Hydrogen Energetics E-Book

Roman J. Press

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 334

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

Understand the future of clean energy with this timely introduction

Hydrogen is a clean fuel that can be used to power fuel cells whose only biproduct is water. This flexible energy carrier can be produced from a range of natural processes and domestic energy resources, and it has potentially widespread applications. In an era defined by global climate change and the search for sustainable energy, hydrogen energetics is a field with transformative potential.

Hydrogen Energetics provides a cutting-edge introduction to current research and applications in this vital field. It offers an overview of hydrogen energy usage, including both positives and negatives, with a particular emphasis on the economic and infrastructural dimensions. Its up-to-date view of the state of the field and balance of theoretical and practical knowledge make it an essential resource.

Hydrogen Energetics readers will also find:

• A one-stop resource for understanding the scientific foundations, applications, and environmental impacts of hydrogen utilization
• Detailed discussion of topics including hydrogen properties, hydrogen production, and key characteristics of fuel cells
• A focus on both technical and economic aspects of hydrogen energetics

Hydrogen Energetics is a valuable source for researchers and academics in any field connected to renewable energies, energy storage, and environmental science, as well as for any professionals working with sustainability and natural resource availability.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

1 Introduction

1.1 Terminology

1.2 Sustainability and Climate Change

1.3 Decarbonization

1.4 Climate Change

1.5 Energy Ethics

1.6 Hydrogen Economy: Pros and Cons

2 Energy Resources

2.1 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

2.2 Renewable Energy

2.3 Nuclear Energy: An Alternative Power Source

3 Hydrogen Properties

3.1 General Characteristics and Physical Properties of Hydrogen

3.2 Hydrogen Bonding

3.3 Occurrence of Hydrogen

3.4 Comparing Hydrogen to Other Fuels

4 Fuel Cells: Essential Information

4.1 Overview

4.2 FC Technologies: Classification and Comparison

4.3 FC Architecture

5 Hydrogen Technology Essentials

5.1 Hydrogen Safety

5.2 Energy Storage Technologies

5.3 Hydrogen Storage for Transportation

5.4 Hydrogen Infrastructure

5.5 Hydrogen Transportation via Pipeline

5.6 Ammonia as an Energy Carrier

5.7 Blending Hydrogen in Natural Gas Pipelines

5.8 Hydrogen Bonding

5.9 Hydrogen Extraction from Blended Mixtures

6 Hydrogen Production: Current Practices and Emerging Technologies

6.1 Hydrogen Production from Fossil Sources

6.2 Hydrogen Production from Renewable Sources

6.3 Current Industrial Hydrogen Production

6.4 Traditional Hydrogen Production Methods

6.5 Conclusion

7 Hydrogen Applications

7.1 Current Industrial Applications

7.2 FC‐Specific Applications

7.3 Electric Batteries

7.4 Hydrogen Transportation

7.5 The Human Mobility in the 21st Century

7.6 Conclusion

Used Literature

Chapter 01

Chapter 02

Chapter 03

Chapter 04

Chapter 05

Chapter 06

Chapter 07

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Anthropological Factors vs. Nonanthropological Factors

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 World Coal Recoverable Reserves

Table 2.2 Natural Gas Production by Countries

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Physical Properties of Hydrogen

Table 3.2 Comparative Fuel Properties

Table 3.3 Specific Energy Value of Compressed Gases and Gasoline

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies

Table 4.2 Fuel Cell Operating Temperatures & Electrochemical Reactions

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Hydrogen Safety‐Related Properties

Table 5.2 Fire Hazards Characteristics

Table 5.3 Acute Health Effects of Ammonia

Table 5.4 Hydrogen Storage Material

Table 5.5 Key Properties of Metal Hydrides

Table 5.6 Hydrogen Storage Options vs Cost

Table 5.7 Higher Heating Value (HHV) per Liter for Various Fuels

Table 5.8 Hydrogen Storage Options vs. Cost

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Specific Energy and Energy Density Data

Table 7.2 Example of Rechargeable Traction Battery Specs Used in Nissan Lea...

List of Illustrations

Preface

Fig. 1 Energy Pyramid

Chapter 1

Fig. 1.1 Ratio of Hydrogen to Carbon Energy Consumption Since 1860.

