Horticultural Reviews, Volume 39 E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Horticultural Reviews
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 866

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

Horticultural Reviews presents state-of-the-art reviews on topics in horticultural science and technology covering both basic and applied research. Topics covered include the horticulture of fruits, vegetables, nut crops, and ornamentals. These review articles, written by world authorities, bridge the gap between the specialized researcher and the broader community of horticultural scientists and teachers.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication: Kim E. Hummer

Contributors

Chapter 1: Frankincense, Myrrh, and Balm of Gilead: Ancient Spices of Southern Arabia and Judea

I. Spices and the Spice Trade

II. Frankincense

III. Myrrh

IV. Balm of Gilead

V. Future Prospects

Literature Cited

Chapter 2: Advances in the Biology and Management of Monosporascus Vine Decline and Wilt of Melons and Other Cucurbits

I. Introduction

II. Pathogen Biology and Taxonomy

III. Infection, Colonization, and Epidemiology

IV. Disease Management

V. Summary

VI. Epilogue

Literature Cited

Chapter 3: Ornamental Grasses in the United States

I. Introduction

II. Case for Ornamental Grasses in the Landscape

III. Production and Culture

IV. Invasiveness

V. Special Uses

VI. Summary and Future Needs

Literature Cited

Chapter 4: Mediterranean Stone Pine: Botany and Horticulture

I. Introduction

II. Botany

III. Horticulture

IV. Concluding Remarks

V. Acknowledgments

Literature Cited

Chapter 5: Pointed Gourd: Botany and Horticulture

1 Introduction

II. Botany

III Horticulture

IV. Future Prospects

Literature Cited

Chapter 6: Physiology and Functions of Fruit Pigments: An Ecological and Horticultural Perspective

I. Introduction

II. Fruit Pigments

III. Color and Color Vision

IV. Prevalence of Different Fruit Colors and Disperser Syndromes

V. Functions of Fruit Colors/Pigments

VI. Departure From the Link Among Color, Maturity, and Quality

VII. Environmental Conditions and Fruit Color

VIII. Conclusions

Literature Cited

Chapter 7: Ginger: Botany and Horticulture

I. Introduction

II. Taxonomy, Morphology, and Cytology of Ginger

III. Genetic Diversity and Improvement

IV. Biotechnology

V. Horticulture

VI. Pests and Diseases

VII. Postharvest Processing

VIII. Conclusion

Literature Cited

Chapter 8: Annatto: Botany and Horticulture

1. Introduction

II. Botany

III. Plant Genetics Resources and Breeding

IV. Horticulture

V. Future Prospects

Literature Cited

Subject Index

Cumulative Subject Index

Cumulative Contributor Index

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-118-09678-9 (cloth)

ISSN 0163-7851

Dedication: Kim E. Hummer

Volume 39 of Horticultural Reviews is dedicated to Dr. Kim E. Hummer, who has brought tireless enthusiasm to the vital work of conserving plant genetic resources and the very important biological and historical information they represent. Kim is research leader for the USDA Agricultural Resource Service gene banks in Corvallis, Oregon, and Palmer, Alaska. She has been a steward for the world's cultivated and wild diversity of many temperate fruit, nut, and other specialty crops for nearly three decades. Her research on genetics and germplasm, international collaborations, plant expeditions and exchanges, and release of new cultivated varieties have expanded the world's access to rare plant materials and improved not only our food security but also our ability to study and enjoy the unique diversity of these crops. Kim's strategic characterization of adaptive traits, such as disease resistance, and establishment of test plantings in geographic locations that push the traditional limits of production have encouraged the exciting expansion of horticultural industries and the cultivation of previously underutilized species.

Kim arrived at the Corvallis Repository in 1982, where she had a dual assignment to manage the gene bank's record-keeping system and to determine vitamin C and other fruit constituents using HPLC analysis. In 1987, she took the helm as curator for the temperate fruit and nut collections, which included the eight major genera: Corylus, Fragaria, Humulus, Mentha, Pyrus, Ribes, Rubus, and Vaccinium. Small collections of other minor crops added about 30 additional genera to the mix. This obscure USDA facility in the backwoods of Oregon was little known in the 1980s outside of a small community of specialty crop breeders and researchers. Under Kim's guidance, every one of these collections has grown to represent the largest and most genetically diverse ex situ living assemblage in the world for these genera. The world is literally beating a path to the door of the National Clonal Germplasm Repository in search of the plants, seeds, and information housed at the facility.

