Hybrid Fiber Composites E-Book

• Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 703

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020

Beschreibung

Fiber-reinforced composites are exceptionally versatile materials whose properties can be tuned to exhibit a variety of favorable properties such as high tensile strength and resistance against wear or chemical and thermal influences. Consequently, these materials are widely used in various industrial fields such as the aircraft, marine, and automobile industry.

After an overview of the general structures and properties of hybrid fiber composites, the book focuses on the manufacturing and processing of these materials and their mechanical performance, including the elucidation of failure mechanisms. A comprehensive chapter on the modeling of hybrid fiber composites from micromechanical properties to macro-scale material behavior is followed by a review of applications of these materials in structural engineering, packaging, and the automotive and aerospace industries.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

About the Editors

1 Natural and Synthetic Fibers for Hybrid Composites

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Natural Fibers

1.3 Microstructure of Natural Fibers

1.4 Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites

1.5 Hybrid Fiber-Based Polymer Composites

1.6 Conclusion

References

2 Effect of Process Engineering on the Performance of Hybrid Fiber Composites

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Fibers

2.3 Polymers

2.4 Hybrid Polymer Composites

2.5 Fiber Extraction Methods

2.6 Fiber Treatments

2.7 Processing Methods of Hybrid Composites

2.8 Application of Each Hybrid Polymer Composite Processing Methods

2.9 Conclusion

References

3 Mechanical and Physical Test of Hybrid Fiber Composites

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Materials and Methods

3.3 Results and Discussion

3.4 Conclusion

References

4 Experimental Investigations in the Drilling of Hybrid Fiber Composites

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Characteristics of Drilling

4.3 Hybrid Fiber Composites

4.4 Machining Limitation on Hybrid Fiber Composite Drilling

4.5 Investigation of Hybrid Fiber Composites Drilling

4.6 Conclusion

References

5 Fracture Analysis on Silk and Glass Fiber-Reinforced Hybrid Composites

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Materials and Methods

5.3 Results and Discussion

5.4 Conclusion

References

6 Failure Mechanisms of Fiber Composites

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Industrial Benefits and Applications

6.3 Materials for Reinforcing

6.4 Resin Type

6.5 Interfacial of Composite Structure

6.6 Micromechanics

6.7 Short Overview of Specific Failure Modes

6.8 Future Perspective

6.9 Conclusions

References

7 Ballistic Behavior of Fiber Composites

7.1 Introduction

7.2 High-Velocity Impact Test

7.3 Computational Methods

7.4 Conclusions

References

8 Mechanical Behavior of Synthetic/Natural Fibers in Hybrid Composites

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Impact Strength of Natural Fiber (Flax), Synthetic Fiber (Carbon), and Hybrid (Carbon/Flax) Composites

8.3 Kenaf/Aramid (Epoxy) Hybrid Composites with Different Fiber Orientation

8.4 Impact Strength of Carbon/Flax (Epoxy) Hybrid Composites with Different Fiber Orientation

8.5 Comparison of Absorbed Impact Energy of Different Hybrid Composites

8.6 Comparison of Strength of Natural Fiber (Ramie), Synthetic Fiber (Glass), and Hybrid (Ramie/Glass) Composites

8.7 Summary and Outlook

References

9 Bast Fiber-Based Polymer Composites

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Polymer Composites Reinforced with Bast Fibers

9.3 Applications of Polymer Composites Reinforced with Bast Fibers

9.4 Conclusion

References

10 Flame-Retardant Balsa Wood/GFRP Sandwich Composites, Mechanical Evaluation, and Comparisons with Other Sandwich Composites

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Literature Survey

10.3 Methodology and Experimental Work

10.4 Results and Discussion

10.5 Conclusions

10.6 Scope for Future Work

Acknowledgment

List of Symbols and Abbreviations

References

11 Biocomposites Reinforced with Animal and Regenerated Fibers

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Animal Fibers

11.3 Regenerated Fibers

11.4 Industrial Applications

11.5 Summary and Discussion

11.6 Conclusions and Scope for Future Research

References

12 Characterization of Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Vinyl Ester-Based Hybrid Green Composites

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Materials and Methods

12.3 Characterization

12.4 Surface Treatment of Reinforcements

12.5 Results and Discussion

12.6 Conclusions

References

13 Thermomechanical Characterization of Vacuum Resin Infusion-Molded Ceramic Rock-Derived Natural Wool-Reinforced Epoxy and Cashew Nut Shell Liquid-Based Composites

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Methodology and Approach

13.3 Results and Discussion

Acknowledgments

References

14 Hydrogel Scaffold-Based Fiber Composites for Engineering Applications

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Potential Applications of Hydrogels as Scaffold in Biomedical Application

14.3 Design Criteria for Hydrogel Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering

14.4 Hydrogel Scaffold: A Main Tool for Tissue Engineering

14.5 Hydrogel Scaffolds for Cardiac Tissue Engineering

14.6 Hydrogel Scaffold Fabrication for Skin Regeneration

14.7 Osteochondral Tissue Regeneration

14.8 Biopolymer-Based Hydrogel Systems

14.9 Summary

References

15 Experimental Analysis of Styrene, Particle Size, and Fiber Content in the Mechanical Properties of Sisal Fiber Powder Composites

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Materials and Methods

15.3 Results and Discussion

15.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

16 Influence of Fiber Content in the Water Absorption and Mechanical Properties of Sisal Fiber Powder Composites

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Materials and Methods

16.3 Results and Discussion

16.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

17 Recent Advances of Hybrid Fiber Composites for Various Applications

17.1 Introduction

17.2 What Is a Hybrid Composite?

17.3 Hybrid Biocomposites

17.4 Hybrid Nanobiocomposites

17.5 Potential Applications of Hybrid Composites in Various Applications

17.6 Challenges, Prospects, and Future Trends

17.7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Properties of natural fibers in relation to those of synthetic fibe...

Table 1.2 Properties of natural fibers.

Table 1.3 Chemical composition of natural plant fibers.

Table 1.4 Different types of glass fibers and physical and mechanical propert...

Table 1.5 Properties of carbon fibers.

Table 1.6 Typical properties of Kevlar fibers.

Table 1.7 Nomenclature used for Kevlar fibers without and with various surfac...

Table 1.8 The basic comparison between natural and synthetic fibers.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Parameters in central composite design.

Table 3.2 Central composite experimental design.

Table 3.3 ANOVA results for flexural strength.

Table 3.4 Results of confirmation experiment for optimal case.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Designation for different loading angles of materials for CTS test.

Table 5.2 Designation for different compositions of materials for SENB test.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Characteristics of different fibers used to produce high-performanc...

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Bast fibers, general name, family name, and scientific names.

Table 9.2 The chemical and physicomechanical properties of hemp fiber.

Table 9.3 Application of nettle fiber plant.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Dimension and density of balsa wood samples.

Table 10.2 Dimensions of samples for compression testing.

Table 10.3 Dimensions of samples for flexure testing.

Table 10.4 Calculation of modulus of elasticity (flatwise compression).