Fig. 1.2 Keeling Curve Showing Carbon Dioxide Concentration at Mauna Loa Obs...

Fig. 1.3 Volcano Eruption.

Fig. 1.4 CO

2

Emissions from Energy Combustion and Industrial Processes 1900–...

Fig. 1.5 The Relentless Rise of Carbon Dioxide.

Chapter 2

Fig. 2.1 Sedimentary Combustible Rock, Coalburn Pit, Nova Scotia.

Fig. 2.2 World Oil Reserves by Country.

Fig. 2.3 Oil Ocean Platform.

Fig. 2.4 OPEC Share of World Crude Oil Reserves, 2021.

Fig. 2.5 The Hubbert Curve.

Fig. 2.6 Natural Gas Shipment.

Fig. 2.7 Renewable Energy Sources

Fig. 2.8 Renewable Energy Production in the United States.

Fig. 2.9 The Troia photovoltaic solar farm in Apulia, Italy.

Fig. 2.10 Solar Energy Diagram.

Fig. 2.11 Land Wind Farm.

Fig. 2.12 Offshore Wind Farm.

Fig. 2.13 Adam’s Power Station with Three Tesla AC Generators at Niagara Fal...

Fig. 2.14 A hydroelectric power plant known as the Kruonis Pumped Storage Pl...

Fig. 2.15 Biogas Production Diagram.

Fig. 2.16 Field for Biofuel Production.

Fig. 2.17 Landfill – Municipal Waste Biofuel Source.

Fig. 2.18 Earth’s Crust as a Source of Geothermal Energy

Fig. 2.19 Castle Geyser Eruption, Yellowstone National Park, 2019.

Fig. 2.20 Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Plant in Pingvellir, Iceland.

Fig. 2.21 Barrage of the Tidal Power Plant at La Rance River in Bretagne, Fr...

Fig. 2.22 Global Energy Investment in Clean Energy and in Fossil Fuels, 2015...

Fig. 2.23 India’s Kakrapar Atomic Power Nuclear Plant.

Fig. 2.24 Percentage of Uranium produced by countries in 2021.

Fig. 2.25 Fusion Model.

Fig. 2.26 LLNL Hohlraum.

Fig. 2.27 LLNL Ignition Facility preamplifier.

Fig. 2.28 LLNL Target Chamber.

Chapter 3

Fig. 3.1 Scientists Contributed to Hydrogen Research.

Fig. 3.2 Hydrogen Molecule Model.

Fig. 3.3 Hydrogen Isotopes.

Chapter 4

Fig. 4.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) Diagram.

Fig. 4.2 Bipolar Plate Diagram.

Fig. 4.3 PEMFC Stack Diagram.

Fig. 4.4 Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) Diagram.

Fig. 4.5 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) Diagram.

Fig. 4.6 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) Diagram.

Fig. 4.7 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) Diagram.

Fig. 4.8 Tubular Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) Diagram.

Fig. 4.9 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) Diagram.

Fig. 4.10 Fuel Cell Power System for Transportation

Chapter 5

Fig. 5.1 Gaseous Hydrogen Safety Sign.

Fig. 5.2 Hydrogen Safety in the Garage Calculation

Fig. 5.3 Typical Liquid Hydrogen Tank.

Fig. 5.4 Ammonia Safety Sign.

Fig. 5.5 Llyn Stwlan Dam.

Fig. 5.6 Adam Beck Generating Station, Niagara Falls, Canada.

Fig. 5.7 Liquid Hydrogen Volume and Weight Comparisons

Fig. 5.8 High‐Pressure Polymer Tanks Storage

Fig. 5.9 The Hydrogen LightWeight Polymer Tanks Installed in Hydrogen Bus....

Fig. 5.10 Space NASA’s Center, Liquid Hydrogen Tank.

Fig. 5.11 Liquid Hydrogen Storage System.

Fig. 5.12 Hydrogen Infrastructure

Chapter 6

Fig. 6.1 Steam Methane Reforming.

Fig. 6.2 Methane Pyrolysis.

Fig. 6.3 Industrial Hydrogen Production Methods.

Fig. 6.4 Gray, Blue, Green Hydrogen Production Structure.

Fig. 6.5 High‐Temperature Electrolysis.

Fig. 6.6 Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting

Fig. 6.7 Solar Thermal Water Splitting

Fig. 6.8 Photobiological Water Splitting

Fig. 6.9 Biomass Sources for Fuel Production.

