ne ions in water. The absorbed dose curves peak at a greater depth with increasing
20
Ne ion energy. For all energies, the total ion fluence is 5.0 × 10
7 20
Ne ions/cm
2
. The ions are delivered by an internal radiation-generating device. This Figure was initially published in Bevelacqua (2014).
Figure 5.11 Absorbed dose profiles for 100.0 (far left curve), 150.0, 200.0, 250.0, and 300.0 (far right curve) MeV
40
Ca ions in water. The absorbed dose curves peak at a greater depth with increasing
40
Ca ion energy. For all energies, the total ion fluence is 1.0 × 10
7 40
Ca ions/cm
2
. The ions are delivered by an internal radiation-generating device. This Figure was initially published in Bevelacqua (2014).
Figure 5.12 Absorbed dose profiles for 15.0 (top curve), 20.0, 30.0, 40.0, and 50.0 (bottom curve) keV photons in water. The absorbed dose curves decrease in magnitude with increasing photon energy. 1.0 × 10
10
γ are delivered by the internal radiation-generating device. This Figure was initially published in Bevelacqua (2014).
List of Tables
Chapter 1: Introduction to Twenty-First Century Health Physics
Table 1.1 Selected significant twentieth-century and early twenty-first-century events
Chapter 2: Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Table 2.1 Characteristics of selected centrifuge designs
a
Table 2.2 Composition of spent light water reactor fuel
a
Table 2.3 Key actinides encountered in spent nuclear fuel
Table 2.4 Radioactive waste and effluent isotopes from the nuclear fuel cycle
a
Table 2.5 Comparison of potential commercial enrichment technologies
a
Table 2.6 Generation III reactors
a
Table 2.7 Generation IV reactor concept characteristics
a
Table 2.8 Activation products produced in materials unique to Generation IV fission power reactors
a
Table 2.9 Generation IV industrial forum agreements
Table 2.10 Candidate SMRs for deployment in the 2020–2030 time frame
a
Table 2.11 Generation IV power reactor generic work activities and associated health physics hazards
Table 2.12 Fuel cycle options
a
Table 2.13 Initial design parameters for the proposed JAERI ADS facility
a
Table 2.14 Neutron performance of plutonium, minor actinide, and transuranic approaches
a
Table 2.15 Fission and activation products important in geologic partitioning and transmutation assessments
a
Chapter 3: Nuclear Accidents and Radiological Emergencies
Table 3.1 Non-LOCA fraction of fission product inventory based on available gap activity
a
Table 3.2 Projected Generation IV design basis event accident mitigation and termination approaches
Table 3.3 Generation III AP-1000 radiological consequences of design basis accidents
a
Table 3.4 Generation IV beyond design basis event accident mitigation and termination
Table 3.5 Comparison of AP-1000 Generations III and II PWR core damage frequencies
Table 3.6 Condition of the Fukushima Daiichi and Three Mile Island nuclear power plants' fission product barriers
Table 3.7 Planning guidance and protective action guides for radiological incidents
Table 3.8 Generic action levels for foodstuffs when alternative supplies are available
a
Table 3.9 Summary of basic elements of the dose reconstruction process
a
Table 3.10 Considerations for determining external and internal dose
a
Table 3.11 Unit-liter dose as a function of time for total inventory of single-shell tank liquids
a
Table 3.12 Unit-liter dose as a function of time for total inventory of single-shell tank solids
a
Chapter 4: Nuclear Terrorist Events Including INDs and RDDs
Table 4.1 Approximate slant range in air (m) to achieve the specified gamma absorbed dose for the defined weapon's yield
a
Table 4.2 Approximate effective 10th-value thickness for fission products and nitrogen capture photons
a
Table 4.3 Approximate slant range in air (m) to achieve the specified neutron absorbed dose for the defined weapon's yield
a
Table 4.4 Dose transmission factors for various structural material configurations
a
Table 4.5 Mean dose equivalent commitments to the year 2000 in the United States from nuclear testing through 1970
a
Table 4.6 Scaling relationships for absorbed dose contours for a contact surface burst with a yield of
W
(kT)
a,b
Table 4.7 30 Gy/h isodose curve for a surface burst
Table 4.8 Common radionuclides utilized in medical and industrial facilities that could be incorporated into a radiological dispersal device
a,b
Table 4.9 Summary of candidate RDD events, source sizes, and associated hazards
a
Table 4.10 Transitional DHS (2008) protective action guides for RDD or IND incidents
Table 4.11 EPA response worker guidelines
a
Table 4.12 Dose limitation and guidance during a terrorist event involving radiological weapons
a
Table 4.13 Available countermeasures for various of exposure pathways
a
Table 4.14 Protective action levels for food ingestion
a
Table 4.15 Initial responder radiation instrumentation alarm set points
a
Table 4.16 Pathways and sources for an IND event
a
Table 4.17 Medical management decision protocol for personnel contamination events
a
Table 4.18 Adult critical decision guide values for selected radionuclides
a
Table 4.19 Drugs approved for radionuclide chelation or decorporation by the FDA
a
Table 4.20 Decorporation therapy recommendations for selected radionuclides
a ,b
Table 4.21 Estimates of
137
Cs released to the environment from human activities
Chapter 5: Nuclear Medicine
Table 5.1 Diagnostic radionuclides used in nuclear medicine
Table 5.2 Therapeutic and brachytherapy radionuclides used in nuclear medicine
Table 5.3 Radionuclides used for implantation
a
Table 5.4 Physical characteristics of brachytherapy radionuclides
a
Table 5.5 Specific bremsstrahlung constants for selected radionuclides commonly used in therapeutic radiopharmaceuticals.