Table 10.5 Mechanical properties for flatwise compression samples.

Table 10.6 Calculation of modulus of elasticity (edgewise transverse compress...

Table 10.7 Mechanical properties for edgewise transverse compression samples.

Table 10.8 Calculation of modulus of elasticity (edgewise longitudinal compre...

Table 10.9 Mechanical properties for edgewise longitudinal compression sample...

Table 10.10 The mean, maximum, and minimum mechanical properties of the balsa...

Table 10.11 The minimum, mean, and maximum mechanical property values, contd…...

Table 10.12 Mechanical properties of different core materials [13].

Table 10.13 Types of failure observed during compression test.

Table 10.14 Types of failure observed during flexural testing.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Details of the classification of biofibers [4–6].

Table 12.2 Comparison between natural and synthetic fibers [9, 10].

Table 12.3 Typical data of vinyl ester resin.

Table 12.4 Physicomechanical properties of CFs.

Table 12.5 Designation and composition of VE composites fabricated.

Table 12.6 Barcol hardness of VE composites.

Table 12.7 Friction coefficient for vinyl ester/coir fiber composites.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Elemental weight % (RM).

Table 13.2 Operating conditions of EDS.

Table 13.3 Rockwool sample details of TGA scan.

Table 13.4 Analysis from the thermogravimetric results.

Table 13.5 Density 100 kg/m

3

/Epoxy composite.

Table 13.6 Rockwool 150 kg/cu.m/Epoxy composite.

Table 13.7 Density 100 kg/m

3

/CNSL composite.

Table 13.8 Rockwool 150 kg/cu.m/ CNSL composite.

Table 13.9 Tensile test operating conditions.

Table 13.10 The tensile test results of the Rockwool/epoxy samples.

Table 13.11 Proof yield stress and yield strain of the tensile samples.

Table 13.12 Compressive test operating conditions.

Table 13.13 Compressive test results of the Rockwool/epoxy composite.

Table 13.14 Flexural test operating conditions.

Table 13.15 Flexural properties of D100 and D150 samples.

Table 13.16 Vibrational analysis of the Rockwool/epoxy composite.

Table 13.17 Tensile test results of the CNSL/Rockwool composite.

Table 13.18 Compressive properties.

Table 13.19 Flexural properties of CNSL/Rockwool composites.

Table 13.20 Material cost analysis of epoxy-based composites.

Table 13.21 Material cost analysis of CNSL-based composites.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Experimental variables and conditions.

Table 15.2 Factorial planning (2

3

) of variables (factors).

Table 15.3 ANOVA of results of stress, strain, MOE, and tenacity of the sampl...

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Various factors affecting during natural fiber production.

Table 17.2 Mechanical characteristics of important hybrid biocomposites.

Table 17.3 Important features of aircraft structure.

Table 17.4 Design criteria of automotive structures.

Table 17.5 Description of internal failure types of FRP composites.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Classification of natural fibers [12, 13].

Figure 1.2 Images of synthetic fibers: (a) glass fiber, (b) Kevlar fiber, an...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Some of the processing methods used for the manufacturing of hybr...

Figure 2.2 Schematic of pultrusion process.

Figure 2.3 An illustration of hand lay-up technique.

Figure 2.4 Vacuum bagging set up for fabricating composite materials.

Figure 2.5 Filament winding process.

Figure 2.6 Various steps involved in RTM process.

Figure 2.7 Compression molding method.

Figure 2.8 Schematic diagram of injection molding process.

Figure 2.9 Train interiors with pultruded components.

Figure 2.10 Some typical pultruded shapes.

Figure 2.11 Unit for joining space frame structures by filament winding.

Figure 2.12 Compression molded graphite–polymer composite bipolar plates....

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Flexural stress–strain graphs of SNCF/Al–SiC vinyl ester hybrid n...

Figure 3.2 Flexural strength of SNCF/Al–SiC vinyl ester hybrid nanocomposite...

Figure 3.3 3D surface graph of flexural strength of SNCF/Al–SiC vinyl ester ...

Figure 3.4 SNCF/Al–SiC vinyl ester hybrid nanocomposites (a) FTIR and (b) XR...

Figure 3.5 SNCF/Al–SiC vinyl ester hybrid nanocomposites: (a) stress–strain ...

Figure 3.6 SNCF/Al–SiC vinyl ester hybrid nanocomposites: (a) fracture (1) S...

Figure 3.7 Viscoelastic properties of SNCF/Al–SiC vinyl ester hybrid nanocom...

Figure 3.8 Impact strength and Vickers hardness of SNCF/Al–SiC vinyl ester h...

Figure 3.9 Physical properties of SNCF/Al–SiC vinyl ester hybrid nanocomposi...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Fabrication of laminated composite: (a) cutting jute fabric, (b) ...

Figure 5.2 CTS specimen loading fixture [12].

Figure 5.3 Standard specimen configuration.

Figure 5.4 Experimental setup for CTS test. (a) 0° loading angle, (b) 3...

Figure 5.5 Standard specimen configuration.

Figure 5.6 Experimental setup of SENB specimen.

Figure 5.7 Load–deflection comparison of composites for different loading an...

Figure 5.8 Fracture toughness versus different loading angles.

Figure 5.9 Load–displacement comparison for S1 composition.

Figure 5.10 Load–displacement comparison for S2 composition.

Figure 5.11 Load–displacement comparison for S3 composition.

Figure 5.12 Fracture toughness versus composition of SENB test.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Picture of different possibilities of combining materials to obta...

Figure 6.2 Use of different types of composite materials to build an airplan...

Figure 6.3 The outer shell of the yacht is composed of composites.

Figure 6.4 The bonnet of the car is made of composite carbon fiber-reinforce...

Figure 6.5 The distribution of reinforcement particles of materials used in ...

Figure 6.6 Cylindrical fibers incorporated in the matrix.

Figure 6.7 Progressive failure model flowchart.

PFM

,

progressive failure mod

...

Figure 6.8 Typical X-ray radiographs of (a) HTS (0/90/45/45)2S, (b) HTS_IMS_...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Composite material used in experimental test.

Figure 7.2 Complete experimental setup.

Figure 7.3 Residual velocity versus impact velocity comparison for different...

Figure 7.4 Different failure modes appearing on impact sequence.

Figure 7.5 Back-face displacement on thick plates for both FSP and sphere pr...

Figure 7.6 Residual velocity versus impact velocity comparison between exper...

Figure 7.7 Failure mechanisms produced during ballistic impact test within t...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Cross-sectional view of orientation of unidirectional carbon (a) ...

Figure 8.2 Impact strength of hybrid, synthetic, and natural fiber composite...

Figure 8.3 Specific modulus (E-modulus/density) of distinct fiber materials....

Figure 8.4 Representation of woven kenaf fibers.

Figure 8.5 Impact strength of kenaf/aramid (epoxy) hybrid composites with di...

Figure 8.6 Cross-sectional view of orientation of cross ply flax fibers with...

Figure 8.7 Impact strength of carbon/flax (epoxy) hybrid composites with dif...

Figure 8.8 Representation of basalt fibers.