Fig. 6.10 Landfill Preparation Stage.

Fig. 6.11 Santa Marta Landfill Gas Capture Facility in Talagante, part of th...

Fig. 6.12 Total Landfill Gas emissions in cu. m per year over 2010‐2060 from...

Fig. 6.13 LFG Co‐generation Plant Integrated with Hydrogen Production

Chapter 7

Fig. 7.1 Electronic Assembly Board.

Fig. 7.2 NASA Liquid Storage.

Fig. 7.3 Well‐to‐Wheel Diagram

Fig. 7.4 Hydrogen Bus.

Fig. 7.5 Aircraft Prototype.

Fig. 7.6 Fuel Cell Fork Lift.

Fig. 7.7 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Powered Train.

Fig. 7.8 The Chemical Reaction in Micropower PEMFC

Fig. 7.9 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) Active System.

Fig. 7.10 1.0 kW Metal Hydride Fuel Cell System.

Fig. 7.11 Rechargeable Battery Banks.

Fig. 7.12 Batteries Classification

Fig. 7.13 A Battery Pack Charger for Android and iPhone.

Fig. 7.14 2012 Chevrolet Volt T‐shaped Lithium‐Ion Battery.

Fig. 7.15 Fuel Processor Temperature Requirements

Fig. 7.16 GM Hydrotec Fuel Cell Power Cube Pre‐production.

Fig. 7.17 Propulsion Options

Fig. 7.18 The First Electric Vehicle Built in 1897.

Fig. 7.19 Driving Preference

Fig. 7.20 Electric‐Drive Options

Fig. 7.21 Self‐Driving Car with HUD (Heads Up Display) Mockup.

Fig. 7.22 Obstacles for Implementation

Guide

Cover Page

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

Begin Reading

Used Literature

Index

WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

Pages

iii

iv

xiii

xiv

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

196

197

198

199

200

201

202

203

204

205

206

207

208

209

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

226

227

Hydrogen Energetics

A Future Clean Energy Carrier

Roman J. Press

NY, USA

This edition first published 2025© 2025 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

All rights reserved, including rights for text and data mining and training of artificial technologies or similar technologies. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Roman J. Press to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

Registered OfficesJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USAJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.

Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Applied for:

Hardback ISBN: 9781394173280

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © scharfsinn86/Adobe Stock Photos

Preface

The relentless march of civilization has historically been fueled by the consumption of hydrocarbon resources, a practice increasingly linked to climate change and health issues. The announcement of a breakthrough in nuclear fusion energy on 12.13.22 marked a pivotal moment, challenging the long‐held belief that scientific progress might not yield a new, sustainable power source. As we await the practical realization of controlled fusion energy, a more immediate and pragmatic approach is the adoption of a diversified energy strategy. This concept can be likened to the balanced and varied diet recommended by health professionals, symbolized by the food pyramid. Similarly, an “energy pyramid” (Fig. 1) would advocate for a balanced utilization of both renewable and nonrenewable energy sources. This pyramid is expected to encompass a mix of renewable energy sources such as hydro, solar, and wind power, along with biofuels and, eventually, energy from nuclear fusion.

The global focus on developing a Hydrogen Economy is evident, with significant attention from the European Union, Japan, China, and the United States. Experts in energy economics anticipate that hydrogen energetics will play a crucial role in shaping the future of human civilization and currently form a significant part of political and educational discourse worldwide. Unlike coal and petroleum products, which are nonrenewable and extracted from the earth, hydrogen serves as an energy carrier, transmitting energy from its generation source to the point of use in various forms such as chemical, electrical, or mechanical energy.

This book is intended to serve as both a comprehensive reference and an introductory guide to hydrogen technology. Its primary audience includes the academic community, educators, students in engineering, economics, liberal arts, environmentalists, professionals in energy generation and transportation, political analysts, and anyone interested in sustainability and climate control. The secondary audience comprises professionals and political leaders focused on sustainability and the stewardship of natural resources for future generations.

Fig. 1 Energy Pyramid

Contrary to the common perception that hydrogen energetics are limited to fuel cell transportation and power generation, this publication aims to describe all aspects of hydrogen use, from industrial applications to rocket fuels. A significant portion is dedicated to analyzing the challenges and potential benefits of integrating hydrogen into our civilization’s energy sector.