a
Table 5.6
Radiation therapy
modalities, energies, and associated dose levels
a
Table 5.7
12
C ion range and straggling widths in water
Table 5.8 Heavy ion ranges in water (cm) for selected energies
a
Table 5.9 Candidate heavy ion fragmentation products that can be monitored using PET
a
Table 5.10 Pion, muon, proton, and alpha particle ranges in water (cm) for selected energies
a
Table 5.11 Comparison of
131
I,
90
Y, and
213
Bi dosimetry for acute myeloid leukemia
a
Table 5.12 Properties of resin and glass
90
Y microspheres
a
Table 5.13 Characteristics of various blood vessel types
a
Table 5.14 Candidate alpha-emitting nuclides for loading microspheres
a
Table 5.15 Candidate low-energy beta–gamma-emitting nuclides for loading microspheres
a
Table 5.16 Characteristics of selected therapeutic radionuclides used in conjunction with nanoparticles
a
Table 5.17 Number and location of six or fewer mobile accelerators
Table 5.18 Characteristics of selected imaging techniques
a
Table 5.1 Target elements in concrete.
Table 5.2 Neutron activation reactions of interest.
Chapter 6: Public Radiation Exposures and Associated Issues
Table 6.1 Ionizing radiation exposure to the US population from the ubiquitous background in 2006
a
.
Table 6.2 Large solar energetic proton events during 1859–2000
a
.
Table 6.3 Characterization of the LEO radiation environment
a
.
Table 6.4 Proton fluence levels of significant solar events of cycles 19–22 likely to exceed the NCRP 132 recommendations
a
.
Table 6.5 Career whole-body exposure limits for a lifetime excess risk of total cancer of 3% as a function of age at exposure
a
.
Table 6.6 Ten-year career limits based on three percent excess lifetime risk of cancer mortality
a
Table 6.7 Recommended dose limits for all ages and both genders
a
.
Table 6.8 Carrington flare absorbed dose estimates
a
.
Table 6.9 Ionizing radiation exposure to the US population from the medical exposure of patients in 2006
a
.
Table 6.10 Summary of the number of people exposed, average annual effective dose, and annual collective effective dose from consumer products and activities
a
.
Table 6.11 Search region parameters
a
.
Table 6.12 IAEA categories for radioactive sources for the purpose of assigning them to security levels
a
.
Table 6.13
D
values for selected radionuclides
a
Table 6.14 Ionizing radiation exposure to the US population from occupational exposure in 2006
a
.
Table 6.15 Ionizing radiation exposure to the US population in 2006
a
Table 6.16 Risk preference types
a
.
Table 6.17 Wildlife groups, corresponding reference animals and plants, and their environment
a
.
Table 6.18 Approach to develop DCRL values for a hypothetical reference animal or plant
a
.
Chapter 7: Regulatory Considerations
Table 7.1 Airborne radioactivity released to the environment during the Three Mile Island Unit 2 accident.
a
Table 7.2 Comparison of the Chernobyl and TMI-2 accident source terms.
a
Table 7.3 Summary of radiation doses resulting from the TMI-2 accident.
a
Table 7.4 Releases from Chernobyl-4 and TMI-2.
a
Table 7.7 Estimated releases into the air from the March 2011 Fukushima Daiichi accident.
a
Table 7.5 Summary of average accumulated doses to affected populations from Chernobyl fallout.
a
Table 7.6 Summary of radiation doses resulting from the Chernobyl accident to the general population.
a
Table 7.8 Estimated releases into the sea from the March 2011 Fukushima Daiichi accident.
a
Table 7.9 ICRP 103 recommended dose limits in planned exposure situations.
a
Table 7.10 ICRP emergency exposure situations
Table 7.11 US radiation protection limits associated with power reactor underground piping system leakage.
a
Table 7.12 Radiological exposure situations for a geologic disposal facility.
a
Table 7.13 The range of total greenhouse gas emissions from various electricity production technologies.
a
Related Titles
Joseph John Bevelacqua
Basic Health Physics: Problems and Solutions
Second Edition
2010
ISBN: 978-3-527-40823-8
Joseph John Bevelacqua
Contemporary Health Physics: Problems and Solutions
Second Edition
2009
ISBN: 978-3-527-40824-5
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Health Physics in the\hb 21st Century
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ISBN: 978-3-527-40822-1
Joseph John Bevelacqua
Health Physics
Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards
Author
Dr. Joseph John Bevelacqua
Bevelacqua Resources
343 Adair Drive
Richland, WA
USA
Cover Illustration:
Normalized absorbed dose distribution from an array of internal radiation-generating devices generating a spectrum of protons in water. This figure was initially published in Bevelacqua, J. J. (2010). Feasibility of Using Internal Radiation-Generating Devices in Radiotherapy. Health Physics, 98, 614.