Figure 8.9 Comparison of absorbed impact energy of different hybrid composit...

Figure 8.10 Representation of ramie fibers.

Figure 8.11 Representation of E-glass fibers.

Figure 8.12 Tensile strength of natural fiber (ramie), synthetic fiber (glas...

Figure 8.13 Flexural strength of natural fiber (ramie), synthetic fiber (gla...

Figure 8.14 Impact strength of natural fiber (ramie), synthetic fiber (glass...

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 The structure of bast fiber plant.

Figure 9.2 Characterization of bast fibers.

Figure 9.3 (a) Grewia optiva plant, (b) preparation of khall, (c) retting pr...

Figure 9.4 The variations of flexural strength versus laminate composites (A...

Figure 9.5 The variations of elongation at break versus laminate composites ...

Figure 9.6 The variation of tensile and flexural strength versus cotton/nett...

Figure 9.7 The variations of tensile strength versus fabricate composites (A...

Figure 9.8 The variations of flexural strength versus fabricated composites ...

Figure 9.9 The variations of impact strength versus fabricated composites (A...

Figure 9.10 (a) Cover lid for siphon-type solar panel accumulator tank and (...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Types of balsa wood and grain orientations.

Figure 10.2 End grain balsa and grain orientations.

Figure 10.3 Sandwich composite samples (a) before and (b) after fabrication ...

Figure 10.4 A photograph of the vacuum bagging technique.

Figure 10.5 INSTRON universal testing machine compression fixture setup.

Figure 10.6 Flexural three-point bend test fixture on INSTRON UTM.

Figure 10.7 Graph for compression test sample flatwise FC-1.

Figure 10.8 Graph for edgewise transverse compression test specimen TC1.

Figure 10.9 Graph for edgewise longitudinal compression test specimen LC1.

Figure 10.10 Graph for three-point bending test specimen balsa-1.

Figure 10.11 Flexural load–deflection plot of 1 : 1 weight r...

Figure 10.12 Graph for three-point bending test specimen batch 2-1.

Figure 10.13 Graph for three-point bending test specimen batch 3-3.

Figure 10.14 Graph for three-point bending test specimen batch 4-1.

Figure 10.15 Graph for three-point bending test specimen batch 5-3.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Typical chicken feather fiber [21, 74, 77].

Figure 11.2 (a) Flight chicken feather fiber; (b) down chicken feather fiber...

Figure 11.3 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of chicken feather fib...

Chapter 13

Figure 12.1 Photograph of Leitz microhardness tester.

Figure 12.2 Tensile test coupon as per ASTM D3039 type IV.

Figure 12.3 Photograph of UTM used for investigation.

Figure 12.4 Impact test coupon as per ASTM D 256.

Figure 12.5 Photograph of impact tester.

Figure 12.6 Photograph of SEM apparatus utilized for investigation.

Figure 12.7 (a) SEM image of untreated CF in length direction. (b) SEM image...

Figure 12.8 (a) SEM image of treated CF in length direction. (b) SEM image o...

Figure 12.9 Tensile properties of VE–CF hybrid composites.

Figure 12.10 (a) SEM graph of fractured surface of vinyl ester subjected to ...

Figure 12.11 Flexural properties of VE–CF hybrid composites.

Figure 12.12 (a) SEM image of fractured surface of vinyl ester subjected to ...

Figure 12.13 Impact strength of VE and their hybrid composites.

Figure 12.14 (a) SEM image of neat VE depicting flow pattern after impact. (...

Figure 12.15 Coefficient of friction of vinyl ester hybrid composites.

Figure 12.16 Variation of

K

s

of VE/CF and their hybrid composites at 15 N an...

Figure 12.17 Variation of

K

s

of VE/CF and their hybrid composites at 3000 m ...

Figure 12.18 Variation of

K

s

of VE/CF and their hybrid composites at 3000 m ...

Figure 12.19 Variation of

K

s

of VE/CF and their hybrid composites at 3000 m ...

Figure 12.20 Photomicrographs showing the microstructure of (a) V1, (b) V2, ...

Figure 12.21 Worn surface morphology of VE/CF composites: (a) 1 m/s and (b) ...

Figure 12.22 Worn surface morphology of V3 hybrid composites: (a) 1 m/s and ...

Figure 12.23 Worn surface morphology of V4 hybrid composites: (a) 1 m/s and ...

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Illustration of (a) single-gate and subrunner system, (b) sealin...

Figure 13.2 A depiction of (a) the resin and catalyst mixture, (b) Rockwool ...

Figure 13.3 (a) Epoxy infused into the Rockwool mattress and (b) CNSL resin ...

Figure 13.4

Rockwool mattress

(

RM

).

Figure 13.5 EDS of Rockwool mattress.

Figure 13.6 TGA scan of Rockwool sample.

X

, temperature taken in the center ...

Figure 13.7 The DSC results of Rockwool sample.

T

eig

, extrapolated onset tem...

Figure 13.8 Tensile fracture samples of Rockwool/epoxy composite (density 15...

Figure 13.9 Tensile fracture samples of Rockwool/epoxy composite (density 10...

Figure 13.10 Compression test fracture modes of Rockwool/epoxy samples.

Figure 13.11 Compression test fixture and fracture modes of Rockwool/epoxy s...

Figure 13.12 Antiphase microbuckling of fibers in compressions.

Figure 13.13 In-phase and out-of-phase microbuckling of fibers in compressio...

Figure 13.14 In plane–in-phase microbuckling of fibers in compression. (a) C...

Figure 13.15 Fracture and failure modes of the flexurally tested D100 sample...

Figure 13.16 Fracture and failure modes of the flexurally tested D150 sample...

Figure 13.17 Three-point bend setup and fracture of a Rockwool/epoxy sample....

Figure 13.18 A typical load–displacement plot with toe compensation in flexu...

Figure 13.19 The

frequency response function

(

FRF

) curve of the Rockwool/epo...

Figure 13.20 Step formation in the epoxy matrix indicating brittle failure....

Figure 13.21 Fracture cross section of Rockwool fiber in tension.

Figure 13.22 River pattern fracture of matrix due to tension. The figure sho...

Figure 13.23 A low contact angle denoting good adhesion of epoxy matrix with...

Figure 13.24 Compressive fracture feature of the epoxy resin composite.

Figure 13.25 Fiber bridging due to shear in compressive testing.

Figure 13.26 Planar fracture feature of the fiber cross section in compressi...

Figure 13.27 Flexure specimen density 100 showing multiple river patterns.

Figure 13.28 Rockwool density 100 kg/m

3

.

Figure 13.29 Rockwool density 150 kg/m

3

.

Figure 13.30 Tensile failure modes of the Rockwool/CNSL matrix composite.

Figure 13.31 Tensile fracture of a CNSL/Rockwool composite showing a mixed m...

Figure 13.32 Fracture and failure mode in compression.

Figure 13.33 Fiber splitting in compression. (a) A schematic of fibre splitt...

Figure 13.34 In-plane–in-phase and out-of-phase microbuckling. (a) As given ...

