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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
The primary reference for the modeling of hydrodynamics and water quality in rivers, lake, estuaries, coastal waters, and wetlands
This comprehensive text perfectly illustrates the principles, basic processes, mathematical descriptions, case studies, and practical applications associated with surface waters. It focuses on solving practical problems in rivers, lakes, estuaries, coastal waters, and wetlands. Most of the theories and technical approaches presented within have been implemented in mathematical models and applied to solve practical problems. Throughout the book, case studies are presented to demonstrate how the basic theories and technical approaches are implemented into models, and how these models are applied to solve practical environmental/water resources problems.
This new edition of Hydrodynamics and Water Quality: Modeling Rivers, Lakes, and Estuaries has been updated with more than 40% new information. It features several new chapters, including one devoted to shallow water processes in wetlands as well as another focused on extreme value theory and environmental risk analysis. It is also supplemented with a new website that provides files needed for sample applications, such as source codes, executable codes, input files, output files, model manuals, reports, technical notes, and utility programs. This new edition of the book:
- Includes more than 120 new/updated figures and 450 references
- Covers state-of-the-art hydrodynamics, sediment transport, toxics fate and transport, and water quality in surface waters
- Provides essential and updated information on mathematical models
- Focuses on how to solve practical problems in surface waters—presenting basic theories and technical approaches so that mathematical models can be understood and applied to simulate processes in surface waters
Hailed as “a great addition to any university library” by the Journal of the American Water Resources Association (July 2009), Hydrodynamics and Water Quality, Second Edition is an essential reference for practicing engineers, scientists, and water resource managers worldwide.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Preface to the Second Edition
Reference
Foreword to the First Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Acknowledgments for the First Edition
Abbreviations
About the Companion Website
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Overview
1.2 Understanding Surface Waters
1.3 Modeling of Surface Waters
1.4 About This Book
Chapter 2: Hydrodynamics
2.1 Hydrodynamic Processes
2.2 Governing Equations
2.3 Temperature
2.4 Hydrodynamic Modeling
Chapter 3: Sediment Transport
3.1 Overview
3.2 Sediment Processes
3.3 Cohesive Sediment
3.4 Noncohesive Sediment
3.5 Sediment Bed
3.6 Wind Waves
3.7 Sediment Transport Modeling
Chapter 4: Pathogens and Toxics
4.1 Overview
4.2 Pathogens
4.3 Toxic Substances
4.4 Fate and Transport Processes
4.5 Contaminant Modeling
Chapter 5: Water Quality and Eutrophication
5.1 Overview
5.2 Algae
5.3 Organic Carbon
5.4 Phosphorus
5.5 Nitrogen
5.6 Dissolved Oxygen
5.7 Sediment Fluxes
5.8 Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
5.9 Water Quality Modeling
Chapter 6: External Sources and TMDL
6.1 Point Sources and Nonpoint Sources
6.2 Atmospheric Deposition
6.3 Groundwater
6.4 Watershed Processes and TMDL Development
Chapter 7: Mathematical Modeling and Statistical Analyses
7.1 Mathematical Models
7.2 Statistical Analyses
7.3 Model Calibration and Verification
Chapter 8: Rivers
8.1 Characteristics of Rivers
8.2 Hydrodynamic Processes in Rivers
8.3 Sediment and Water Quality Processes in Rivers
8.4 River Modeling
Chapter 9: Lakes and Reservoirs
9.1 Characteristics of Lakes and Reservoirs
9.2 Hydrodynamic Processes in Lakes
9.3 Sediment and Water Quality Processes in Lakes
9.4 Lake Modeling
Chapter 10: Estuaries and Coastal Waters
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Tidal Processes
10.3 Hydrodynamic Processes in Estuaries
10.4 Sediment and Water Quality Processes in Estuaries
10.5 Estuarine and Coastal Modeling
Chapter 11: Wetlands
11.1 Characteristics of Wetlands
11.2 Hydrodynamic Processes in Wetlands
11.3 Sediment and Water Quality Processes in Wetlands
11.4 Constructed Wetlands
11.5 Wetland Modeling
Chapter 12: Risk Analysis
12.1 Extreme Value Theory
12.2 Environmental Risk Analysis
Appendix A: Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code
A.1 Overview
A.2 Hydrodynamics
A.3 Sediment Transport
A.4 Toxic Chemical Transport and Fate
A.5 Water Quality and Eutrophication
A.6 Numerical Schemes
A.7 Documentation and Application Aids
Appendix B: Conversion Factors
Appendix C: Contents of Electronic Files
C.1 Channel Model
C.2 Blackstone River Model
C.3 St. Lucie Estuary and Indian River Lagoon Model
C.4 Lake Okeechobee Environmental Model
C.5 Documentation and Utility Programs
Appendix D: Introduction to EFDC_Explorer
D.1 Capabilities
D.2 New Features and Improvements
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface to the Second Edition
Foreword to the First Edition
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: Introduction
Figure 1.1 A farmer pumps water out of the Nile River, Egypt, for irrigation.
Figure 1.2 Illinois River watershed, Lake Tenkiller drainage basin, the lake, and its main tributaries.
Figure 1.3 Water's natural cycle.
Figure 1.4 Relationship between different surface water systems.
Figure 1.5 Major components (submodels) of the EFDC model.
Chapter 2: Hydrodynamics
Figure 2.1 Variations of water density with water temperature under salinity values of 0, 10, 20, 30, and 40 ppt.
Figure 2.2 Velocity profile in a channel.
Figure 2.3 Error function and complementary error function.
Figure 2.4 Longitudinal distribution of contaminant deposited instantaneously at
x
= 0, according to Eq. (2.32).
Figure 2.5 Spreading of contaminant in time and space in a steady uniform flow.
Figure 2.6 Sampling station LZ40 in Lake Okeechobee, FL. Its location in the lake is shown in Figure 2.25. The data measured at LZ40 are used extensively in this book.
Source:
Figure 2.7 Measured wind at Station LZ40 in Lake Okeechobee, FL.
Figure 2.8 Measured air temperature at LZ40 in Lake Okeechobee, FL.
Figure 2.9 Pressure gradient and geostrophic flow.
Figure 2.10
x–z
Coordinates.
Figure 2.11 Vertical sigma coordinate system.
z
*
= Cartesian coordinate in the vertical direction,
z
= the sigma coordinate, and (
x
,
y
) = Cartesian coordinates in the horizontal directions.
Figure 2.12 Sigma coordinate and variable locations.
Figure 2.13 Orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system for a meandering river.
Figure 2.14 (a) Curvilinear grid in a study domain. (b) Curvilinear grid after curvilinear grid transformation.
Figure 2.15 Model variable locations on a curvilinear grid.
Figure 2.16 Boundary conditions.
Figure 2.17 Boundary conditions and sediment transport processes in estuarine and coastal water.
Source:
Figure 2.18 Hourly water temperature in Lake Okeechobee, FL, for 72 h, starting from August 24, 1999 at midnight.
Figure 2.19 Seasonal stratifications of water temperature profiles in Lake Wister, OK (OWRB, 1996).
Figure 2.20 Heat flux components.