All books published by Wiley-VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
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The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.
© 2016 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA,
Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany
All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.
Print ISBN: 978-3-527-41183-2
ePDF ISBN: 978-3-527-69433-4
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Mobi ISBN: 978-3-527-69432-7
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This book is dedicated to my wife Terry
and
Sammy, Chelsea, Molly, and Eli
and
Anthony, Stayce, Lucy, Anna, Samuel, Matthew, and Henry
and
Jeffrey, David, and Hannah
and
Megan, Marlando, Isaiah, and Annabelle
and
Peter and Jessica
and
Michael, Tara, Lauren, Janelle, and Lucas
and
Karen, Adam, and Hemma
Preface
Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards addresses emerging radiation protection topics that are judged by the author to be relevant in the upcoming decades, but were not the primary focus in Health Physics in the 21st Century. The selection of topics represents the author's judgment regarding the importance of these emerging and evolving areas, which are significantly influenced by his experience, educational background, research interests, and national and international events that have health physics implications. Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards encompasses emerging radiation-generating technologies, advances in existing technology, applications of existing technology to new areas, and postulated new technologies and devices.
The text covers discussions of technology that will affect the world's population as the twenty-first century proceeds. Topics include the nuclear fuel cycle and the proliferation of nuclear materials and associated technologies. Laser isotope separation and advanced centrifuge technologies have the potential for efficient uranium enrichment and the production of highly enriched uranium.
Expansion of nuclear power technology to less developed nations with limited technical and operational experience increases the potential for nuclear events and accidents. The 2011 Fukushima Daiichi accident highlighted the fact that even advanced nations are vulnerable to nuclear accidents, and the licensing basis of nuclear power facilities must be carefully examined to ensure that these facilities are capable of protecting their fission product barriers during natural and man-made events. Degradation of fission product barriers facilitates the release of radioactive material into the environment and has the potential for significant environmental impacts and economic disruption. Power reactor accidents are not the only source of human and environmental disruption related to the release of radioactive material.
Associated with the proliferation of nuclear technology is the clandestine development of nuclear weapons, improvised nuclear devices (INDs), and radiological dispersal devices (RDDs). These devices can be utilized for terrorist purposes and have the potential for significant harm. The use of stolen nuclear weapons or INDs would produce mass casualties and widespread destruction and result in contamination around the detonation site. RDDs are a lower-level threat, but their use would create significant psychological harm and economic disruption.
On a more positive note, nuclear materials and techniques are advancing medical imaging and therapy procedures. New techniques that deliver targeted dose to the tumor site while minimizing the absorbed dose to healthy tissue enhance the efficacy of treatments and minimize negative side effects. These techniques should enhance a patient's quality of life following treatment.
Expansion in the use of nuclear materials also affects the radiation dose received by the public. As noted in NCRP 160, the expanded use of nuclear medicine techniques has significantly increased public doses. Nuclear materials have also inadvertently found their way into consumer products through a variety of sources including recycled metals.
Twenty-first century technologies are also facilitating the entry of private firms to develop orbital transport vehicles. These vehicles initially focus on low earth orbit, but may eventually permit travel beyond the orbital trajectory. This technology will expose the public to new sources of radiation as they leave the protective electromagnetic shield provided by the earth and the shielding afforded by the atmosphere.
The public will initially have the opportunity for low earth orbit and suborbital flights where they have the potential for increased exposure to cosmic rays and solar particle events. Their exposure to protons and heavy ions presents new challenges for radiation protection professionals.
The increased use and application of nuclear materials and technology also affect nuclear regulations. In addition to the Fukushima Daiichi accident, low earth orbit activities involving public passengers, additional medical treatment methodologies, and unforeseen events will likely influence regulatory involvement and rulemaking. International regulations and the harmonization of national nuclear regulations are other areas that will receive additional emphasis in the forthcoming decades. These and many more topics are addressed in this book.
The topics selected for inclusion in this text are based on near-term technologies and their extrapolation into the future and cutting-edge technologies. Some areas involve incremental steps in existing health physics knowledge including aspects of Generation III and IV fission reactors. Other topics, such as uranium enrichment using laser isotope separation and cancer therapy using internal radiation-generating devices, require the development of concepts that may be relatively new to some health physicists. The extent to which public space travel becomes practical is uncertain and depends on technology development, demonstration of flight safety, economic viability, public interest and support, and regulatory involvement.
Paradigm shifts in thinking are necessary. For example, health physicists are currently trained to accept current regulatory practices (e.g., adequacy of reactor designs and appropriateness of existing emergency planning zones) as providing a bounding, safe framework for public protection following a power reactor accident. However, the Fukushima Daiichi accident challenged these paradigms and suggested that a number of basic design assumptions require challenge to ensure their adequacy. Emerging technologies also require independent thinking and a degree of open-mindedness that is often inhibited by regulatory practices, litigation concerns, and lack of confidence in the future.