This publication summarizes contemporary achievements in hydrogen technology, outlines current progress in hydrogen energetics, and addresses the global demand for new energy sources. It presents a systematic analysis of the advantages and concerns surrounding the practical use of hydrogen, emphasizing infrastructure development and the economics of hydrogen utilization. This book aims to fill the current gap in comprehensive hydrogen information, offering fundamental knowledge alongside practical aspects in a single, compact source.

1Introduction

1.1 Terminology

Energetics: This scientific field focuses on the properties and transformation of energy in physical, chemical, or biological processes. It encompasses the study of energy flows and conversions in various systems, ranging from molecular to ecological scales. Energetics is fundamental in understanding how energy is harnessed and utilized in different contexts, from industrial processes to natural phenomena.

Energy Carrier: Hydrogen serves as an energy carrier, facilitating the transfer of energy from its generation source to the point of use in various forms, such as a chemical product, electricity, or mechanical energy. Similar to electricity, which is also an energy carrier, hydrogen does not create energy but stores and transports it. Energy carriers like hydrogen and electricity enable the convenient use of energy in forms more practical than their original sources. Hydrogen, distinct from electricity, can be stored in large quantities for future use or transported to where it is needed.

Hydrogen Economy: The hydrogen economy extends beyond traditional industrial uses of hydrogen as a feedstock. It encompasses the use of hydrogen for decarbonizing various sectors currently reliant on fossil fuels, such as transportation and steel production. This concept is integral to the low‐carbon economy, aiming to minimize fossil fuel combustion and associated emissions that contribute to climate change.

Nonrenewable Energy: Major nonrenewable energy resources include coal, oil, natural gas, and nuclear energy. These fossil fuels, formed over millions of years from decomposed plants and animals, are finite and nonreplenishable. Our reliance on these resources, which we have significantly depleted over the past two centuries, poses a sustainability challenge, as they cannot be replaced once exhausted.

Renewable Energy: Renewable energy sources encompass wind, solar, biomass (including sewage and ethanol), hydropower, and geothermal power. Biomass, derived from organic plant and animal materials, is a key renewable resource that replenishes through natural processes within a human timescale. Renewable resources, integral to Earth’s ecosphere, are sustainable when their recovery rate matches or exceeds consumption. Life‐cycle assessments are crucial in evaluating the sustainability of these resources. While oceans and agricultural outputs are often considered renewable, wood is a borderline case due to its longer regeneration time.

Sustainability: Defined by the UN World Commission on Environment and Development, sustainability is the ability to meet present needs without compromising future generations’ ability to meet theirs. The UCLA Sustainability Committee further elaborates on this concept, emphasizing the integration of environmental health, social equity, and economic vitality. Sustainable practices acknowledge the finite nature of resources and advocate for their conservative and wise use, considering long‐term priorities and the interconnectedness of environmental, social, and economic factors. Ultimately, sustainability is about leaving a viable world for future generations.

Decarbonization: Decarbonization refers to the process of reducing carbon dioxide emissions through the use of low‐carbon power sources, which emit fewer greenhouse gases (GHGs). This term should not be confused with decarburization, which pertains to the loss of carbon in the surface layer of a material.

Global Warming: Global warming is typically used to describe the human‐induced warming of the Earth’s system. In contrast, climate change can encompass both natural and anthropogenic changes in the Earth’s climate.

Greenhouse Gas (GHG): Greenhouse gases, or GHGs are atmospheric gases that trap heat. During daylight, the sun’s rays warm the Earth’s surface. At night, the Earth cools, releasing heat back into the atmosphere. However, GHGs, including carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons, retain some of this heat, contributing to the greenhouse effect by absorbing infrared radiation.

Powerfuels: Powerfuels are synthetic gaseous and liquid fuels produced from green electricity. They are envisioned for use in sectors where alternatives are currently unviable, such as aviation and certain shipping methods. The development and commercialization of powerfuels are in nascent stages, with cost being a significant challenge. Currently, they are priced at €3–5/L, making them 5–10 times more expensive than fossil fuels.

Precession: Precession refers to the slow change in the direction of the axis of a rotating body, such as the Earth. This phenomenon, which can be observed in planets and stars, results in cyclic climate changes on Earth, characterized by extended periods of warming and cooling.