Figure 13.35 In-plane shear mode failure through microbuckling of fibers in ...

Figure 13.36 Flexural test procedure for CNSL/Rockwool composite. (a) Set up...

Figure 13.37 Fiber matrix fracture of the CNSL/Rockwool composite in tension...

Figure 13.38 Crack patterns of the matrix fracture in compression.

Figure 13.39 Cracking pattern due to tensile loading revealing fiber matrix ...

Figure 13.40 Fiber pull-out regions of the CNSL matrix.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Schematic diagram of organ tissue printing for cardiac tissue en...

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 (a) Residue in bushes; and particles with (b) 12 mesh, (c) 15 me...

Figure 15.2 Scheme of the dimensions of the composite samples.

Figure 15.3 Result of stress (a) response surface and (b) outline of the sam...

Figure 15.4 Result of stress (a) response surface and (b) the contour of the...

Figure 15.5 Result of strain (a) response surface and (b) outline of the sam...

Figure 15.6 Result of strain (a) response surface and (b) outline of the sam...

Figure 15.7 Result of MOE (a) response surface and (b) outline of the sample...

Figure 15.8 Result of MOE (a) response surface and (b) outline of the sample...

Figure 15.9 Result of tenacity (a) response surface and (b) outline of the s...

Figure 15.10 Result of tenacity (a) response surface and (b) outline of the ...

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 (a) Residue in sleeve and (b) residue after powdered and sifted ...

Figure 16.2 Scheme of the samples for tensile tests.

Figure 16.3 Curve stress and strain of samples studied.

Figure 16.4 Results of stress of the samples studied.

Figure 16.5 Results of strain of the samples studied.

Figure 16.6 Results of MOE of the samples studied.

Figure 16.7 Results of energy break of the samples studied.

Figure 16.8 Results of tenacity of the samples studied.

Figure 16.9 Results of water absorption of the samples studied.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Hybrid composite.

Figure 17.2 Classification of fibers with examples.

Figure 17.3 Classification of fiber structures.

Figure 17.4 Classification of polymers as a matrix.

Figure 17.5 Types of hybrid composites.

Figure 17.6 Various types of nanofillers.

Figure 17.7 Fiber characteristics and their automotive applications (cost [U...

Figure 17.8 Graphic illustration of carbon neutrality in bio-derived automot...

Figure 17.9 Various types of personal protective devices.

Figure 17.10 Classification of impact tests.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

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Hybrid Fiber Composites

Materials, Manufacturing, Process Engineering

Edited by

Anish Khan

Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa

Mohammad Jawaid

Suchart Siengchin

AbdullahM. Asiri

Editors

Dr. Anish KhanKing Abdulaziz UniversityChemistry DepartmentP.O. Box 8020321589 JeddahSaudi Arabia

Dr. Sanjay Mavinkere RangappaKing Mongkut's Univ. of TechnologyDepartment of Mechanical & Process Engineering1518 Pracharaj 1Wongsawang RoadBangsue10800 BangkokThailand

Dr. Mohammad JawaidUniversiti Putra MalaysiaInst. of Tropical ForestrySerdang43400 SelangorMalaysia

Prof. Suchart SiengchinKing Mongkut's University of TechnonogyDpt. of Materials & Production Engin.1518 Pracharat 1 Road, Bangsue10800 BangkokThailand

Prof. Abdullah M. AsiriKing Abdulaziz UniversityChemistry DepartmentP.O. Box 8020321589 JeddahSaudi Arabia

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About the Editors

Dr. Anish Khan, Assistant Professor, Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia, Email: [email protected].

Dr. Anish Khan received his PhD from Aligarh Muslim University, India, from 2010. He has research experience of working in the field of synthetic polymers and organic–inorganic electrically conducting nanocomposites. He received complete postdoctoral from the School of Chemical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), in electroanalytical chemistry in 2010–2011. He has research and teaching experience and has published more than 100 research papers in referred international journals. He has attended more than 20 international conferences/workshops and published three books, 6 books are in progress, and 12 book chapters. He has completed around 20 research projects. He is also the managerial editor of Chemical and Environmental Research (CER) Journal, Member of American Nano Society. His field of specialization is polymer nanocomposite/cation-exchanger/chemical sensor/microbiosensor/nanotechnology, application of nanomaterials in electroanalytical chemistry, material chemistry, ion-exchange chromatography, and electroanalytical chemistry, dealing with the synthesis, characterization (using different analytical techniques), and derivatization of inorganic ion exchanger by the incorporation of electrically conducting polymers; preparation and characterization of hybrid nanocomposite materials, and their applications; polymeric inorganic cation – exchange materials, electrically conducting polymeric, materials, composite material use as sensors, green chemistry by remediation of pollution, heavy metal ion selective membrane electrode, and biosensor on neurotransmitter.

Dr. Sanjay M.R., Research Scientist, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, 1518 Pracharaj 1, Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand, Email: [email protected].

Dr. Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa received his BE (mechanical engineering) from Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, India, in the year 2010, MTech (computational analysis in mechanical sciences) from VTU Extension Centre, GEC, Hassan, in the year 2013, PhD (faculty of mechanical engineering science) from Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, India, in the year 2017, and Postdoctorate from King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Thailand, in the year 2019. He is a life member of Indian Society for Technical Education (ISTE) and associate member of Institute of Engineers (India). He has reviewed more than 40 international journals and international conferences (for Elsevier, Springer, Sage, Taylor & Francis, Wiley). In addition, he has published more than 70 articles in high-quality international peer-reviewed journals, 13 book chapters, 1 book, 11 books as editor, and also presented research papers at national/international conferences. His current research areas include natural fiber composites, polymer composites, and advanced material technology. He is a recipient of DAAD Academic exchange-PPP Programme (Project-related Personnel Exchange) between Thailand and Germany to Institute of Composite Materials, University of Kaiserslautern, Germany. He has received a Top Peer Reviewer 2019 award and Global Peer Review Awards, Powdered by Publons, Web of Science Group.

Dr. Mohammad Jawaid, Fellow Researcher (Associate Professor), at Biocomposite Technology Laboratory, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia, and also a Visiting Professor at the Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia since June 2013, Email: [email protected].

Dr. Mohammad Jawaid received his PhD from Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia. He has more than 10 years of experience in teaching, research, and industries. He is also a visiting scholar to TEMAG Labs, Department of Textile Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey. He previously worked as a visiting lecturer at the Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) and also worked as an expatriate lecturer under UNDP project with the Ministry of Education of Ethiopia at Adama University, Ethiopia. His area of research interests includes hybrid reinforced/filled polymer composites, advance materials: graphene/nanoclay/fire-retardant, lignocellulosic reinforced/filled polymer composites, modification and treatment of lignocellulosic fibers and solid wood, nanocomposites and nanocellulose fibers, and polymer blends. So far, he has published 11 books, 22 book chapters, more than 160 international journal papers, and five published review papers under top 25 hot articles in Science Direct during 2014–2016. He is also the deputy editor-in-chief of Malaysian Polymer Journal and Guest Editor for Current Organic Synthesis and Current Analytical Chemistry. He has reviewed several high-impact ISI journals (44 Journals).

Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Suchart Siengchin, President of King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Department of Materials and Production Engineering (MPE), The Sirindhorn International Thai – German Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, 1518 Pracharaj 1, Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand, Email: [email protected].

Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Suchart Siengchin received his Dipl.-Ing. in mechanical engineering from the University of Applied Sciences Giessen/Friedberg, Hessen, Germany in 1999; MSc in polymer technology from the University of Applied Sciences Aalen, Baden-Wuerttemberg, Germany in 2002; MSc in materials science at the Erlangen-Nürnberg University, Bayern, Germany in 2004, Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering (Dr.-Ing.) from the Institute for Composite Materials, University of Kaiserslautern, Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany in 2008, and Postdoctoral Research from Kaiserslautern University and School of Materials Engineering, Purdue University, USA. In 2016, he received the habilitation at the Chemnitz University in Sachen, Germany. He worked as a lecturer for Production and Material Engineering Department at The Sirindhorn International Thai-German Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), KMUTNB. He has been a full-time professor at KMUTNB and became the president of KMUTNB. He won the Outstanding Researcher Award in 2010, 2012, and 2013 at KMUTNB. His research interests include polymer processing and composite material. He is the editor-in-chief of KMUTNB International Journal of Applied Science and Technology and has authored 150+ peer-reviewed journal articles. He has participated with presentations in more than 39 international and national conferences with respect to materials science and engineering topics.

Prof. Dr. Abdullah Mohammed Asiri, Director of the Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research (CEAMR), Chair, Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia, Email: [email protected]; [email protected].

Prof. Dr. Abdullah Mohammed Ahmed Asiri received his PhD (1995) from the University of Walls College of Cardiff, UK, on tribochromic compounds and their applications. He is currently the chairman of the Department of Chemistry, King Abdulaziz University, and also the director of the Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research, the director of Education Affair Unit–Deanship of Community services, the member of advisory committee for advancing materials (National Technology Plan, King Abdul Aziz City of Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia). His research interests include color chemistry, synthesis of novel photochromic and thermochromic systems, synthesis of novel colorants and coloration of textiles and plastics, molecular modeling, applications of organic materials into optics such as OEDS, high-performance organic dyes and pigments, new applications of organic photochromic compounds in new novelty, organic synthesis of heterocyclic compounds as precursor for dyes, synthesis of polymers functionalized with organic dyes, preparation of some coating formulations for different applications, photodynamic thereby using organic dyes and pigments virtual labs and experimental simulations. He is the member of editorial board of Journal of Saudi Chemical Society, Journal of King Abdul Aziz University, Pigment and Resin Technology Journal, Organic Chemistry Insights, Libertas Academica, Recent Patents on Materials Science, and Bentham Science Publishers Ltd. Besides that, he has professional membership of International and National Society and Professional bodies.

1Natural and Synthetic Fibers for Hybrid Composites

Brijesh Gangil1, Lalit Ranakoti2, Shashikant Verma3, Tej Singh4, and Sandeep Kumar1

1H.N.B. Garhwal University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Srinagar, Garhwal, India

2NIT, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Uttarakhand, India

3Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jhansi, India

4Eötvös Loránd University, Savaria Institute of Technology, Szombathely, Hungary

1.1 Introduction

Emerging research concerns mainly with the environmental and economic issues related to the design of new materials for future industries. For the past few decades, various industrial sectors are trying to replace the synthetic fibers with natural fibers as reinforcements in polymer composites. Composite materials have been providing a major amount of research and industrial work for an age because of their favorable and outstanding properties. Moreover, they can be produced and processed with low investment [1]. The composite material is a combination of fiber/filler and matrix (polymer). The combination of fiber and matrix can be arranged by using the hybrid (one or two fibers) with the base polymer matrix. The main purpose of using fibers is to provide strength to the composite. Factors that influence the properties of fibers are length, orientation, shape, and materials [2]. Based on the polymer used for the manufacturing, fibers can be selected either naturally or synthetically. Fibers that are generally obtained from plant, animal, or cultivated are called natural fibers such as jute, ramie, sisal, hemp, coir, grewia optiva, silk, bamboo, etc. On the other hand, fibers that are manufactured through various man-made processes are called synthetic fibers such as carbon, Kevlar, glass, etc. Both natural and synthetic fibers have their own merits and demerits with respect to the polymer used for the fabrication of the composite. As compared to synthetic fibers, natural fibers are environment friendly, renewable, cheap, nonhazardous, nonabrasive, and easily available, but the cons of using natural fibers is their low mechanical properties as compared to synthetic fibers [3]. Another major drawback of natural fibers is their affection toward water because of the presence of cellulose. This hydrophilic nature leads to poor interfacial bonding between the fiber and matrix. On the other hand, synthetic fibers, being hydrophobic materials, form a good bonding with the polymers. Sometimes, fibers are applied in hybrid form to take the advantage of both natural and synthetic fibers, which is generally called hybridization in composite. This hybridization brings out various attractive properties of both natural and synthetic fibers, which resulted in superior mechanical and tribological properties of the final composite [4, 5]. However, this is not the sole cause of the variation in the properties of the composite. Fiber type, fiber size, percentage of fiber, polymer used, processing techniques, and chemical treatment are the vital factors that can be employed to achieve promising results in the composite properties. The present discussion is therefore relied on the various natural and synthetic fibers available, their effect on the composite, chemical alteration of natural fibers, and the applications of natural and synthetic fibers. The discussion also includes the inclusion of hybridization in composite structure and their effects.

1.2 Natural Fibers

The suitability of synthetic fibers in polymer composites is losing hold because of their higher price, nonbiodegradability, and problems of dumping off. These problems can be easily resolved with the exploitation of natural fibers in the field of polymer composites, but a compromise is made among the physical and mechanical properties obtained.

Natural fibers, as the name suggests, are a particular substance that exist naturally and are not man-made. Being renewable, natural fibers are assumed as a good substitute for traditional materials. Because of their higher aspect ratio and high strength, natural fibers are gaining greater attention in the automotive sectors for structural applications [6]. In addition, natural fibers are also gaining interest in the field of textile, medical implantation, building structures, aviation, etc. New plant fibers are being investigated by researchers seeking their interest in developing lightweight, renewable, economical, and socially benefited for replacing traditional materials. It has been found that composites are produced by using natural fibers that hold good electrical resistance, better mechanical properties, decent thermal and acoustic insulating properties, and higher resistance to fracture in some cases [7–9]. Fibers can be transformed into various forms, such as rovings, mats, fabrics, and yarns, and then used as reinforcements in composite materials. [10, 11]. Natural fibers are available in three forms: vegetables/plants, animals, and minerals (e.g. asbestos), as shown in Figure 1.1 [12, 13].

Figure 1.1 Classification of natural fibers [12, 13].

The physical and mechanical properties of natural fibers are not as attractive as those of synthetic fibers. However, if we compare these properties, it can be well stated that synthetic fibers can be replaced for some but not all areas of the polymer composites. These areas can be interiors of automobile, dashboard, rooftops, tiles, etc., where the load bearing requirement is low. Some common natural fibers and synthetic fibers and their properties are listed in Table 1.1.