As a means to facilitate the transition to new concepts, over 300 problems with solutions are provided. These problems are an integral part of the text, and they serve to integrate and amplify the chapter and appendix information. Readers are encouraged to carefully work each problem to maximize the benefit of this text.
This book is primarily intended for upper level undergraduate and graduate level health physics courses. Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards is also written for advanced undergraduate and graduate science and engineering courses. It will also be a useful reference for scientists and engineers participating in evolving nuclear technology areas including advanced fuel cycles, laser isotope separation, nuclear proliferation, and Generation IV fission reactors. Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards has applicability for studies involving nuclear power accidents, terrorist events utilizing INDs and RDDs, advanced nuclear medicine imaging and therapy approaches, public involvement in nuclear licensing, regulatory challenges, and establishing radiological standards and criteria for normal operations and major accident events. The book also is pertinent to the various health physics certification boards (e.g., the American Board of Health Physics) in developing examination questions.
The author offers his best wishes to health physicists as we meet the radiation protection challenges that will unfold in the twenty-first century.
Good luck.
Bonne chance.
Viel Glück.
Удачи.
Buena suerte.
Buona fortuna.
Joseph John Bevelacqua, PhD, CHP, RRPT Bevelacqua Resources
Richland, WA, USA
25 May 2015
Acknowledgments
Many individuals and organizations assisted the author in the development of this book. Assistance included discussions, information exchanges, and kind guidance. The author apologizes in advance to any individual or organization that was inadvertently omitted and is pleased to acknowledge the support of the following individuals and organizations:
American Nuclear Society
American Physical Society
Argonne National Laboratory
Brookhaven National Laboratory, National Nuclear Data Center
Dr Lowell Charlton, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Dr Mohan Doss, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA
European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory
GE Healthcare
Health Physics Society
Professor Franck Guarnieri, Ecole des Mines de Paris
International Atomic Energy Agency
Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Professor Dale Kunz, University of Colorado
Professor Don Robson, Florida State University
Dr Eric Loewen, GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Los Alamos National Laboratory
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
National Research Council of Canada
Dr Robert C. Nelson, Research Reactor Safety Analysis Services
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge National Laboratory's Radiation Safety Information Computational Center
Dr John Parmentola, General Atomics
Professor M. L. Raghavan, University of Iowa
Research Center for Charged Particle Data, National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Chiba, Japan
Dr Paul Rittman
Dr Joseph Shonka
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
Dr Igor Tarasov, Michigan State University
University of Wisconsin
US Department of Energy
US Department of Homeland Security
US Environmental Protection Agency
US Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Dr Keith Woodard, ABS Consulting, Inc.
Waste Isolation Pilot Plant.
Since one of the purposes of this text is to support the technical basis for evolving American Board of Health Physics certification examinations, a portion of the problems were derived from questions that appeared on previous examinations. As a prior panel member, vice chair, and chair of the Part II Examination Panel, I would like to thank my panel and all others whose exam questions have been consulted in formulating questions for this textbook.
The author is also fortunate to have worked with colleagues, students, mentors, and teachers who have shared their wisdom and knowledge, provided encouragement, or otherwise influenced the content of this text. The following individuals are acknowledged for their assistance during the author's career: Dick Amato, John Auxier, Lee Booth, Ed Carr, Paul Dirac, Bill Halliday, Tom Hess, Gordon Lodde, Bob Nelson, John Philpott, Lew Pitchford, John Poston, John Rawlings, Don Robson, Bob Rogan, Mike Slobodien, Jim Tarpinian, Jim Turner, and George Vargo. Sadly, a number of these colleagues are now deceased. The continuing encouragement of my best friend and wife, Terry, is gratefully acknowledged.
I would also like to thank the staff of Wiley-VCH with whom I have enjoyed working, particularly Dr Ulrike Fuchs, Sarah Tilley Keegan, Hans-Jochen Schmitt, Dr Heike Nöthe, Dr Martin Preuss, Anja Tschörtner, Stefanie Volk, and Ulrike Werner. The advice and encouragement of George Telecki of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is also acknowledged. Sujatha Krishna and the staff at SPi Global are acknowledged for preparation of the book's proofs.
A Note on Units
Although traditional English units are a source of comfort to the author and many applied health physicists in the United States, this text uses the International System of Units (SI). As US regulations are harmonized with international recommendations and regulations, there is an evolving transition to SI.
For those readers that feel more comfortable with conventional units, the following conversion factors are provided:
SI unit
Traditional US unit
Bq
2.7 × 10
−11
Ci
Gy
100 rad
C/kg air
3881 R
Sv
100 rem
As the reader can attest, the choice of units is often a matter of familiarity and comfort. However, uniformity and clear communication between various scientific and engineering fields and nations suggest the need to adopt SI System of Units.