Figure 2.21 Hourly averaged heat flux components measured on the Japan/East Sea (about 40°N and 134°E) between January 16, 2000 and February 5, 2000.
Figure 2.22 Daily averaged heat flux components (in W/m
2
) measured in the central Arabian Sea (15°30'N, 61°30'E) between October 15, 1994 and October 20, 1995. (a) Solar radiation; (b) longwave radiation; (c) sensible heat; (d) latent heat.
Source:
Figure 2.23 Hourly measured solar radiation in Lake Okeechobee, FL.
Figure 2.24 Structure of the EFDC hydrodynamic model.
Figure 2.25 Lake Okeechobee, the LOEM model grid, data sampling stations, and major inflows/outflows.
Figure 2.26 Lake Okeechobee bathymetry (unit in meters) (SFWMD, 2002).
Figure 2.27 Measured total inflow (solid line) and total outflow (dashed line).
Figure 2.28 Observed (dotted line) and modeled (solid line) water depths at LZ40.
Figure 2.29 Observed (dotted line) and simulated (solid line) surface currents at LZ40 for 48 days, from January 18, 2000 to March 5, 2000.
Figure 2.30 Observed (dotted line) and simulated (solid line) bottom currents at LZ40 for 48 days, from January 18, 2000 to March 5, 2000.
Figure 2.31 Observed and simulated water surface temperatures at LZ40 for 48 days, from January 18, 2000 to March 5, 2000.
Figure 2.32 Simulated surface current velocity and the water level elevation on January 21, 2000. The water level elevation is the difference between the present surface water elevation and the initial surface water elevation.
Figure 2.33 Simulated surface current velocity and water level elevation on January 30, 2000.
Figure 2.34 Temperature profiles in Lake Okeechobee at L001 on February 12, 2000.
Figure 2.35 (a) Satellite image of Lake Okeechobee surface area on June 23, 2007.
Source:
NASA/METI/AIST/Japan Space Systems, and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team. (b) The modeled water depth and middle layer current on June 23, 2007. The lake areas with water depth less than 15 cm are considered dry in the LOEM model.
Figure 2.36 St. Lucie Estuary and Indian River Lagoon, FL.
Figure 2.37 Model grid of the SLE/IRL model.
Figure 2.38 Total freshwater inflow in 1999 (solid line) and 2000 (dotted line).
Figure 2.39 Time series of the modeled tidal elevation (solid line) and the measured data (dotted line) at A1 in 1999.
Figure 2.40 Time series of the modeled velocity (solid line) and the measured data (dotted line) at NF in 1999.
Figure 2.41 Time series of the modeled water temperature (solid line) and the measured data (open circles) at A1 in 1999.
Figure 2.42 Time series of the modeled salinity (solid line) and the measured data (dotted line) at A1 in 1999.
Figure 2.43 Hourly averaged salinity and current from the model on January 9, 1999 at 11:00 p.m. The small plot indicates the tidal amplitude at St. Lucie Inlet.
Figure 2.44 Salinity difference without and with lateral inflows at A1 (
S
) and the rate of total lateral inflow (
Q
) in 2000.
Chapter 3: Sediment Transport
Figure 3.1 Oblique aerial photos of Fire Island, New York, before and after Hurricane Sandy. The view is looking northwest across Fire Island toward Great South Bay. The island breached during the hurricane, creating a new inlet. The arrow points to a fishing shack on the island (USGS, 2014).
Figure 3.2 Sediment transport processes.
Figure 3.3 Forces acting on a particle settling through a water column.
Figure 3.4 Suspended load and bed load in sediment transport.
Figure 3.5 Forcing of water shear stress on particles near the sediment bed (FISRWG, 1998).
Figure 3.6 Relationship between stream velocity, particle size, and the regimes of sediment erosion, transport, and deposition.
Source:
Adapted from Graf 1971.
Figure 3.7 Vertical profiles of suspended sediment concentration and the corresponding current in a channel.
Figure 3.8 Vertical profiles of suspended sediment concentration and grain size in a channel.
Figure 3.9 A Secchi disk.
Figure 3.10 Total suspended solids versus light extinction coefficient based on data measured in Lake Okeechobee (Jin and Ji, 2005).
Figure 3.11 Total suspended solids versus Secchi depth based on measured data in Lake Okeechobee (Jin and Ji, 2005).
Figure 3.12 Vertical profiles of cohesive sediment concentration and velocity.
Figure 3.13 Settling velocity and settling flux variations with sediment concentration in Lake Okeechobee (Hwang and Mehta, 1989).
Figure 3.14 Shields diagram: dimensionless bottom shear stress (Shields parameter) versus the boundary Reynolds number.
Figure 3.15 Grain size and settling velocity of noncohesive sediment.
Figure 3.16 Bulk density and shear strength of the sediment bed in Lake Okeechobee.
Figure 3.17 Schematic presentation of sediment bed layers.
Figure 3.18 Sketch of a sinusoidal wave.
Figure 3.19 Particle orbital motion in deep water.
Figure 3.20 Particle orbital motion in shallow water.
Figure 3.21 Schematic representation of particle motion under a surface wave.
Figure 3.22 Measured wind speed (Wind), significant wave height (
H
s
), and suspended sediment concentration (Sed) in Lake Okeechobee from May 30 to June 2, 1989.
Figure 3.23 Modeled significant wave height on July 9, 2005.
Figure 3.24 Modeled orbital velocity and current velocity on July 9, 2005.
Figure 3.25 Modeled bottom shear stress and current velocity on July 9, 2005.
Figure 3.26 Modeled suspended sediment concentration and current velocity on July 9, 2005.
Figure 3.27 Modeled bottom shear stress and current velocity on July 9, 2005 when the effects of wind waves are neglected.
Figure 3.28 (a) Measured lake sediment zones (SFWMD, 2002). (b) Modeled bottom shear stress with wind wave effect. (c) Modeled bottom shear stress without wind wave effect. The modeled results are averaged over the period 2004–2005.
Figure 3.29 Measured wind speed, wind stress, and significant wave height in Lake Okeechobee at a location near LZ40 from April 27, 1989 to May 3, 1989 (Jin and Ji, 2001).
Figure 3.30 Time-series comparison between simulated and observed significant wave heights in Lake Okeechobee from April 27, 1989 to May 3, 1989 (Jin and Ji, 2001).
Figure 3.31 Modeled significant wave height at LZ40.
Figure 3.32 Simulated significant wave heights on January 21, 2000 at 11 p.m.
Figure 3.33 Structure of a sediment model.
Figure 3.34 Regression results between flow and total suspended solids at Station S49 in the St. Lucie Estuary (AEE, 2004a).
Figure 3.35 Five sediment zones in Lake Okeechobee. The bed sediments can be divided into five principal sediment zones based on physical characteristics. Shown are the stations used in the sediment characterization and the nutrient exchange experiments (SFWMD, 2002).
Figure 3.36 Lake Okeechobee mud sediment thickness.
Figure 3.37 Observed and simulated suspended sediment concentrations at Station C from May 16 to June 13, 1989. The Julian day is with reference to January 1, 1989.
Figure 3.38 Simulated surface velocity and suspended sediment concentrations on January 21, 2000.