1.3 Microstructure of Natural Fibers

Natural fibers consist of a complex structure having amorphous lignin as the reinforced material and/or hemicelluloses as the matrix. Natural fibers generally have cellulose, lignin, hemicelluloses, pectin, water-soluble compounds, and wax constituents beside cotton. Lignin, hemicellulose, and pectin jointly function as matrix and adhesive to hold the cellulosic frame structure of natural fibers [14]. The properties of cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, and pectin are discussed in Table 1.2 [15] (Table 1.3).

1.4 Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites

Composites are the combination of two or more constituents having different phases, and phases can clearly be observed macroscopically by naked eyes. Composites have two main parts: one is matrix and another is reinforcement. Matrix has constant properties throughout the section and is ductile in nature. Therefore, another phase is added in the matrix to enhance the property in the desired direction is known as reinforcement. Matrix provides the support and texture and reinforcement provides strength for matrix. According to the materials used, matrix is of three types, namely, polymers, metal matrix, and ceramic metal composites. Polymers are the best option to be used in various industries because they show convenience in processing, increased productivity, and reduced cost [3]. A natural fiber-reinforced polymer (NFRP) is a composite material that consists of a polymer matrix embedded with high-strength fibers, such as jute, cotton silk hemp wool, etc. Upcoming biopolymers entail special processing settings for the enhancement of specific properties. PLA (polylactic acid), PHAs (polyhydroxyalkanoates), PHB (polyhydroxybutyrate), PBS (polybutylene succinate), TPSs (thermoplastic starches), and PEF (polyethylene furanoate) are common trending biopolymers in the composite field. Among all the biopolymers, PLA is found to be more economic and available [16]. The properties of the composites not only depend on the percentage, orientation, and shape of fiber but also majorly depend on the interfacial/surface bonding between the fiber and the matrix. Subsequently, better interfacial bonding leads to greater bonding between the fiber and the matrix. Thus, surface treatment of fiber is considered as a vital process in the field of composites. Chemical treatment has now become one among the most important areas in today's research. A large amount of literature available has targeted the studies on the treatment of fibers to improve the bonding between fiber and matrix [17]. It was reported in the study that treatment of fibers with alkali solution (20% NaOH solution) leads to reduction in moisture absorption to 20%, provided the fiber is further treated with 5% acrylic solution [18]. Literature also suggested that reinforcement of fiber should be limited to a certain amount beyond that limit and no changes have been observed. Properties such as tensile strength, young modulus, flexural strength, and impact strength are found to be enhanced with the reinforcement of fiber. Alongside, natural fillers are also available in the market, which not only enhance the mechanical properties but also make the composite economical viable. Fillers have the ability to improve properties such as toughness and fatigue. With regard to fillers, natural fillers obtained from processing of oak wood enhanced strain in failure for a wood filler polypropylene composite but reduce the strength and stiffness as compared to a virgin polymer produced in a six-step filter process [19]. Variation of percentage of fiber indeed is a vital factor in the properties of a composite. The presence of cellulose and hemicellulose in the natural filler provides better adhesive property upon treatment with NaOH. This may be attributed to the porosity created at the surface of the fiber because of the addition of bamboo fillers to the epoxy–fiber composite. Carada et al. [20] investigated the heat treatment of kenaf fiber. It was performed for an hour at different temperatures ranging from 140 to 200 °C with the difference of 20 °C. Results obtained in the study suggested that adequate tensile strength was obtained at 140°, and no improvement is observed beyond it [20]. The fiber in mat form also improves the mechanical property of the polymer composite. Hemp fiber in the form of mat after treatment resulted in enhanced mechanical property of the hemp–polyester composite [21]. Alkali treatment of bamboo fiber leads to enhancement of interfacial bonding of fiber and matrix [22]. One of the treatments called biological treatment of fiber resulted in the improvement of tensile strength of the composite and reduces the degradation of sample [23].

Table 1.1 Properties of natural fibers in relation to those of synthetic fibers [51–53].

Fiber

Density (g/cm

3

)

Length (mm)

Diameter (μm)

Failure strain (%)

Tensile strength (MPa)

Young's modulus (GPa)

Specific tensile strength (MPa/(g cm

3

))

Specific Young's modulus (GPa/(g cm

3

))

Ramie

1.5

900–1200

25–50

2.0–3.8

400–938

44–128

270–620

29–85

Silk

1.3

Continuous

10–13

15–60

100–1500

5–25

100–1500

4–20

Cotton

1.5–1.6

10–60

11–22

3.0–10

287–800

5.5–13

190–530

3.7–8.4

Pineapple leaf fiber

1.07

3–9

100–280

2.2

120–130

4.405

112.15–121.5

0.68–2.04

Flax

1.5

5–900

12–16

1.2–2.2

345–1830

27–80

230–1220

18–53

Hemp

1.4–1.5

5–55

16–50

1.6

550–1110

58–70

370–740

39–47

Jute

1.3–1.5

1.5–120

17–20

1.5–1.8

393–800

10–55

300–610

7.1–39

Harakeke

1.3

4–5

6–30

4.2–5.8

440–990

14–33

338–761

11–25

Sisal

1.33–1.5

900–1000

200–400

2.0–2.5

507–855

9.4–28

362–610

6.7–20

Alfa

1.4

350

—

15

300–900

18–25

214–643

13–18

Coir

1.15–1.46

20–150

10–460

15–30

131–200

4–6

110–180

3.3–5

Oil palm

0.7–1.55

248

50–500

3–4

200–250

3.20

129–357

2.06–4.57

Abaca

1.5

1800–3700

40

1.0–7.0

100–900

6–32

70–600

4–21.3

Bagasse

1.25

1.2

15

1.1

170–290

17–28

136–232

13.6–22.4

Bamboo

0.6–1.1

1–5

14–27

1–3

450–800

5–25

409–1333

4.54–42

Banana

0.91

2.5–13

80–250

1.4–2.9

53.7

3–15

59.01

3–16

Curaua

1.3–1.5

150–1500

40–320

3.7–4.3

500–1150

63.7

333.33–885

7.87–9.08

Date palm

0.9–1.2

20–250

100–1000

2.5–5.4

393–773

13–26.5

327.5–858.89

10.83–29.44

Isora

1.39

6–14

10–20

5, 6

550

—

395.68

—

Kenaf

0.6–1.5

3000

20–80

1, 2

400–800

12

266.67–1333.33

8–20

Piassava

1.40

134–143

400–2400

5–10

138.5

—

98.9

—

E glass

2.5

Continuous

0.55–0.77

2.5

2000–3000

70

800–1400

29

Carbon

1.65–1.75

Continuous

5–10

1.7

3790

—

2165–2400

—

Kevlar-49

1.467

Continuous

12

2.8

2900–3620

151.7

1977–2468

103.4

Table 1.2 Properties of natural fibers.

Source: From Westman et al. 2010 [15].