With the Fukushima Daiichi accident, some health physicists saw a set of unfamiliar units including TBq, PBq, and EBq. For specificity, standard metric prefixes are used in Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards:
Standard metric prefixes
Metric prefix
Abbreviation
Value
exa
E
10
18
peta
P
10
15
tera
T
10
12
giga
G
10
9
mega
M
10
6
kilo
k
10
3
hecto
h
10
2
deka
da
10
1
deci
d
10
−1
centi
c
10
−2
milli
m
10
−3
micro
μ
10
−6
nano
n
10
−9
pico
p
10
−12
femto
f
10
−15
atto
a
10
−18
Part IOverview of Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards
Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards connects twentieth-century and twenty-first-century health physics in selected areas including the nuclear fuel cycle, nuclear accidents, radiological emergencies, nuclear terrorism and related events, nuclear medicine, public issues related to radiation and radioactive materials, and evolving regulatory issues. Specific topics include advanced nuclear reactors, laser uranium enrichment, actinide transformation, advanced medical devices, radiation therapy utilizing exotic particles and heavy ions, nuclear accidents, terrorism involving radioactive dispersal devices and improvised nuclear devices, and evolving regulatory requirements. These topics are active health physics areas. Other topics involving public space travel, harmonization of radiation protection regulations, using antimatter and internal radiation-generating devices in nuclear therapy applications, and implementation of advanced fuel cycles using Generation IV reactors are evolving areas that will more fully emerge as the twenty-first century progresses.
Seven chapters introduce these topics and basic knowledge required to understand the anticipated evolution of the health physics field. Background information is provided in eight appendices to smooth the transition to information needed to comprehend the emerging radiation-generating technologies. The reader should consult these appendices as they are referenced in the main text.
Some topical areas naturally appear in multiple chapters since they are significant and have many aspects. For example, the major nuclear power reactor accidents at Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima Daiichi are addressed throughout the book and not restricted to Chapter 3 that focuses on reactor accidents. This organizational structure is appropriate since these accidents had a significant impact on the nuclear fuel cycle, planning for future nuclear emergencies, public issues associated with the nuclear power debate, and regulatory issues associated with reactor licensing and the selection of design and beyond design basis accidents.
The nature of this text suggests that its content is continuously evolving. As with any book, it is necessary to eventually freeze the content and focus on consolidation and editing. Text material was finalized in mid-2014 and the addition of new material essentially terminated at that time. Accordingly, some material may have evolved after that date including the ongoing description and development of Generation IV reactors, proposed changes to the 10CFR20 radiation protection regulations in the United States, and emerging advances in nuclear medicine. As warranted, references were added to reflect these evolving topics.
Chapter 1Introduction to Twenty-First Century Health Physics
1.1 Overview of Twenty-First Century Health Physics
History has the unfortunate habit of repeating. Significant events of a given classification (e.g., accidents, natural disasters, and conflicts over natural resources) reoccur and are often influenced by available technology. For example, wars continue to be waged, but their scope and destructive power are amplified by technology. The development of nuclear technology and the fabrication of nuclear weapons continue to influence world events and health physics concerns as the twenty-first century unfolds.
1.2 Health Physics Issues, Challenges, and Opportunities
The twentieth-century power reactor accidents at Three Mile Island Unit 2 and Chernobyl Unit 4 revealed weaknesses in the management and regulation of nuclear reactors. Unfortunately, the nuclear accident hat trick was achieved in the twenty-first century with the accident involving Fukushima Daiichi Units 1, 2, 3, and 4. This most recent accident reveals additional structural weaknesses in nuclear regulation and management that involve fundamental licensing basis issues. The legacies of Three Mile Island and Chernobyl remain, and final cleanup actions for these sites either are delayed until facility decommissioning or are ongoing. The decade cleanup duration of Three Mile Island is dwarfed by the projected 40–100-year recovery effort for Fukushima Daiichi. Associated with these three accidents are issues involving environmental impacts, stakeholder concerns, regulatory changes, licensing impacts, and financial implications. These issues are addressed in this book and have a profound influence on health physics activities associated with these accidents and the subsequent expansion of nuclear power generation.
In a similar fashion, the terrorist attacks of the twentieth century culminated in the 11 September 2001 events involving the World Trade Center in New York and the US Pentagon. These attacks spawned significant concerns regarding the escalation of terrorist events to include a variety attacks including those utilizing radioactive materials and nuclear weapons. Technology has once again opened a door to an escalation of attack profiles that significantly affect the health physics profession.
The nuclear fuel cycle has successfully enriched uranium for reactor fuel and weapons production and reprocessed spent nuclear fuel to recover uranium and plutonium. Historically, the enrichment process required large facilities because diffusion and centrifuge technologies are relatively inefficient processes for uranium enrichment. The advent of advanced centrifuge technology and laser isotope separation makes the uranium enrichment step considerably more efficient and permits smaller facilities to be constructed and operated. These facilities are easier to conceal than the large centrifuge and gaseous diffusion plants. This presents the opportunity for a clandestine enrichment facility to produce weapons-grade uranium. Advanced technologies, particularly laser uranium enrichment, present a twenty-first-century nuclear proliferation concern.
In a similar manner, reprocessing technology has successfully recovered plutonium, and this technology is well known. The expansion of nuclear power facilities offers the possibility for the diversion of spent fuel that could be reprocessed and the recovered plutonium diverted toward weapons production or terrorist purposes.