Figure 3.39 Blackstone River study area. The distances are river kilometers from Slaters Mill Dam.
Figure 3.40 Tupperware Dam on the Blackstone River.
Figure 3.41 Measured and modeled flow rate along the Blackstone River during Storm 2.
Figure 3.42 Measured and modeled sediment concentration along the Blackstone River during Storm 2.
Chapter 4: Pathogens and Toxics
Figure 4.1 Sources of contaminants (USEPA, 2000a).
Figure 4.2 Fate and transport processes for a toxicant.
Figure 4.3 Cadmium partition coefficient as a function of sediment concentration in the Blackstone River, MA.
Figure 4.4 (a) Concentration versus time for zero-order reaction. (b) Concentration and logarithm concentration versus time for first-order reaction. (c) Concentration and inverse concentration versus time for second-order reaction.
Figure 4.5 Structure of a typical toxic model.
Figure 4.6 Observed Cu concentration (in µg/g) in the sediment bed in 1982.
Figure 4.7 Observed Cu concentration (in µg/g) in the sediment bed in 2002.
Figure 4.8 Measured Cu concentrations (in µg/L) in the water column in 2002.
Figure 4.9 Comparison of suspended sediment concentrations in 1999. The dashed line is for the middle layer and the solid line is for the surface layer. The dots are the measured data.
Figure 4.10 Differences of Cu concentration (µg/g) in the sediment bed between Year 1 (1999) and the initial condition.
Figure 4.12 Modeled Cu concentration (µg/g) at SE01 in 1999. Dashed line, middle layer; solid line, surface layer.
Figure 4.11 Modeled Cu concentration (µg/g) at SE02 in 1999. Dashed line, middle layer; solid line, surface layer.
Figure 4.13 Rockford Lake and its watershed.
Figure 4.14 Computational grid (
I
,
J
) and typical water depths (in decimeter) in Rockford Lake.
Figure 4.15 Components of pathogen modeling in Rockford Lake.
Figure 4.16 Modeled and observed fecal coliform concentration at the GPC sampling location in Rockford Lake.
Chapter 5: Water Quality and Eutrophication
Figure 5.1 The eutrophication process: the progression from oligotrophic through mesotrophic to eutrophic.
Figure 5.2 Typical seasonal variations of algal concentration.
Figure 5.3 N/P ratios at LZ40 in Lake Okeechobee, calculated from measured data. DIN = NH
4
+ NO
2
+ NO
3
, DIP = dissolved inorganic phosphorus.
Figure 5.4 Nitrogen cycling processes in an aquatic system.
Figure 5.5 Phosphorus cycling processes in an aquatic system.
Figure 5.6 Average annual ratio of total nitrogen to total phosphorus in Lake Okeechobee, FL (SFWMD, 2002).
Figure 5.7 Dissolved oxygen (in mg/L) in Lake Wister, OK (OWRB, 1996).
Figure 5.8 Algal growth limiting function for temperature.
Figure 5.9 Schematic representation of the Michaelis–Menten formulation.
Figure 5.10 Schematic diagram for the EFDC water quality model.
Figure 5.11 Algal kinetics.
Figure 5.12 Algal growth limiting function for light intensity,
f
2
(
I
).
Figure 5.13 Temperature functions for basal metabolism.
Figure 5.14 Organic carbon state variables and their transformations.
Figure 5.15 Phosphorus state variables and their transformations.
Figure 5.16 Concentrations of TSS and TP in Lake Okeechobee, FL (SFWMD, 2015).
Figure 5.17 Nitrogen state variables and their transformations.
Figure 5.18 Percentage of NH
4
+
and NH
3
as functions of pH at a water temperature of 25 °C.
Figure 5.19 Preference for ammonia uptake, PN
x
, as functions of NO
3
at KHN
x
= 10 µg/L.
Figure 5.20 Measured dissolved oxygen in Lake Okeechobee for 72 h, starting from August 24, 1999 at midnight.
Figure 5.21 Sketch of the typical two-stage DO uptake by CBOD and NBOD.
Figure 5.22 Percent of BOD removed from the water (solid line) and percent of BOD remaining in the water (dashed line) at
k
= 0.23 day
−1
.
Figure 5.23 Major sources and sinks of dissolved oxygen.
Figure 5.24 Saturation DO concentration (mg/L) as a function of temperature (°C) at salinity equal to 0, 15, and 35 ppt.
Figure 5.25 Components of a sediment diagenesis model.
Figure 5.26 Sediment layers and processes included in the sediment diagenesis model (Di Toro and Fitzpatrick, 1993).
Figure 5.27 Variation of nutrient and DO concentrations with depth in the sediment bed and overlying water.
Figure 5.28 Sediment pore water concentrations of dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) and ammonium (NH
4
) at Stations M9 and M17 in July 1999. (Fisher et al., 2005).
Figure 5.29 Benthic stress (a) and its effect on particle mixing (b) as a function of overlying water column DO concentration.
Figure 5.30 Macrophytes in the littoral zone.
Figure 5.31 Floating-leaved macrophytes and emerged macrophytes.
Figure 5.32 SAV processes and the modeling approach.
Figure 5.33 Impacts on SAV. Sediments, nutrients, algal blooms, and epiphytic growth can affect the amount of sunlight reaching the plants (USEPA, 1993).
Figure 5.34 SAV model state variables (boxes) and mass flows (arrows). DN = dissolved nutrients; PN = particulate nutrients.
Figure 5.35 Modeled and measured water depth at LZ40 from October 1, 1999 to December 31, 2009.
Figure 5.36 Locations of water quality data stations.
Figure 5.47 Map of Lake Okeechobee showing the location of 16 transects for quarterly evaluation of submerged aquatic vegetation biomass, taxonomic structure, and water transparency. Plants are sampled at sites along each transect, starting at the shoreline and progressing lakeward until a site is reached where there are no plants (SFWMD, 2002).
Figure 5.37 SAV-averaged seasonal transect biomass from January 2000 to December 2009. S = summer and W = winter.
Figure 5.38 Total SAV area (acres) from 2000 to 2009.
Figure 5.39 Summary of observed data from SAV surveys in August 2009 (a) and model results on August 15, 2009 (b).
Figure 5.40 Water depth at PALMOUT, TSS at PALMOUT, averaged SAV biomass in the lake, and the total SAV area in the lake. The period is from October 1, 1999 to September 30, 2009. Model results = solid line and data = dots.
Figure 5.41 Structure of the EFDC water quality model.
Figure 5.42 Regression results between flow and total phosphorus at Station TT151 in the Florida Bay.
Figure 5.43 Locations of water quality data stations (SFWMD, 2002).
Figure 5.44 Time series of water quality variables at L002 between October 1, 1999 and September 30, 2000. Closed cycle = measured data; solid line = modeled results.
Figure 5.45 Modeled surface chlorophyll
a
concentrations and currents on June 2, 2000.
Figure 5.46 Time series of water quality variables at L002 between October 1, 2000 and September 30, 2001. Closed cycle = measured data; solid line = modeled results.
Figure 5.48 Summary results from SAV surveys in August and September of 2000.