Kim was born on September 17, 1952, in Washington, DC, and raised in Bethesda, Maryland. She left Maryland to pursue higher education at St. Lawrence University in Canton, New York, where she graduated in 1974. She moved to Burlington, Vermont, to study cold hardiness of Forsythia with Dean Evert and Norm Pellett and completed her MS in 1978. While at the University of Vermont, she caught the plant-collecting bug when the universitysponsored her to collect Rhododendron species in the Great Smokey Mountains of North Carolina. This was to be the first of many expeditions into the wild to capture plants and bring them into captivity, where they can be studied and cultivated. Kim left the East Coast and went to Oregon for her PhD studies. Under the direction of Les Fuchigami, she worked on tissue culture of apples and plums and examined the roles that leaf morphology and stomatal function had on acclimation to life outside the test tube. She completed her PhD in horticulture at Oregon State University in 1981, just as the USDA Agricultural Research Service was completing construction of the first National Clonal Germplasm Repository, which opened in Corvallis the same year.

When Kim was first hired to work for Harry Lagerstedt as an Oregon State University Research Associate to develop a record-keeping system for the young clonal gene bank, microcomputers were just becoming available. The germplasm databases of the day were developed for seed collections and involved workstations, shared centralized computers, and complex programming and query languages. New software programs, such as dBase II, allowed a facility to store database information locally on microcomputers using floppy disks to share information between users. Kim borrowed suitable concepts and structures from national seed databases to design a system to meet the needs of a clonal gene bank. Developing appropriate data resources put Kim in touch with many other germplasm facilities and specialists, and as she collected information for the Corvallis plant collections, she became keenly aware of each plant's history, taxonomy, and characteristics. When the curator position at the Corvallis gene bank became vacant in 1987, Kim Hummer's intimate knowledge about the plant collections and important associations with the U.S. germplasm community put her in a unique position to take on the curator job.

The repository mission to collect, conserve, characterize and distribute the world's diversity for the assigned crops required an initial focus on collecting material before it is lost. Explorations and exchanges have taken Kim to many parts of the world that are either centers of origin for her crops or important places for breeding and production. She has organized expeditions to collect wild berry species and other crops in China, twice to northern Japan and in the Russian Far East, including Vladivostok, Primorye, and Khabarovsk. Closer to home but equally important as sources of wild diversity have been expeditions to the northeastern and southeastern United States. She has collected widely in Alaska and recently has made important progress in understanding ploidy of wild Fragaria species by filling in gaps from the mountains of the Pacific Northwest. More than 550 accessions have been added to USDA National Plant Germplasm System collections as a result of Kim's expeditions, ranging from threatened lowchill Vaccinium species in Florida, to arctic Rubus in Alaska. She has braved bears and bureaucrats to bring back the berries!

Kim has mentored nine graduate students, who have helped to expand our horticultural understanding of Corylus, Humulus, Ribes, Rubus, and Vaccinium. She has a special interest in Ribes and has characterized that collection for phenological traits and resistance to diseases, particularly white pine blister rust. Her evaluations have identified important sources of disease resistance and led to the selection and release of disease-resistant and high fruit quality gooseberry cultivars 'Jahns Prairie' and ‘Jeanne’. Her book, titled Currants, Gooseberries, and Jostaberries:AGuide for Growers, Marketers, and Researchers in North America, coauthored with Dan Barney in 2005, has become an essential reference for growers of these crops.

Promoting international collaborations and information exchange are some of Kim Hummer.s strengths. She organized the first ISHS international symposium for Humulus in 2004, brought together world experts to develop a global strategy for conserving Fragaria biodiversity in 2006, was a critical component of the team that convened the ISHS international Vaccinium symposium in 2008, and convened a large international symposium on conservation and management of genetic resources in horticulture during the International Horticultural Congress in 2010. With so many different crops at her gene bank and her boundless enthusiasm for so many different aspects of their history, genetics, systematics, adaptation, and production, her publications are as diverse as her crop collections. She has authored or coauthored more than 160 scholarly publications, 6 books or proceedings, and 12 book chapters.

Kimis frequently invited to present at international meetings as well as for community groups and is extremely successful in raising the awareness of crop genetic diversity and the need for conservation. She has been actively engaged withmanyprofessional organizations and has received international recognition for her work. She was president of the American Pomological Society (2005–2006) and served two terms as chair of the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources for the International Society of Horticultural Science (elected in 2002 and 2006). She was selected as a fellow of the American Society for Horticultural Science in 2006 and was awarded an honorary doctorate degree from the University of Sweden in 2009. Kim Hummer was recently elected to the board of International Society of Horticultural Science, where she will serve as vice president and scientific coordinator from 2010 to 2014.