Cellulose

Hemicellulose

Lignin

Pectin

Linear glucose polymer consisting of β-1,4 linked glucose units

Produces stable hydrophobic polymers with high tensile strength

Branched polymers containing sugar and carbon of varied chemical structure

Amorphous, cross-linked polymer network

Works as chemical adhesive within and between fibers

Complex polysaccharides with chains consisting of glucuronic acid polymers and residue of rhamnose.

Calcium ions improve surface integrity in pectin rich area

Table 1.3 Chemical composition of natural plant fibers.

Fiber

Cellulose (wt%)

Hemicellulose (wt%)

Lignin (wt%)

Wax (wt%)

Pectin (wt%)

Cotton

82.7

5.7

—

0.6

—

Ramie

68.6–76.2

131–16.7

0.6–0.7

0.3

1.9

Bagasse

55.2

16.8

25.3

—

—

Henequen

77.6

4–8

13.1

—

—

Bamboo

26–43

30

21–31

—

—

Flax

71

18.6–20.6

2.2

1.5

2.3

Kenaf

72

20.3

9

—

—

Jute

61–71

14–20

12–13

0.5

0.4

Hemp

68

15

10

0.8

0.9

Ramie

68.6–76.2

13–16

0.6–0.7

0.3

0.3

Pine apple leaf fiber

(

PALF

)

70–82

—

5–12

—

—

Abaca

56–63

20–25

7–9

3

12, 13

Sisal

65

12

9.9

2

10

Coir

32–43

0.15–0.25

40–50

—

3, 4

Oil palm

65

—

29

—

—

Pineapple

81

—

12.7

—

—

Curaua

73.6

9.9

7.5

—

—

Wheat straw

38–45

15–31

12–20

—

—

Rice husk

35–45

19–25

20

14–17

—

Rice straw

41–57

23

8–19

8–28

—

Banana

81.80

—

15

—

—

Date palm

40.21

12.8

32.2

5.08

—

Kapok

64

23

13

—

—

Areca

—

35–64.8

13–24.8

—

—

1.4.1 Synthetic Fibers

Synthetic fibers are the man-made fibers that do not originate naturally. Products of petroleum are the main source of synthetic fibers. Synthetic fibers have better properties than natural fibers. Different chemicals having their own property are mainly used to produce the synthetic fibers. Nylon, acrylics, polyesters, polyurethanes, etc., are the synthetic fibers produced from chemical products [24]. These fibers possess high mechanical property, durability, and stability and have long-lasting life span. There are various types of synthetic fibers in which mainly three types of synthetic fibers are used in the composite industry at a large scale: Kevlar (aramid), glass fiber, and carbon (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 Images of synthetic fibers: (a) glass fiber, (b) Kevlar fiber, and (c) carbon fiber.

Table 1.4 Different types of glass fibers and physical and mechanical properties.

Source: From Saba and Jawaid 2017 [24].

Glass fiber type

Silicon dioxides (SiO

2

) (%)

Density (g/cm

3

)

Tensile strength (MPa)

Modulus (GPa)

Elongation at break (%)

A-type

63–72

2.44

3300

72

4.8

C-type

64–68

2.56

3300

69

4.8

D-type

72–75

2.11

2500

55

4.5

E-type

52–56

2.54

3448

72

4.7

R-type

56–60

2.52

4400

86

5.1

S-type

64–66

2.53

4600

89

5.2

ECR-type

54–62

2.72

3400

80

4.3

AR-type

55–75

2.7

1700

72

2.3

1.4.2 Glass Fibers

Highly attractive physical and mechanical properties of glass fibers, ease of manufacturing, and their comparable low cost to carbon fibers make it a highly preferable material in high-performance composite applications. Glass fibers are composed of oxides of silica. Glass fibers have outstanding mechanical properties, such as less fragility, extreme strength, less stiffness, and lightweight. Glass fiber-reinforcing polymers consist of a large family of different forms of glass fibers such as longitudinal, chopped strand fiber, woven mat, and chopped strand mat used to increase the mechanical and tribological properties of polymer composites [25]. Study has been carried out to investigate the suitability of glass fibers with the polymer such as rubber. It is possible to obtain high initial aspect ratio with fibers of glass, but fragility causes fibers to break during processing. Some physical and mechanical properties of glass fibers are listed below (Table 1.4).

1.4.3 Carbon Fibers

It is one of the strongest fibers known and has wide applications in high-performance applications. Because of its outstanding mechanical and thermal properties such as high stiffness, high thermal conductivity, high tensile strength, high elastic modulus, low weight, high temperature tolerance, high chemical resistance, and low weight, they are mainly used in the aerospace industry. Carbon fibers are manufactured from rayon, petroleum pitch, and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) [26]. There are three types of fore runners commonly used such as PAN forerunner, rayon forerunner, and pitch forerunner. Fifty percent of fiber mass of commercial carbon fibers are mainly generated by PAN forerunner. Short carbon fibers are extensively used because of their appealing properties such as ease of fabrication, high stiffness, relatively low cost, and strength to weight ratio [27] (Table 1.5).

Table 1.5 Properties of carbon fibers.

Precursor

Property

PAN

Pitch

Rayon

Density (g/cm

3

)

1.77–1.96

2.0–2.2

1.7

Tensile strength (MPa)

1925–6200

2275–4060

2070–2760

Tensile modulus (GPa)

230–595

170–980

415–550

Elongation (%)

0.4–1.2

0.25–0.7

—

Thermal conductivity (W/m K)

20–80

400–1100

—

Fiber diameter (μm)

5–8

10–11

6.5

Table 1.6 Typical properties of Kevlar fibers.

Property (unit)

Density (g/cm

3

)

Diameter (μm)

Tensile strength (MPa)

Tensile modulus (GPa)

Elongation (%)

Kevlar grade

Kevlar 29

1.44

12

2760

62

3.4

Kevlar 49

1.44

12

3620

124

2.8

1.4.4 Kevlar or Aramid Fibers

Kevlar fibers or aromatic polyamide threads (aramid) are produced by using para-phenylenediamine and terephthaloyl chloride [28]. Because of the molecular orientation, these fibers have high strength and excellent thermal conductivity as compared to glass and carbon fibers [29]. The manufacturing process and the equipment used in the manufacturing of Kevlar fibers are very costly, so Kevlar fibers are generally high in cost [29]. Kevlar fibers have abundant properties such as good resistance to abrasion, nonconductivity, high degradation temperature, good fabric integrity, good resistance to organic solvent, no melting point, and low flammability [30]. There are three types of Kevlar fibers in existence: Kevlar, Kevlar 49, and Kevlar 29 (Table 1.6).

In order to increase the mechanical properties and improve the interfacial interaction, some modifications were adopted, such as direct hydrolysis, planetary ball milling, and hydrolysis treatment of ball mill [31]. Various kevlar fiber (KF) treatment methods are as follows (Table 1.7).