Figure 5.49 Water depth and SAV results from October 1, 1999 to September 30, 2002. (a) Modeled water depth in the nearshore zone at Station PALMOUT; (b) the measured SAV area; (c) modeled SAV biomass concentration (solid line) and SAV area in 1000 ac (dotted line).
Figure 5.50 Modeled SAV area on September 19, 2000.
Figure 5.51 Modeled sediment concentrations with (solid line) and without (dotted line) effects of Hurricane Irene.
Figure 5.52 Modeled total phosphorus concentrations with (solid line) and without (dotted line) effects of Hurricane Irene.
Figure 5.53 Modeled SRP concentrations with (solid line) and without (dotted line) effects of Hurricane Irene.
Figure 5.54 Water quality monitoring stations and flow structures in the St Lucie Estuary and southern Indian River Lagoon, FL.
Figure 5.55 Total inflow rates, phosphorus loads, and nitrogen loads in 1999 and 2000.
Figure 5.56 Comparison between model results (lines) and measured data (circles) at Station SE02 in 1999. The surface and bottom layers in the model are represented by the solid and dash lines, respectively.
Figure 5.57 Comparison between the model results (lines) and measured data (circles) at Station SE08 in 1999. The surface and bottom layers in the model are represented by the solid and dash lines, respectively.
Figure 5.58 Comparison between the model results (lines) and measured data (circles) at Station SE08 in 2000. The surface and bottom layers in the model are represented by the solid and dash lines, respectively.
Figure 5.59 Daily averaged chlorophyll
a
concentration and current in the surface layer on October 5, 2000. Freshwater inflows are shown in the small insert in the figure.
Figure 5.60 Model results at SE08 in 2000 showing salinity stratification (a and d), SOD (b and e), and DO (c and f). Panels d–f represent the scenario of 50% increase in inflows imposed at S-80. The modeled salinity and DO are represented by solid lines for the surface layer and dash lines for the bottom layer.
Figure 5.61 Mean current and DO concentration in surface (a) and bottom (b) layers on October 20, 1999. Freshwater inflows are shown in the small insert in the figure.
Chapter 6: External Sources and TMDL
Figure 6.1 Major external sources to a surface water system (USGS, 1999).
Figure 6.2 Point source from a steel refining factory discharging into Yuan River in Xingyu, China.
Figure 6.3 Illustration of a saturated and an unsaturated zone (USEPA, 2000a).
Figure 6.4 Sources of groundwater contamination (USEPA, 2000a).
Figure 6.5 Simplified schematic of various BMPs at the watershed scale (Kalin and Hantush, 2003).
Figure 6.6 Runoff flow rates of different land covers.
Figure 6.7 Three basic types of runoff: overland flow, subsurface flow, saturated overland flow (FISRWG, 1998).
Figure 6.8 Coupling of a surface water system with the watershed and groundwater.
Figure 6.9 Use of models for TMDL development.
Chapter 7: Mathematical Modeling and Statistical Analyses
Figure 7.1 Development of a numerical model.
Figure 7.2 Regression results for loadings at Gordy. Flow rates are in cubic feet per second (cfs).
Figure 7.3 Spectral analysis of measured water surface elevation in Lake Okeechobee.
Figure 7.4 Modeled water currents and water depth in Lake Okeechobee on December 25, 1999.
Figure 7.5 Modeled surface currents averaged over 365 days (from October 1, 1999 to September 30, 2000).
Figure 7.6 Spatial patterns of the first EOF mode (EOF1) of surface currents.
Figure 7.7 Spatial patterns of the second EOF mode (EOF2) of surface currents.
Figure 7.8 Time series of principal components of the first mode (solid line) and the second mode (dotted line) of surface currents. Their amplitudes are normalized by the square root of the total variance.
Figure 7.9 Procedure of model calibration, verification, and validation.
Figure 7.10 Vertical profiles of water temperature (
T
) and dissolved oxygen (DO) at OKN0165 on August 12, 1986, in six different cases. Case 1: 10-layer model, Case 2: lateral cell, Case 3: 2-layer model, Case 4: 5-layer model, Case 5: wind speed reduced by 50%, and Case 6: wind speed increased by 50%.
Chapter 8: Rivers
Figure 8.1 The well of the Nileometer used to measure the depth of the Nile River and to predict the bounty of the year's harvest in the temple of Kom Ombo, Egypt, which was completed by Ptolemy XII in 47–44 BC.
Source:
Photograph by Zhen-Gang Ji.
Figure 8.2 Longitudinal profile of a river.
Source:
From FISRWG (1998).
Figure 8.3 Urubamba River in Ollantaytambo, Peru.
Source:
Photograph by Zhen-Gang Ji, December 25, 2013.
Figure 8.4 Typical cross section (lateral profile) of a river.
Figure 8.5 Effects of siltation in rivers (USEPA, 2000a).
Figure 8.6 Storm hydrograph of a river.
Figure 8.7 Interactions between a river and the groundwater: (a) the river gains water from the aquifer, and (b) the river loses water to the aquifer.
Figure 8.8 Vertical velocity profile in a channel.
Figure 8.9 Advection and dispersion processes in a river. Panel (a) gives the plain view of dye transport in the river. Panel (b) presents the lateral-averaged dye concentration along the river.
Figure 8.10 Dam on the Miao River, Guizhou, China.
Source:
Photograph by Zhen-Gang Ji.
Figure 8.11 Flow over a dam.
Figure 8.12 Riverdale Dam on the Blackstone River.
Source:
Photograph by Zhen-Gang Ji on February 3, 1998.
Figure 8.13 Grain sizes associated with bed load, bed-material load, suspended load, and wash load.
Source:
Adapted from Wilcock et al. 2009.
Figure 8.14 DO sag curve in a river.
Figure 8.15 Measured and modeled cadmium (Cd) concentration along the Blackstone River during Storm 2.
Figure 8.19 Measured and modeled lead (Pb) concentration along the Blackstone River during Storm 2.
Figure 8.16 Measured and modeled chromium (Cr) concentration along the Blackstone River during Storm 2.
Figure 8.18 Measured and modeled nickel (Ni) concentration along the Blackstone River during Storm 2.
Figure 8.20 Sediment, cadmium, and lead concentrations at Singing Dam (km = 64.0) during Storm 2: (a) single point discharge, (b) nonpoint discharge, (c) bed resuspension, and (d) full process.
Figure 8.21 Horizontal curvilinear-orthogonal grid of Conowingo Pond (Tetra Tech, 1998b).
Figure 8.22 Flow rates at Holtwood and Conowingo Dams (Tetra Tech, 1998b).
Figure 8.28 Holtwood Dam inflow temperature and PBAPS condenser temperature rise (Tetra Tech, 1998b).
Figure 8.23 Model-predicted and observed temperatures at the PBAPS cooling intake (Tetra Tech, 1998b).
Figure 8.24 Model-predicted and observed temperature at Station 102 (Tetra Tech, 1998b).
Figure 8.25 Model-predicted and observed temperature at Station 201 (Tetra Tech, 1998b).
Figure 8.26 Model-predicted and observed temperature at Station 301 (Tetra Tech, 1998b).