Energy Storage: Energy storage encompasses devices that minimize imbalances between energy demand and production. Commonly known as accumulators or batteries, these devices can store energy in various forms, including radiation, chemical, gravitational potential, electrical potential, electricity, elevated temperature, latent heat, and kinetic energy. The process involves converting energy from forms that are challenging to store into more storable and economically viable forms.

Color Code for Hydrogen: The classification of hydrogen production methods is often distinguished by their associated GHG emissions or environmental impact. In the energy sector, professionals refer to hydrogen using various color codes, each denoting the relationship between hydrogen production methods and the resultant GHG emissions.

Green Hydrogen: Green hydrogen refers to hydrogen produced through electrolysis using renewable energy sources such as wind, water, or solar power. This process emits no GHGs, contributing to a reduction in our carbon footprint. The purity of hydrogen, crucial for fuel cell applications, is often described as “five nines” (99.999%). The cost of producing green hydrogen ranges approximately from $2.5 to 6.0/kg.

Gray Hydrogen: Gray hydrogen is produced from natural gas via steam‐methane reforming, similar to blue hydrogen, but without any measures to capture the carbon dioxide by‐products. The cost of gray hydrogen production is around $1.5/kg, varying with natural gas prices and carbon emission factors.

Blue Hydrogen: Blue hydrogen is generated from natural gas through steam methane reforming, where natural gas reacts with steam and a catalyst to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Further reaction with water yields more hydrogen and carbon dioxide. When the CO2 emissions are captured and stored, the process is considered carbon‐neutral, and the resulting hydrogen is termed “blue hydrogen.” Blue hydrogen production costs about $2.5/kg, positioning it between gray and green hydrogen in terms of expense. The feasibility of converting existing hydrogen production facilities to blue hydrogen production depends on the availability of CO2 storage capacity.

However, blue hydrogen production is subject to controversy due to methane emissions associated with natural gas extraction and transportation. Methane, though shorter‐lived in the atmosphere than CO2, is a potent GHG, with one ton of methane equating to 28–36 tons of CO2 in terms of global warming potential.

Pink Hydrogen: Pink hydrogen is produced via electrolysis powered by nuclear energy, which does not emit carbon dioxide. However, the process generates radioactive waste, necessitating safe storage for thousands of years.

Yellow Hydrogen: Yellow hydrogen is produced through electrolysis using energy from the electrical grid. The carbon emissions associated with yellow hydrogen vary significantly based on the energy sources powering the grid.

Turquoise Hydrogen: Turquoise hydrogen refers to hydrogen generated from methane pyrolysis, a process that splits methane into hydrogen and solid carbon using heat in reactors. The solid carbon by‐product can be sold separately, adding economic value. While still in the early stages of commercialization, turquoise hydrogen has the potential to be cost‐efficient and environmentally conscious, especially when powered by clean energy sources.

Solid Hydrogen: Solid hydrogen typically refers to hydrogen in its solid state, achieved at temperatures below its melting point of 14.01 K (−259.14 °C). Another application of the term “solid hydrogen” pertains to metal hydride storage devices, which use a solid‐state medium for hydrogen storage.

1.2 Sustainability and Climate Change

Sustainability, a concept deeply rooted in the understanding that human activities are a primary driver of recent climatic changes, emphasizes the need for responsible stewardship of the environment. The escalation of GHG emissions, particularly carbon dioxide, has led to a significant increase in global temperatures, a phenomenon faster than any previously recorded. Scientific consensus indicates that anthropogenic factors, especially since the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s, are the primary contributors to these emissions. The burning of fossil fuels, releasing heat‐trapping gases, is largely responsible for the observed climate change, encompassing everything from global warming to habitat destruction. This change is not just a scientific observation but is becoming increasingly evident in its impact on human lifestyles and the global ecosystem.

The interaction between humans and nature has historically been complex. Human activities, such as mining, deforestation for agriculture, and the introduction of invasive species, have significantly altered landscapes and ecosystems. Conversely, natural phenomena like volcanic eruptions, floods, and earthquakes have also shaped human history. The rapid technological advancement and global expansion of human populations have led to profound changes in the natural world, including the atmosphere. It is a sobering realization that resources formed over millions of years have been substantially depleted in just two centuries. Human‐induced changes, whether through land clearing for agriculture or industrial pollution from urbanization, have led to a decrease in biodiversity and ecosystem stability.