On a more positive note, nuclear medicine has advanced and improved diagnostic and therapeutic techniques. The capability to localize the absorbed dose has improved, and additional radiation types are being utilized to target tumors. Proton and heavy ion therapy techniques are becoming more common, and the initial studies using antiprotons have been published. The use of nanotechnology and internal radiation-generating devices in cancer therapy applications is in development for the selective delivery of absorbed dose.
The advancement of nuclear medicine techniques increased the average absorbed dose delivered to the public. An increased use of nuclear materials in commercial products and their inadvertent entry into scrap metal used in consumer products offer additional challenges. Public concerns regarding the use of nuclear power generation and the effects of major accidents have been heightened by the Fukushima Daiichi accident and its sensationalism by the media and antinuclear groups.
Public interest and the involvement of stakeholder groups in nuclear licensing have also increased following the Fukushima Daiichi accident. Events involving radioactive materials and their associated media attention suggest that the interest of the public in radiation-generating technologies and radioactive materials will likely increase. The media presents a significant challenge because its perspective is often influenced more by emotion and sensationalism than scientific reasoning and knowledge.
Heightened public concern, media presentations that sensationalize events, increasing political pressure and influence, and active stakeholder involvement in nuclear projects suggest that the twenty-first-century regulatory environment will be dynamic and challenging. These elements affected the US fuel repository at Yucca Mountain and led to a temporary suspension of construction and operating licenses for new power reactors related to fuel storage environmental concerns and the associated legal issues. There has also been significant regulatory action following the Fukushima Daiichi accident that affects existing plants and those facilities under design and construction. The twenty-first century will likely offer a challenging health physics environment with considerable emphasis on postulated power reactor release scenarios, assumed accident severity, and the definition of credible design basis events.
The twentieth century saw a maturation of the health physics profession and its scientific basis, and the twenty-first century will require additional scientific training for health physics professionals to meet the significant challenges posed by advanced technologies. These challenges include continued debate over the fundamental regulatory assumption regarding the linear-nonthreshold (LNT) dose–response hypothesis, applicability of hormesis to the human species, evaluation of doses to reference plants and animals and their inclusion in environmental assessments and regulations, and the inclusion of occupational dosimetry and environmental doses into assessments of the biological effects of ionizing radiation.
National and international organizations continue to foster sustained development and standardization, but they run the risk of becoming decoupled from applied health physicists over issues such as the LNT hypothesis and environmental protection. Instrumentation advances will permit the enhanced detection of a variety of ionizing radiation types over a wide range of energies, and these detectors will find their incorporation into consumer products such as cell phones and enhance the detection of illicit nuclear materials.
Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards reviews emerging and maturing radiation-generating technologies that will affect the health physics profession. It is hoped that this review will foster additional research into these and supporting areas.
Health physics is a dynamic and vital field and has an exciting future. The topics addressed in this text encompass energy generation, medical applications, fuel cycle technologies, consumer applications, public exposures, and national defense. However, significant challenges will likely arise as new technologies expand the use of radioactive materials and radiation-generating devices, failures of existing technology occur, terrorist attacks expand to include radioactive materials or nuclear weapons, and old paradigms fall.
There is an intimate linkage between the health physics profession and the expansion of nuclear technology and nuclear-related events. This linkage will manifest itself in traditional fields and possibly in new areas including the response to public space tourism and nuclear terrorism. Communications with stakeholders and the public are essential to counter misinformation and hysteria that often accompanies media reports of nuclear-related events. The twenty-first-century health physicist must be technically capable and able to communicate information to the public in a commonsense manner that is understandable to a group with limited scientific knowledge. It will be an exciting time, but a time filled with challenges. The following areas are judged by the author to be representative of future health physics challenges, and these topics are further explored in this book:
Generation IV fission power reactors
Low earth orbit tourism by the public
Advanced nuclear fuel cycles incorporating laser uranium enrichment and actinide transmutation
Radiation therapy using heavy ions, exotic particles, internal radiation-generating devices, and antimatter
Public radiation exposure
Radioactive dispersal and improvised nuclear devices
Nuclear accidents
Evolving regulatory considerations
1.3 Forecast of Possible Future Issues
Table 1.1 summarizes a selected set of twentieth-century and early twenty-first-century events that are used to forecast events that may have health physics relevance. For example, the occurrence of the Three Mile Island and Chernobyl reactor accidents suggested that future accidents are likely and have occurred at Fukushima Daiichi. However, the cause of a future accident is not predicted by the recurrence of these events. An examination of the events is summarized in Table 1.1 suggesting possible causes for a future nuclear event which include natural events such as an earthquake, rare natural phenomena, military action, terrorism, technology failure, management failure, human error, an unrelated industrial accident, economic failure, and social disruption. The 2011 Fukushima Daiichi accident was caused by an earthquake and subsequent tsunami. The predictive power of the aforementioned approach is speculative. However, it does suggest possible twenty-first-century health physics events having the potential for significant environmental releases of radioactive materials and associated public doses.