Kim Hummer is married to Richard Hand, and they have four sons. A legend in the field of germplasm preservation, Kim is also a role model for women in horticulture. Her exuberance and spirit are infectious, and Kim holds the distinction of being respected by those who know her.

Joseph Postman

U.S. Department of AgricultureAgricultural Research ServiceCorvallis, Oregon

Contributors

Shimshon Ben-Yehoshua Emeritus, Department of Postharvest Science, Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan, 50250 Israel

David Bono IRTA Torre Marimón, 08140 Caldes de Montbui, Barcelona, Spain

Carole Borowitz Bet Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv, 69027 Israel

Rafael Calama CIFOR-INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain

Roni Cohen Agricultural Research Organization, Newe Ya'ar Research Center, P.?O. Box 1021, Ramat Yishay, 30095 Israel

Kevin M. Crosby Department of Horticultural Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA

Luis Gil Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain

Santiago C. González-Martínez CIFOR-INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain

F. Javier Gordo Junta de Castilla y León, 47071 Valladolid, Spain

A. Kumar Indian Institute of Spices Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, P.B. No. 1701, P.O. Marikunnu, Calicut, Kerala, 673 012 India

Sanjeev Kumar Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, PO Jakhini-Shahanshahpur, Varanasi 221 305, India

Freddy Leal Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Apartado 4736, Maracay, Aragua, Venezuela

Ray D. Martyn Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, 915 W. State Street, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA

Mary Hockenberry Meyer Department of Horticultural Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA

Claret Michelangeli de Clavijo Centro de Investigaciones en Biotecnología Agrícola, Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Apartado Postal 4579, Maracay, Aragua, Venezuela

Gregorio Montero CIFOR-INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain

Sven Mutke CIFOR-INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain

R. R. Nair Indian Institute of Spices Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, PB No. 1701, PO Marikunnu, Calicut, Kerala, 673 012 India

Lumír Ondej Hanuš Institute of Drug Research, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University, Ein Kerem, Jerusalem, 91120 Israel

V. A. Parthasarathy Indian Institute of Spices Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, P.B. No. 1701, P. O. Marikunnu, Calicut, Kerala, 673 012 India

Shimon Pivonia Arava Research and Development, Sapir Mobile Post, Arava, 86825 Israel

Joseph Postman U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Corvallis, 97333 Oregon, USA

D. Prasath Indian Institute of Spices Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, PB No. 1701, PO Marikunnu, Calicut, Kerala, 673 012 India

B. D. Singh School of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221 005 India

V. Srinivasan Indian Institute of Spices Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, P.B. No. 1701, P.O. Marikunnu, Calicut, Kerala, 673 012 India

Willem J. Steyn Department of Horticultural Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602 South Africa

T. John Zachariah Indian Institute of Spices Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, PB No. 1701, PO Marikunnu, Calicut, Kerala, 673 012 India

Chapter 1

Frankincense, Myrrh, and Balm of Gilead: Ancient Spices of Southern Arabia and Judea

Shimshon Ben-Yehoshua

Emeritus, Department of Postharvest ScienceVolcani CenterAgricultural Research OrganizationBet Dagan, 50250 Israel

Carole Borowitz

Bet Ramat AvivTel Aviv, 69027 Israel

Lumír Ondej Hanuš

Institute of Drug ResearchSchool of PharmacyFaculty of MedicineHebrew UniversityEin Kerem, Jerusalem, l91120 Israel

Abstract

Ancient cultures discovered and utilized the medicinal and therapeutic values of spices and incorporated the burning of incense as part of religious and social ceremonies. Among the most important ancient resinous spices were frankincense, derived from Boswellia spp., myrrh, derived from Commiphoras spp., both from southern Arabia and the Horn of Africa, and balm of Gilead of Judea, derived from Commiphora gileadensis. The demand for these ancient spices was met by scarce and limited sources of supply. The incense trade and trade routes were developed to carry this precious cargo over long distances through many countries to the important foreign markets of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Greece, and Rome. The export of the frankincense and myrrh made Arabia extremely wealthy, so much so that Theophrastus, Strabo, and Pliny all referred to it as Felix (fortunate) Arabia. At present, this export hardly exists, and the spice trade has declined to around 1,500 tonnes, coming mainly from Somalia; both Yemen and Saudi Arabia import rather than export these frankincense and myrrh. Balm of Gilead, known also as the Judaean balsam, grew only around the Dead Sea Basin in antiquity and achieved fame by its highly reputed aroma and medical properties but has been extinct in this area for many centuries. The resin of this crop was sold, by weight, at a price twice that of gold, the highest price ever paid for an agricultural commodity. This crop was an important source of income for the many rulers of ancient Judea; the farmers' guild that produced the balm of Gilead survived over 1,000 years. Currently there is interest in a revival based on related plants of similar origin. These three ancient spices now are under investigation for medicinal uses.