Figure 8.27 Model-predicted surface temperature on July 16, 1997 at 4 p.m. (Tetra Tech, 1998b).
Chapter 9: Lakes and Reservoirs
Figure 9.1 Lake Nasser is a reservoir created by the construction of the High Dam at Aswan, Egypt after 1971 and is one of the largest man-made lakes in the world.
Source:
Photograph by Zhen-Gang Ji.
Figure 9.2 Vertical layers and a temperature profile in a lake.
Figure 9.3 Vertical profiles of water temperature (
T
) and dissolved oxygen (DO) at OKN0166 in Lake Tenkiller, OK. The corresponding date and Julian day are shown in the lower-right corner of each plot. Solid line, modeled T; closed circle, measured T; dashed line, modeled DO; and open circle, measured DO (Ji et al., 2004a).
Figure 9.4 Macrophytes and the littoral, pelagic, and benthic zones of a lake.
Figure 9.5 The riverine, transition, and lacustrine zones of a reservoir.
Figure 9.6 Schematic representation of longitudinal distributions of hydrodynamic and water quality variables in a reservoir.
Figure 9.7 Comparison between a lake impaired by excessive nutrients and a healthy lake ecosystem (USEPA, 2000a).
Figure 9.8 Total phosphorus concentration in Lake Okeechobee for the period between 1973 and 2000. The straight line indicates the general trend of P-level increment (SFWMD, 2002).
Figure 9.9 Density inflow and mixing processes in lakes and reservoirs: (a) overflow; (b) interflow; (c) underflow.
Figure 9.10 Wind forcing processes in a lake.
Figure 9.11 Formation of vertical circulation in a lake: (a) initiation of motion, (b) position of maximum shear stress across the thermocline, and (c) steady-state vertical circulation.
Source:
Adapted from USEPA 1983.
Figure 9.12 Measured temperature profiles in Lake Wister (OWRB, 1996).
Figure 9.13 A sketch on gyre formation caused by wind forcing. = in the direction out of the paper; = in the direction into the paper.
Figure 9.16 Time series of water depth at L001 in Lake Okeechobee. Solid line, model results; dashed line, measured data.
Figure 9.14 The first three velocity modes of seiches in a channel.
Figure 9.15 The first three water elevation modes of seiches in a channel.
Figure 9.17 Time series of modeled water
v
-velocity at L001 in Lake Okeechobee.
Figure 9.18 Power spectra of modeled water elevation time series at Station L001 in Lake Okeechobee.
Figure 9.19 Typical sediment deposition pattern in a reservoir.
Figure 9.20 Model–data comparison of water quality variables for 262 days at OKN0166. (a) Chlorophyll
a
; (b) nitrite + nitrate; (c) orthophosphorus; and (d) 5-day biochemical oxygen demand. Solid line, model results on the surface layer; open circle, measured data on the surface layer (1 m below the water surface); dashed line, model results in the lower layer; and cross, measured data in the lower layer (10 m below the water surface).
Figure 9.21 Schematic diagram of internal phosphorus cycling in a lake.
Figure 9.22 Growth-limiting functions for nitrogen (N), irradiance (
I
), and temperature (
T
) in Lake Okeechobee.
Figure 9.23 Lake Tenkiller study area and model grid.
Figure 9.24 Model–data comparison of water surface elevation for 262 days at OKN0164. The solid line is the measured data, and the dashed line is the model results.
Figure 9.25 Modeled water surface elevation for 24 h on January 27, 1986, at OKN0164.
Figure 9.26 Modeled sediment fluxes at OKN0164. (a) ammonia (NH
4
); (b) nitrate (NO
3
); (c) phosphate (PO
4
); and (d) sediment oxygen demand (SOD).
Figure 9.27 Lake Okeechobee data collection sites.
Figure 9.28 Measured chloride (Cl), sulfate (SO
4
), and calcium (Ca) concentration at L002 from 1970 to 2010.
Figure 9.29 Model–data comparisons of Ca, Cl, SO
4
, and TSS at LZ40 from October 1, 1999 to September 30, 2009. The black dots are measured data. The solid lines are modeled results from the benchmark run.
Figure 9.30 Water depths and chloride (Cl) concentrations at Station LZ40 from October 1, 1999 to September 30, 2009.
Figure 9.32 Water depths and calcium (Ca) at Station LZ40 from October 1, 1999 to September 30, 2009.
Figure 9.31 Water depths and sulfate (SO
4
) concentrations at Station LZ40 from October 1, 1999 to September 30, 2009.
Figure 9.33 Model–data comparisons of (a) Ca, (b) Cl, (c) SO
4
, and (d) TSS at LZ40 from October 1, 1999 to September 30, 2009. Four cases are presented: benchmark/historical case (HIST), 200-well case (200), 100-well case (100), and 50-well (50) case.
Figure 9.34 (a) Modeled water depth at PALMOUT. (b) Simulated and measured SAV biomass. (c) Simulated and measured SAV area. The period is from October 1, 1999 to September 30, 2009 for 10 years. Two cases are presented: benchmark/historical case (HIST) and 200-well case (200).
Chapter 10: Estuaries and Coastal Waters
Figure 10.1 Schematic representation of an estuary system.
Figure 10.2 Schematic representation of a fjord.
Figure 10.3 Schematic representations of spring and neap tides.
Figure 10.4 Model (solid line) and measured (dashed line) tidal elevation (a), velocity (b), temperature (c), and salinity (d) at MBNP3 in Morro Bay, California (Ji et al., 2001).
Figure 10.5 Sketch of a tide.
Figure 10.6 Phase relation between tidal elevations and tidal currents.
Figure 10.7 Sketch of estuarine circulation.
Figure 10.8 Profiles of current and salinity during spring tide (solid lines) and neap tide (dashed lines).
Figure 10.9 Sketch of a highly stratified estuary.
Figure 10.10 Sketch of a moderately stratified estuary.
Figure 10.11 Sketch of a vertically mixed estuary.
Figure 10.12 Freshwater inflow (
Q
), flow ratio (
R
/
V
), salinity ratio (
dS
/
S
), and the distance from 10 ppt isohaline to the mouth of the estuary in 2000.
Figure 10.13 Flushing time in the St. Lucie River Estuary in 2000. The solid line is from the Knudsen formula, Eq. (10.21). The dashed line is from the definition, Eq. (10.19).
Figure 10.14 Morro Bay flushing analysis.
Figure 10.15 Model grids of an idealized channel.
Figure 10.16 Vertical profiles of model results along the channel: (a) salinity (ppt), (b)
u
-velocity (cm/s), (c) sediment concentration (mg/L), and (d) toxic concentration (µg/L).
Figure 10.17 Hypoxic waters in the Gulf of Mexico (NSC, 1998).
Figure 10.18 Summary of N:P ratios in 28 estuaries. Horizontal bars indicate the annual ranges in N:P ratios, and solid triangles represent the ratio at the time of maximum productivity (USEPA, 2001).
Figure 10.19 Morro Bay Model grid and monitoring stations.
Figure 10.20 Measured velocity versus modeled velocity at MBFN1.
Figure 10.21 Water depth at low tide (30-min average).