1.4.5 Comparison Between Natural and Synthetic Fibers

The selection of natural fibers depends on the availability in local level and after that is seeking to property requirements. It is seen that the mechanical properties of natural fibers are moderate as compared to those of synthetic fibers; similarly, in opposite manner, the thermal and moisture sensitivity of natural fibers is higher than that of the synthetic fibers. Natural fibers exhibit superior mechanical properties such as flexibility, stiffness, and modulus compared to glass fibers. In an environmental point of view, the major factor of selection of natural fibers to the synthetic fibers is that recyclability of natural fibers is better than the synthetic fibers. Some basic comparison between natural and synthetic fibers is shown in Table 1.8 [32].

Table 1.7 Nomenclature used for Kevlar fibers without and with various surface treatments [31, 54].

Fiber

Surface modification techniques

Kevlar

Untreated

Hydrolyzation

Ball milling technic

Ball milling + hydrolyzation

Ball milling + phosphoric acid

Ball milling + phosphoric acid + hydrolyzation

Table 1.8 The basic comparison between natural and synthetic fibers.

Properties

Natural fibers

Synthetic fibers

Density

Low

Twice that of natural fibers

Cost

Low

High, compared to

natural fiber

(

NF

)

Renewability

Yes

No

Recyclability

Yes

No

Energy consumption

Low

High

Distribution

Wide

Wide

CO

2

neutral

Yes

No

Abrasion to machines

No

Yes

Health risk when inhaled

No

Yes

Disposal

Biodegradable

Not biodegradable

1.5 Hybrid Fiber-Based Polymer Composites

Hybridization is a technique in which two or more than two fibers are employed to a single-base matrix. The term hybridization sometimes also refers to the implementation of fillers in the fiber polymer composite [33]. Hybridization is not new to the researchers; in fact, it has been in practice for centuries. Properties such as physical, mechanical, and thermal get influenced in a positive manner because of the hybridization. This is attributed to the increase in the fiber–fiber and fiber–matrix adhesion. To reduce the overall cost of manufacturing, natural fibers are added to synthetic fiber polymer composites but compromising with the strength of the composite. It has been found that the hybridization has been in the top most priorities of various researchers. Hybrid composites are now being formed in various forms. These are core shell type, sandwich type, laminated type, two-by-two type, intimately type, etc.

Mechanical, thermal, and dynamic properties increase substantially for oil palm–epoxy-based composite because of the enhancement in the adhesive bonding of fiber and matrix. Addition of natural fibers in glass fiber-reinforced polymer composites leads to enhancement of impact tensile and flexural strength [34]. It has been noticed that hybridization of jute and oil palm fiber resulted in higher tensile strength, provided that the weightage of jute fiber should be higher [35]. The majority of work in the field of hybridization has been stick to hybridization of natural and synthetic fibers. In this regard, sisal, a natural fiber, can be hybridized with glass fibers, which results in the enhancement of tensile and flexural modulus. Hybridization does not always work for every aspect of the composite taken into consideration. It can be stated that enhancement of one property sometimes leads to reduction of another and vice versa. Similar results have been reported for sisal–glass/polypropylene hybridization. It has been reported that tensile and flexural strength increases but negotiating with the properties such as tensile and flexural modulus. Moreover, thermal and water resistance behavior also improves for sisal–glass polymer composites [36]. Hemp, which is a plant fiber, is also finding its place in hybridization because of its influential properties. In the hybrid composites, layering sequence plays an important role in deciding the mechanical properties of the formed composites. From previous research, it is concluded that hybrid laminates with two extremes synthetic fibers plies on both sides has the optimum amalgamation with a good balance between the properties and the cost. It has also been found that glass fibers, when hybridized with hemp fiber, lead to improvement in mechanical and physical properties and reduction in the overall cost of composites [37]. Similar to hemp, flax fiber well known from the centuries can also be hybridized with synthetic fibers [38]. Hybrid composites of flax and glass fiber lead to significance improvement in the tensile strength of the composite. Jute is a natural fiber available in very large amount, which is also applied in the hybridization with glass leading to better tensile and flexural strength of the composite. Hybridization also plays a very critical role in the enhancement of properties for green composites [39]. Thus, green composites of bamboo–cellulosic fiber-based PLA composite are found to have better resistance for fracture toughness [40].

1.5.1 Applications

Applications of synthetic fiber polymer composites can be seen as gradual increasing phenomena.

It is the need of the hour that requires replacement of synthetic fibers with the natural fibers for various applications because of the favorable properties of natural fibers [41, 42]. However, because of certain drawbacks, the natural fibers cannot be used solely; hence, the time requires the combined advantages of both fibers (natural and synthetic) in a single component. This gives rise to the development of hybrid composites; the various applications of hybrid natural fiber composites are as follows:

Parts of automobile such as door panels, instrument panels, armrests, headrests, and seat shells and parcel shells are now being fabricated by hybrid fiber composites [43]. In the recent development, the under-floor protection chamber in a passenger car for the safety purpose has been successfully designed and developed by the banana fiber polymer composite [44]. Similarly, mirrors, visor of a two-wheeler, billion seat cover, indicator cover, cover L-side, and name plate are also being manufactured with the use of natural sisal fiber polymer composites [45]. Cost-effective components can also be easily manufactured with the use of hybridization technique [46]. One such application can be seen in the application of bumper of automobile, which is manufactured by the hybridization of kenaf and glass fibers [47]. In the water bodies such as small boats and ships, composites based on glass–sugar palm fiber finds hell of a lot of applications [48]. Natural fiber and synthetic fiber-based composites have proved their potential to be a good material for the structural applications. Jute fiber-based hybrid composites with concrete as a matrix are being developed for the application of structural composites [49]. These applications comprise building panels, roofing sheets, door frames, door shutters, transport, packaging, geo textiles, chipboards, absorbent cotton, storage device, furniture, transportation, household accessories, and biodegradable shopping bag. Coir-based polymers and ceramic composites are also used in building panels, flush door shutters, roofing sheets, storage tank, packing material, helmets and postboxes, mirror casing, paper weights, projector cover, voltage stabilizer cover, a filling material for the seat upholstery, brushes and brooms, ropes and yarns for nets, bags, and mats, as well as padding for mattresses and seat cushions. Thermally sound materials that require fire resistance properties can also be fabricated with the help of natural fiber polymer composites. This is due to the fact that natural fibers have porous microstructures that provide fire-resistant properties [50].

1.6 Conclusion

Advancement in material research has been pushed ahead further by the development in composite materials. Diversion of research from monolithic materials to polymeric composites has been successfully achieved by natural and synthetic polymeric composites. High-strength materials can now be easily designed and manufactured by the use of composite materials. Synthetic fiber-reinforced composites are somehow shown to be a better alternative for metal materials as compared to natural fiber-reinforced composites, but sustainability issues make the natural fiber more impressive. Chemical modification of natural fiber helps in enhancement of strength of natural fiber and interfacial bonding between the fiber and the matrix. Fabrication technique is also an important issue that should also be taken in the consideration. Research should be excelled in the field of hybridization to achieve better and sustainable composites.

References

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Mechanical and Physical Testing of Biocomposites, Fibre-Reinforced Composites and Hybrid Composites

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