KEYWORDS: Apharsemon; Boswellia spp.; Commiphora spp.; Judaean balsam; olibanum; spice trade; traditional medicine

I. Spices and the Spice Trade

Traditionally, spices have had many important uses. Ancient cultures discovered the medicinal and therapeutic value of herbs and spices as well as their ability to enhance food flavors, and incorporated the burning of incense as part of religious and social ceremonies. Currently spices are used mainly as condiments but are also important in traditional medicine, perfumes, cosmetics, and special therapies.

Frankincense, myrrh, and balm of Gilead, three highly regarded biblical spice plants, will be emphasized in this chapter. Frankincense and myrrh were available in the biblical period only in limited parts of southern Arabia and the Horn of Africa. Due to the high demand for these spices, trade routes were developed to carry this precious burden over long distances through many countries to their foreign markets (Keay 2006). Balm of Gilead (tzori Gilead in Hebrew) is described in the Bible as the gift that the Queen of Sheba gave to King Solomon. In Judea, it was grown around the Dead Sea for about 1,500 years and achieved fame due to its aroma and medicinal properties. This chapter reviews these three ancient spice plants from a historical, horticultural, and pharmaceutical perspective, emphasizing the trade and routes from the Arabian Peninsula to the foreign markets in the Middle East and southern Europe.

A. Early History and Economic Importance

Spices and perfumes are mentioned in the records of ancient Sumer, which developed in the region of Mesopotamia around 3000 BCE. The Sumerian word for perfume is made up from the cuneiform signs representing “oil” and “sweet.” From that early period, and for millennia afterward, spices were added to natural oils to produce perfumes. The Sumerian song “The Message of Lu-dingir-ra to His Mother” refers to “a phial of ostrich shell, overflowing with perfumed oil” (Civil 1964). During the Bronze Age, the consumption of perfumes was confined to the upper and ruling classes. Perfume makers are known to have operated in Mesopotamia in the palace of Mari as early as the 18th century BCE (Bardet et al. 1984; Brun 2000). A growing body of archaeological evidence indicates that the volume of trade between Arabia and the surrounding areas accelerated during the Assyrian Empire. The increased use of drugs of herbal origin in medicine instead of employing surgery was encouraged in Mesopotamia, perhaps because the Code of Hammurabi threatened amputation if the surgeon was unsuccessful and found responsible (Rosengarten 1970). Assyrian documents record a growing interaction with the peoples of the Arabian Peninsula due to Assyrian attempts to control and capitalize on trade emanating from southern Arabia during the fifth century BCE.

Archaeological evidence of trade between southern Arabia and the Mediterranean coast has been found as early as the eighth century BCE in Tel Beer Sheva and Arad in Judea and includes the first appearance of alabaster containers and small limestone incense altars (Singer-Avitz 1996, 1999). The containers were a preferred means of storing and transporting raw incense resins, according to the Roman writer Pliny (Bostock 1855, Book 36, Chapter 60). New archaeological findings also indicate commercial relationships between southern Arabia and Judea, along the Incense Road. Much commercial activity existed in the Beer Sheva Basin, serving this trade during the seventh century BCE. In Tel Beer Sheva, several covers used for sealing the alabaster containers were found, as well as a stone object bearing the inscription of Cohen “priest” in a South Arabian language (Zinger-Avitz 1999). At Kuntillet Ajrud, located on the Incense Road from Eilat to Gaza, Ayalon (1995) found drawings and inscriptions in two buildings and a large assemblage of Judean and Israelite tools on sites along this incense road. These were dated to the end of the ninth century BCE. Singer Avitz (1996) describes an altar, dated to the eighth century BCE, excavated at Tel Beer Sheva, decorated with a one-humped camel. This trade was greatly expanded at the end of the eighth century BCE under the Assyrian kingdom; its track was through the Edomite Mountains and the south of Judea, where security could be controlled. The Assyrians established several fortifications and commercial centers there, such as Ein Hatzeva south of the Dead Sea, Botzera near Petra, Tell el-Kheleifeh (Ezion Geber) at the northern end of the Red Sea, and other sites along the Mediterranean Sea near Gaza (Finkelstein and Silverman 2006). A broken ceramic seal (7 × 8 cm) found in Bethel with the south Arabian inscription , in south Arabian letters of that period, was estimated to date from the ninth century BCE(Van Beek and Jamme 1958). The archaeologists (Hestrin and Dayagi-Mendels 1979; Dayagi-Mendels 1989) suggested that the seal meant Chamin the messenger.