Figure 10.22 Water depth at high tide (30-min average).
Figure 10.23 Modeled surface water depth at a shallow spot (8, 10).
Figure 10.24 Modeled wet area of Morro Bay for 48 h from March 31, 1998, to April 1, 1998.
Figure 10.25 Mean freshwater inflow from 1991 to 2000.
Figure 10.26 Modeled salinity percentiles at US1 between 1991 and 2000.
Figure 10.27 Model–data comparisons of algae, TP, PO
4
, TKN, NH
4
, and DO at SE02 in 1994. In the NH
4
panel, the bottom line is the modeled NH
4
in the surface layer, and the top line is the modeled NH
4
in the bottom layer. In the DO panel, the bottom line is the modeled DO in the bottom layer, and the top line is the modeled DO in the surface layer.
Figure 10.28 Model–data comparisons of algae, TP, PO
4
, TKN, NH
4
, and DO at SE02 in 1997. In the NH
4
panel, the bottom line is the modeled NH
4
in the surface layer, and the top line is the modeled NH
4
in the bottom layer. In the DO panel, the bottom line is the modeled DO in the bottom layer, and the top line is the modeled DO in the surface layer.
Chapter 11: Wetlands
Figure 11.1 Description of a wetland (USEPA, 2000a).
Figure 11.2 Constructed wetland in south Florida.
Figure 11.3 Illustration on how a wetland works.
Figure 11.4 Closed system of inland wetland that receives water primarily from precipitation.
Figure 11.5 Cattail.
Figure 11.6 Bulrush (Mohlenbrock, 1992).
Figure 11.7 (a) Flow pattern with vegetation and (b) flow pattern without vegetation on April 14, 2009.
Figure 11.8 Hydrological processes related to wetlands.
Figure 11.9 Illustration of evaporation and transpiration in wetland.
Figure 11.10 Daily ET values in the Stormwater Treatment Area 2 in Florida from January 1, 2008 to March 19, 2015.
Figure 11.11 Water budget components and flow in densely vegetated wetlands, in which the hydraulic resistance due to vegetation affects the outflow.
Figure 11.12 Total inflow (solid line and in cms), total outflow (dotted line and in cms), and rain data (thick dashed line and in 0.1× in./day). The study area is a constructed wetland called STA-3/4 Cells 3A and 3B in Florida (Jin and Ji, 2015). The time period is from June 23, 2009 to September 21, 2009 after 7-day moving average.
Figure 11.13 Water balance of a riparian wetland in Denmark. Numbers (in mm/year) are mean values for a dry year (1992) and a wet year (1993).
Figure 11.14 Schematic of MBL, CBL, and DBL over a leaf. The velocity gradient is a result of the no-slip condition at the leaf surface. The concentration gradient occurs when the leaf surface acts as a sink and consumes all the concentration arriving at the surface (
C
= 0). Molecular diffusion is the dominant form of mass transfer in DBL.
Figure 11.15 Modeled and measured stage from January 1, 2008 to October 31, 2013 at G-384 C of STA-3/4 in Florida.
Figure 11.16 Measured groundwater table at HOLEY1_G and measured water stage in Cell 3A.
Figure 11.17 Concentrations of TSS at Station G-380 B in Florida. Solid line, modeled TSS and closed circle, measured TSS (Jin and Ji, 2015).
Figure 11.18 Removal of suspended sediments from water moving through the wetland.
Figure 11.19 Sediment trapping and nutrient removal by wetlands (USEPA, 2000a).
Figure 11.20 Vertical profiles of P concentrations in water column and sediment bed in Water Conservation Area 2A of the Everglades, Florida.
Figure 11.21 Schematic presentation of P fluxes between the water column and the sediment bed.
Figure 11.22 Phosphorus state variables and their transformations in the LOEM-CW. RPOP, refractory particulate organic P; LPOP, labile particulate organic P; DOP, dissolved organic P; PO
4
t, total phosphate; PO
4
p, particulate part of PO
4
t; and PO
4
d, dissolved part of PO
4
t.
Figure 11.23 Dissolved oxygen concentration at Station G-384 B in STA-3/4 in Florida. Dots, measured data and solid line, modeled results.
Figure 11.24 Vertical profiles of DO with different vegetation types (emergent aquatic vegetation, floating vegetation, open water without vegetation, and submerged aquatic vegetation) in Florida.
Figure 11.25 Sketch showing the components and path of a constructed wetland.
Figure 11.26 Culvert of a stormwater treatment area in south Florida.
Figure 11.27 Illustration of a constructed wetland for stormwater treatment in Florida.
Figure 11.28 Structure G370 with three 26.2 cms pumps. This is one of the many pumping stations serving the STAs in south Florida.
Figure 11.29 Study area of STA-3/4 Cells 3A/3B.
Figure 11.30 Time series of inflow rate (
Q
), and TP concentrations at G-380 B, G-384 B, and G-381 B. Closed dots, measured data and curve, model results.
Figure 11.31 Modeled daily averaged TP concentration and velocity on (a) March 18, 2010 (Day = 808), (b) March 20, 2010 (Day = 810), and (c) March 22, 2010 (Day = 812).
Figure 11.32 Location of the Everglades and Stormwater Treatment Areas (STAs).
Figure 11.33 Bottom elevation (in reference to NGVD29 and in ft) and the dimension of each grid (148.1 m × 101.4 m). The model grid has size 38 × 44 with a total of 1283 wet cells.
Figure 11.34 Velocity (30-min averaged), inflow (daily), and outflow (daily) at Station A.
Figure 11.35 Daily water temperature comparison between model and data at G-384 B. Model, solid line and data, dots.
Figure 11.36 Nutrient loadings released into the Cell 3A.
Figure 11.37 TP concentrations of DFWM inflow (dotted curve), AFWM inflow (thick horizontal line), DFWM outflow (solid curve), and AFWM outflow (thin horizontal line) at STA-3/4 Cells 3A/3B. The inflow TP concentrations are calculated based on the measured data. The outflow TP concentrations are calculated based on the LOEM-CW. DFWM, daily flow weighted mean; AFWM, annual flow weighted mean; in, inflow; and out, outflow.
Figure 11.38 Time series of model–data comparisons of state variables: (a)
T
, TSS, DO, and TP at G-384 E; (b) SRP, TKN, NO
x
, and NH
4
at G-384 E.
Figure 11.39 Measured TP and SRP data in STA-3/4 Cells 3A/3B from January 26, 2013 to March 14, 2013.
Figure 11.40 Modeled TP concentration averaged over 6 years (January 1, 2008 to October 31, 2013).
Chapter 12: Risk Analysis
Figure 12.1 Illustration of flow rate in a river and its probability density function.
Figure 12.2 Illustration of an increase of flooding in mean and variance.
Figure 12.3 PDF of the GEV family. The parameter values used are μ = 0, σ = 1, γ = 0.2 (Frechet), γ = 0.0 (Gumbel), and γ = −0.2 (Weibull).
Figure 12.4 QQ plot for fit of GEV distribution to annual oil spill maxima (line of equality indicates perfect fit).
Figure 12.5 PP plot for fit of GEV distribution to annual oil spill maxima (line of equality indicates perfect fit).