Table 1.1 Selected significant twentieth-century and early twenty-first-century events
Event
Event type
Possible twenty-first-century health physics event extrapolation
1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire
Natural event—massive earthquake
Massive earthquake damaging a nuclear facility
1908 Tunguska explosion in Siberia
Unknown cause, possibly a meteorite strike
Rare natural event damaging a nuclear facility
Impact energy equivalent of about 15 MT of TNT
a
1914–1919 World War I
International armed conflict
Military attack on a nuclear facility
1918 Spanish flu pandemic
Epidemic
Epidemic affects staffing and disrupts nuclear facility operations
1929 stock market crash
Economic disruption
Economic event disrupts nuclear facility operations
1930s to early 1940s Great Depression
Economic collapse
Worldwide economic collapse disrupts nuclear facility operations
1939–1945 World War II
International armed conflict
Military attack on a nuclear facility
1945 nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan
Nuclear attack
Nuclear exchange between nations or terrorist nuclear event in a major city
1950–1970s Space Race
Development of long-range rockets and space exploration
Nuclear missile attack Public space tourism
1960s political assassinations in the United States
Disruption of government
Social unrest disrupts nuclear facility operations
1965 Northeast US and Canada blackout
Disruption of electrical energy supply
Loss of off-site power for a nuclear facility
1972 Munich Olympics massacre
Terrorist attack
Nuclear terrorism
1976 earthquake hits Tangshan, in northeastern China
Natural event—massive earthquake
Massive earthquake with significant loss of life affects nuclear facility operations
1979 Three Mile Island nuclear accident
Power reactor accident with minimal release of radioactive material
Major power reactor accident
1981 Israeli military successfully attacks and destroys the Osirak nuclear reactor in Iraq
Military attack on a nuclear power facility
Major power reactor accident following a military attack
1984 massive poison gas leak in Bhopal, India
Major industrial accident
Major industrial accident affects nuclear facility operations
1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident
Power reactor accident with significant release of radioactive material
Major power reactor accident
1986 Space Shuttle Challenger explosion
Technological and management failure
Failure of safety and management systems disrupts nuclear facility operations
1987 Goiania, Brazil, contamination event
137
Cs orphan source contaminates homes and individuals, resulting in four fatalities
Radiological dispersal device is utilized in a terrorist attack
1989 Northeast United States, Canada, and Sweden experience a power blackout caused by a solar flare
Disruption of electrical energy supply
Loss of off-site power for a nuclear facility
2001 New York City and Pentagon terrorist attacks
Terrorist attack
Nuclear terrorism including a direct attack on a nuclear facility
2003 Space Shuttle Columbia accident
Technological and management failure
Failure of safety and management systems disrupts nuclear facility operations
2003 Northeastern and Midwestern United States and Ontario, Canada, blackout caused by a solar flare
Disruption of electrical energy supply
Loss of off-site power for a nuclear facility
2004 Madrid commuter train bombing
Terrorist attack
Nuclear terrorism including a direct attack on a nuclear facility
2005 London underground train and double-decker bus bombings
Terrorist attack
Nuclear terrorism including a direct attack on a nuclear facility
2005 Hurricane Katrina floods New Orleans, kills nearly 2000, and damages critical infrastructure
Massive storm disrupts a major city and surrounding areas
Loss of power and critical infrastructure support to a nuclear facilityFlooding a nuclear facility
2009 terrorist attack occurred at Fort Hood in Texas. A US Army major and psychiatrist fatally shot 13 people and injured more than 30 others
Insider terrorist attack by a member of the operating organization
Trusted employee becomes a terrorist and sabotages a nuclear reactor to create severe core damage and release of fission products to the environment
2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident
Massive earthquake and tsunami causes a power reactor accident involving multiple units with a significant release of radioactive material
Major power reactor accident involving multiple units caused by a natural event
2012 Hurricane Sandy storm surge floods New York City and neighboring areas
500-year storm surge disrupts city services
Loss of power and infrastructure support to a nuclear facility
Flooding of a nuclear facility
2013 18 m-diameter meteorite explodes over Chelyabinsk, Russia, and injures 1000 people
Impact event corresponding to an energy equivalent of about 1 MT of TNT
a
Rare natural event damages a nuclear facility
2013 Asteroid DA14 (5.7 × 10
8
kg) passes within 1.0 × 10
4
km of the earth
Astronomical near miss with a 2046 predicted return to earth
Rare natural event damages a significant geographical area including infrastructure and nuclear facilities
2013 Typhoon Haiyan devastates the eastern Philippines
The massive typhoon leads to a death toll in the thousands with hundreds of thousands displaced and critical infrastructure destroyed
Massive typhoon disrupts nuclear facility operations
2013 110 TBq
60
Co teletherapy source stolen in Mexico
Theft of radioactive material
Stolen radioactive material is incorporated into a terrorist device
2014 Waste Isolation Pilot Plant waste container undergoes an unanticipated chemical reaction and releases americium and plutonium into the environment
Underground geologic waste repository event
Major accident at a high level waste geologic repository caused by the failure of assumed controls and inadequate oversight
2014 Belgian Doel 4 nuclear reactor's turbine is sabotaged and severely damaged
Sabotage of a nuclear power reactor
Sabotage of a nuclear reactor leading to a major accident with severe core damage and an off-site release
2015 Germanwings Airbus A320 carrying more than 140 passengers intentionally crashed by its copilot
Catastrophic act committed by a trusted employee
Trusted employee sabotages a nuclear reactor to create severe core damage and release of fission products to the environment
a Megatons of trinitrotoluene.