Figure 12.6 GPD probability density function with σ = 1 and γ = −0.2, 0, and 0.2.
Figure 12.7 Oil spill accidents (with size > 50 bbl) in the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf from 1964 to 2014 for 51 years.
Figure 12.8 QQ plot for fit of GPD distribution based on the data in Figure 12.7 (line of equality indicates perfect fit).
Figure 12.9 PP plot for fit of GPD distribution based on the data in Figure 12.7 (line of equality indicates perfect fit).
Figure 12.10 U.S. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS).
Figure 12.11 Time series of annual largest oil spills derived from OCS data for 49 years from 1964 to 2012. The dotted line is the 10-year return level and the dashed line is the 1-year return level.
Figure 12.12 Probability density functions of the historical data (dashed line) and the GEV distribution (solid line).
Figure 12.13 Return levels under different return periods. The open circles are calculated based on the observations, and the curve is from the GEV distribution calculated using the ML method with the R software.
Figure 12.14 Same as Figure 12.12 except that the cases of no DWH and 10 MMbbl are added.
Figure 12.15 Same as Figure 12.5 except that the cases of no DWH and 10 MMbbl are added.
Figure 12.16 Same as Figure 12.4, except that the cases of no DWH and 10 MMbbl are added.
Figure 12.17 Same as Figure 12.13, except that the cases of No DWH and 10 MMbbl are added.
Figure 12.18 Weathering processes and time scales of spilled oil (NOAA, 2002).
Figure 12.19 Components and processes of the oil spill risk analysis (Ji et al., 2011).
Figure 12.20 Particle trajectories with currents given by Eqs (12.21) and (12.22). Dotted line: analytical solution. Solid line: numerical solution using Eulerian method.
Figure 12.21 Integration time step test. With the Eulerian scheme, spills launched from 28°N, 85°W traveled for 60 days or until they contacted land. Time steps were 3 h, 1 h, 30 min, 15 min, 10 min, 5 min, and 2 min with the western to eastern trajectories, respectively.
Figure 12.22 Tracks of three oil-spill-simulating drifters launched from the East Flower Garden Bank (East FGB) on August 28, 1997 at 01:55 GMT (A), 02:33 GMT (B), and 03:25 GMT (C).
Figure 12.23 Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean. Key features and currents in this area are also depicted (Oey, 2007).
Figure 12.24 Model orthogonal curvilinear grid domain encompassing the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, and a portion of the Atlantic Ocean. Grid lines are shown at every seventh grid point. The approximate distribution of grid sizes in the Gulf is indicated and there are 25 sigma levels in the vertical, with vertical grid sizes less than 5 m near the surface over the deepest region of the Gulf (∼3500 m). Time-independent inflow and outflow transport profile, as a function of latitude (
y
), is specified across 55°W, as shown schematically (Oey, 2007).
Figure 12.25 Conditional probability, expressed as a percent, of hypothetical trajectories released at the “+” contacting grid cells 1/6° longitude by 1/6° latitude in the Gulf of Mexico. The probabilities are shown for trajectories of 30 days or less. The simulation period is from 1993 to 1998. The trajectories were initiated every day for 90 days for the season of (a) winter (January–March), (b) spring (April–June), (c) summer (July–September), and (d) fall (October–December).
Figure 12.26 Conditional probability, expressed as a percent, of hypothetical trajectories released at the “+” contacting grid cells 1/6° longitude by 1/6° latitude in the Gulf of Mexico. The probabilities are shown for trajectories of 30 days or less. The trajectories were initiated every day for 360 days for the months of January–December for the years 1993–1998.
Figure 12.28 Seasonal averages and annual mean of surface current (vector) and speed (shaded) from 1993 to 1998. (a) Winter (January–March), (b) spring (April– June), (c) summer (July–September), (d) fall (October–December), and (e) annual mean (January–December). Units are in m/s.
Figure 12.29 Seasonal averages and annual mean of surface wind vector and speed (shaded) from 1993 to 1998. (a) Winter (January–March), (b) spring (April–June), (c) summer (July–September), (d) fall (October–December), and (e) annual mean (January–December). Units are in m/s. Vectors are drawn using the same scale.
Figure 12.27 Maximum extent of oil from the Presidential Oil Spill Commission Report (p. 198, Figure 7.1). The map was based on surface oil surveys from May 17, 2010–July 25, 2010, as well as shoreline oiling, indicated by the colored circles.
Figure 12.30 Model domain used in the oil spill trajectory analysis.
Figure 12.31 Examples of environmental resource areas used in the oil spill trajectory analysis.
Figure 12.32 Examples of land segments used in the oil spill trajectory analysis.
Figure 12.33 Proposed Lease Sale 244 Area, hypothetical launch areas, and pipelines used in the oil spill trajectory analysis.
Figure 12.34 Sketch of features in a subsurface plume in deep water.
Figure 12.35 Modeled oil thickness 124 min after release of oil from the seabed.
Figure 12.36 Modeled oil thickness on the water surface after 5 h of continuous oil release.
Figure 12.37 Measured
u
-velocity at the Genesis station (9/9–12/2/2002).
Figure 12.38 Measured
v
-velocity at the Genesis station (9/9–12/2/2002).
Figure 12.39 The modeled oil thickness on the water surface after 85 h of continuous oil release.
List of Tables
Chapter 1: Introduction
Table 1.1 Distribution of water on earth
Table 1.2 Waterbodies discussed in this book as case studies and examples
Chapter 2: Hydrodynamics
Table 2.1 Error analysis of observed and modeled water depth at four stations from October 1, 1999 to September 30, 2000
Table 2.2 Error analysis of observed and modeled horizontal currents in the east–west direction (U) and in the north–south (V) direction from January 18, 2000 to March 5, 2000
Table 2.3 Error analysis of observed and modeled water temperature from October 1, 1999 to September 30, 2000
Table 2.4 Tidal amplitude of harmonic constituents (m)
Table 2.5 Tidal phase of harmonic constituents (h)
Table 2.6 Summary of relative errors of tidal elevation
Table 2.7 Summary of statistics of temperature simulations in 1999 and 2000
Table 2.8 Summary of statistics of salinity simulations in 1999 and 2000
Chapter 3: Sediment Transport
Table 3.1 Types and sizes of sediment particles
Table 3.2 Size distributions of fine particles at five locations in Lake Okeechobee
Table 3.3 Bulk density and shear strength of sediment bed in Lake Okeechobee
Table 3.4 Correlation coefficients between measured data of wind speed, total suspended sediment (TSS), and significant wave height (SWH)
Table 3.5 Error and correlation analysis for observed and simulated significant wave height
Table 3.6 Error analysis of observed and modeled suspended sediment concentrations in 1989
Table 3.7 Error analysis of observed and modeled suspended sediment concentrations at eight water depths from January 18, 2000 to March 5, 2000
Table 3.8 Comparison of the modeled mean SSC at eight water depths from January 18, 2000 to March 5, 2000
Chapter 4: Pathogens and Toxics
Table 4.1 Waterborne pathogens (USEPA, 1999)
Table 4.2 Statistical analysis of observed and modeled suspended sediment concentrations in 1999
Table 4.3 Statistical analysis of observed and modeled suspended sediment concentrations in 2000
Table 4.4 Characteristics of Rockford Lake
Chapter 5: Water Quality and Eutrophication
Table 5.1 The EFDC water quality model state variables
Table 5.2 Nitrogen forms and their oxidation states
Table 5.3 Values of empirical parameters for reaeration coefficients
Table 5.4 EFDC sediment diagenesis model state variables and fluxes
Table 5.5 Averaged sediment fluxes of dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP), NH
4
, and SOD in Lake Okeechobee
Table 5.6 Error analysis of observed data and modeled results at LZ40 from 1999 to 2009
Table 5.7 Summary of station-averaged relative RMS errors (RRE) from 1999 to 2009
Table 5.8 Major water quality parameters
Table 5.9 Error analysis of observed and modeled water quality variables at L002 from October 1, 1999 to September 30, 2000
Table 5.10 Summary of station-averaged RRE for WY 2000–WY 2002
Table 5.11 Mean values of observed and modeled water quality variables for WY 2000–WY 2002
Table 5.12 Differences between model results for Chl
a
with and without SAV in 2000
Table 5.13 Major water quality parameters used in the model
Table 5.14 Summary statistics of model calibration results using the 1999 data
Table 5.15 Summary statistics of model verification results using the 2000 data
Table 5.16 Concentration changes (%) at station SE03 as a result of changes in key model parameter values
Chapter 6: External Sources and TMDL
Table 6.1 Major differences between point sources and nonpoint sources
Table 6.2 Sources and concentrations of TN and TP from common point and nonpoint sources
Table 6.3 Atmospheric wet deposition concentrations used in the Peconic Estuary Model
Table 6.4 Atmospheric dry deposition rates used in the Peconic Estuary Model
Table 6.5 Selected US estuaries and the estimated percentage of total nitrogen entering the watershed as atmospheric deposition
Chapter 7: Mathematical Modeling and Statistical Analyses
Table 7.1 Correlation coefficients for wind speed/SSC and wind stress/SSC at Stations LZ40, L006, L001, and L005
Table 7.2 Variances of the first seven EOF modes of currents in Lake Okeechobee
Chapter 8: Rivers
Table 8.1 Ten most endangered rivers in the world
Table 8.2 Values of the Manning roughness coefficient
n
for various channels and rivers
Table 8.3 Boundaries for trophic classification of streams
Table 8.4 Geological, physical, and biological habitat factors that affect periphyton and phytoplankton biomass levels in rivers and streams given adequate-to-high nutrient supply and nontoxic conditions
Table 8.5 Error analysis of observed and modeled river flow rate (
Q
), total suspended sediment (TSS), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), and lead (Pb) during Storm 1
Table 8.7 Error analysis of observed and modeled river flow rate (
Q
), total suspended sediment (TSS), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), and lead (Pb) during Storm 3
Table 8.6 Error analysis of observed and modeled river flow rate (
Q
), total suspended sediment (TSS), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), and lead (Pb) during Storm 2
Chapter 9: Lakes and Reservoirs
Table 9.1 Typical distribution of deposited sediments in a reservoir (USACE, 1987)
Table 9.2 Physical characteristics of Lake Tenkiller
Table 9.3 Statistical analysis of observed and modeled temperature at the 11 stations shown in Fig. 9.23
Table 9.4 Statistical analysis of observed and modeled DO at the 11 stations shown in Fig. 9.23
Table 9.5 Error analysis of observed and modeled water temperature at 25 stations from 1999 to 2009
Table 9.6 Error analysis of observed and modeled total suspended solid (TSS) at 25 stations from 1999 to 2009
Table 9.7 Error analysis of observed and modeled chloride (Cl) at 25 stations from 1999 to 2009
Table 9.8 Error analysis of observed and modeled calcium (Ca) at 25 stations from 1999 to 2009
Table 9.9 Error analysis of observed and modeled sulfate (SO
4
) at 25 stations from 1999 to 2009
Table 9.10 Correlation coefficients between water depth and the concentrations of Cl, Ca, and SO
4
at LZ40 from 1999 to 2009
Table 9.11 Mean values of observed data and modeled results at LZ40 from 1999 to 2009.
Chapter 10: Estuaries and Coastal Waters
Table 10.1 Common characteristics of coastal plain estuaries, lagoons, and fjords
Table 10.2 Major tidal constituents and periods
Table 10.3 Harmonic analysis of measured data and modeled results in Morro Bay, CA
Table 10.4 Classification of estuaries by patterns of stratification
Table 10.5 Statistics of model–data comparison for surface tidal elevation (
E
), tidal velocity in the major tidal direction (
V
), water temperature (
T
), and water salinity (
S
)
Table 10.6 Summary of model's relative RMS error (RRE) (%)
Table 10.7 Summary of statistics of model results with a sea level rise of 1.2 ft against the benchmark run
Table 10.8 Averaged salinity difference between the benchmark condition and the sea level rise conditions
Chapter 11: Wetlands
Table 11.1 Phosphorus accretion rates in constructed treatment wetlands
Table 11.2 Estimates of wetland nutrient cycling in biomass
Table 11.3 Nutrient removal processes operational in wastewater treatment wetlands with the redox and pH conditions under which they occur
Table 11.4 Basic characteristics of the study area (STA-3/4 Cells 3A and 3B)
Table 11.5 Error analysis of observed data and modeled water stages from 2008 to 2013
Table 11.6 Error analysis of observed data and modeled velocities
Table 11.7 Error analysis of observed data and modeled temperature
Table 11.8 Error analysis of observed data and modeled TSS
Table 11.9 Error analysis of observed and modeled water quality variables at G-384 E from January 1, 2008 to October 31, 2013
Table 11.10 Summary of station-averaged RRE at the six stations from January 1, 2008 to October 31, 2013
Table 11.11 Error analysis of observed and modeled TP at the six stations from January 1, 2008 to October 31, 2013
Table 11.12 Mean TP concentrations and TP reduction in STA-3/4 Cells 3A/3B based on the measured data and modeled results during the period January 1, 2008 to October 31, 2013
Table 11.13 Summary of AFWM inflow TP concentration (TP
in
), AFWM outflow TP concentration (TP
out
), and removal efficiency (RE) under different scenarios
Chapter 12: Risk Analysis
Table 12.1 Comparisons between the blocks method and the POT method
Table 12.2 Parameter values using different R packages for POT method
Table 12.3 General summary of R software packages for extreme value analysis (Gilleland et al., 2013)
Table 12.5 Return levels with return periods of 10 years and 100 years in OCS areas
Table 12.4 Return periods of catastrophic oil spills in OCS areas
Table 12.6 Large (≥1000 bbl) OCS oil spill rates (Anderson et al., 2012)
Table 12.7 Mean number of large oil spills estimated for proposed OCS Lease Sale 244 (Ji et al., 2016)
Table 12.8 Probability of one or more large spills occurring, expressed as percent (Ji et al., 2016)
Table 12.9 Combined probabilities (expressed as percent chance) of one or more large spills, and the estimated number of spills (mean) occurring and contacting environmental resource areas.