Given the history of humankind, twenty-first-century wars are likely. With the expansion of the use of nuclear technology, these wars could include a nuclear exchange between nations and a military attack or intentional sabotage of a nuclear facility.
Terrorist events have continued into the twenty-first century including the 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States and the 2004 Madrid and 2005 London transportation bombings. Terrorist attacks on a nuclear facility are possible twenty-first-century radiological events. Other terrorist events with radiological consequences include the use of nuclear weapons, intentional dispersal of radioactive materials into a populated area, intentional contamination of water supplies, and contamination of food supplies.
Many aspects of health physics activities are reactive. These reactive aspects include resolution of audit and inspection findings, response to abnormal and emergency events, and development of procedures and programs to meet regulatory requirements. However, the author prefers a proactive approach that challenges accepted assumptions and established practices to address and anticipate future events. For example, the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements assumes that improvised nuclear devices will not exceed 10 kT (trinitrotoluene, TNT equivalent). Given the level of technology, availability of weapons information in the open literature, abundance of raw scientific data, proliferation of nuclear materials, and availability of necessary computational tools, the 10 kT design assumption should be expanded to include larger weapons yields to develop bounding plans, procedures, and resource allocation requirements. The 10 kT limit also appears to exclude the possibility of the theft of an existing device from a nuclear power, transfer of a device from a nuclear power to a terrorist organization, or use of proven scientific resources to develop a higher-yield clandestine device.
Other nuclear scenarios that could present twenty-first-century health physics challenges are developed in subsequent chapters and their associated problems. However, to provide a preview of upcoming topics, a series of general problems are provided in this chapter to illustrate possible twenty-first-century events of significant health physics consequences. These problems are based on the events in Table 1.1. They are low-probability, high-consequence events that are often classified as X factors or black swan events.
In the twentieth century, the causes of the Fukushima Daiichi accident would have been classified as X factors. Unfortunately, my Mark-I Crystal Ball is out of service, but past events are often a guide to future events. Therefore, the Chapter 1 solutions are necessarily general and brief. However, considerable additional detail is provided in the subsequent chapters that more fully characterized the consequences of more probable event types.
One way to minimize the consequences of future radiological events is to constantly challenge assumptions, focus on the mitigation of significant events, and have an informed public that understands the risks and benefits of nuclear technologies. Scientific prediction and mitigation of significant nuclear events have not been completely successful, and we must do a significantly better job in the future. That is not an easy task. I hope that this text will motivate additional improvements to minimize the probability and consequence of future radiological events.
The twenty-first century will be an exciting time for the health physics profession. It is the author's desire that this book contributes in some small measure to the education of twenty-first-century health physicists and their understanding of existing, evolving, and emerging radiation-generating technologies. The author also hopes that this text will foster additional effort to improve upon and further develop the topics of this text.
Problems
1.1The 1908 Tunguska explosion in Siberia is believed to have been caused by a meteorite. On 30 June 1908, a meteorite exploded about 10 km above the ground in a sparsely populated region. The blast released about 15 MT of energy and leveled about 2000 km2 of forest. Predict the consequences of a Tunguska-type event that explodes in the air within 1 km of the underground Hanford Tank Farms containing fuel reprocessing waste. List the most likely public effects and required health physics actions resulting from this event.
1.2 In 1984, a huge poison gas leak in Bhopal, India, led to the death of thousands of people. A storage tank containing methyl isocyanate at a pesticide plant leaked gas into the densely populated city of Bhopal. It was one of the worst industrial accidents in history. Predict the consequences of a Bhopal-type event that occurs in proximity of an operating nuclear power reactor. List the most likely effects and health physics consequences of a Bhopal-style event if the gas cloud covered a nuclear power facility for an extended period.
1.3 The North American blackout of 1965 was a significant disruption in the supply of electricity that affected parts of Ontario, Canada, and New England in the United States. Over 30 million people and 207 000 km2 were without electricity for over 10 h. Predict the consequences of an extended (e.g., several weeks) power blackout event that occurs at a uranium enrichment facility using lasers and UF6 gas as the working fluid.
1.4 Assume that a terrorist group acquires medical isotopes (i.e., 32P, 60Co, and 131I) and incorporates them into a dirty bomb. What is the relative hazard of these isotopes if the dirty bomb is detonated in a populated area? How do these hazards affect recovery activities?
1.5 A massive solar event has the potential to disrupt the electrical grid for an extended period. If a solar event an order of magnitude larger than the 1859 Carrington event (see Chapter 6) occurred, what is the impact on the capability of a nuclear power reactor to preserve its fission product barriers? Assume the event disrupts the power grid supplying the reactor and its surrounding area for 1 month.
1.6 A limited nuclear exchange occurs between two neighboring nations. Each nation has detonated three, 250 kT 239