1.3 Decarbonization

The philosophy of sustainability urges us to avoid burdening future generations with the ecological, human, and economic consequences of our actions. Decarbonization encompasses a range of measures aimed at significantly reducing and offsetting carbon dioxide emissions. This process is crucial in mitigating climate change and involves various strategies and technologies.

Fig. 1.1 Ratio of Hydrogen to Carbon Energy Consumption Since 1860.

Figure 1.1 illustrates the global shift in primary energy consumption from wood to fossil fuels and, more recently, toward a hydrogen economy. This transition, known as decarbonization, is evident in the United States, as outlined in the DOE Industrial Decarbonization Roadmap. This roadmap targets five major CO2‐emitting industries: petroleum refining, chemicals, iron and steel, cement, and food and beverage. These sectors account for approximately 51% of the energy‐related CO2 emissions in the US industrial sector and 15% of the nation’s total energy‐related CO2 emissions, equating to about 1,360 million tons of CO2 in 2020. The DOE’s commitment to decarbonizing the industrial sector aims to create sustainable jobs, spur economic growth, and foster a cleaner, more equitable future for all Americans.

1.4 Climate Change

A critical piece of evidence for anthropogenic climate change is the Keeling Curve, a dataset that has tracked atmospheric carbon dioxide levels since 1958. Named after Charles Keeling, the researcher who initiated these measurements, this curve reveals a significant and exponential increase in atmospheric CO2 over time. Carbon dioxide is produced both naturally, as in animal respiration and methane emissions from livestock, and anthropogenically, through activities like electricity production and transportation. The Keeling Curve (Fig. 1.2) graphically illustrates this rise in CO2 concentration, measured in parts per million (ppm). Human activities, including agriculture and the burning of fossil fuels since the Industrial Revolution, have been primary contributors to this increase.

Fig. 1.2 Keeling Curve Showing Carbon Dioxide Concentration at Mauna Loa Observatory.

Sources: Regents of the University of California/ https://bluemoon.ucsd.edu/co2_400/mlo_full_record.pdf, last accessed on March 28, 2024

Climate change is an established reality, with long‐term impacts such as ice melt, ocean warming, sea‐level rise, and altered marine ecosystems. The consensus is that the magnitude of climate change is largely driven by anthropogenic CO2 emissions, which have led to a significant increase in Earth’s temperatures. However, attributing climate change solely to human activities necessitates further evidence. The role of human actions in atmospheric changes and their impact on solar activities is complex and requires additional research. For instance, the process of photosynthesis in green vegetation, converting sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into carbohydrates is a fundamental biological process.

Anthropogenic climate change, also referred to as habitat destruction or global warming, signifies a change in climate primarily caused by human activities. We are now entering a new geological era termed the “Anthropocene,” characterized by a climate markedly different from that known to our ancestors and evidenced by rising global temperatures.

Human influence on nature has been profound for millennia. Activities such as mining, agriculture, and the introduction of invasive species have significantly altered natural environments and ecosystems. These anthropogenic changes, ranging from deforestation to urbanization, have led to decreased biodiversity and ecological imbalances.

The increase in GHGs and the resultant global climate alteration are prime examples of anthropogenic change, a phenomenon that has become increasingly apparent over recent decades. The complexity of Earth’s systems and the challenge of distinguishing natural variations from human‐induced changes contribute to the difficulty in fully understanding anthropogenic climate change.

Interestingly, elevated CO2 levels can have both negative and positive effects on the environment. For example, some models suggest that increased temperatures could lead to higher humidity, more vegetation, reduced ice cover, and rising sea levels. Climate science encompasses the study of air and water movement, chemical and biological processes, and various other factors, making it a challenging field due to the interplay of numerous complex processes. Even contemporary phenomena like the increased electricity consumption for Bitcoin mining could have a significant environmental impact.

There is no unanimous scientific consensus on the negative impacts of increased CO2 levels. Some theories, primarily based on geological evidence, propose that rising temperatures could enhance humidity and vegetation growth, leading to reduced ice cover and higher sea levels. The extent to which temperatures might rise in the next millennium remains uncertain, but the influence of Earth’s precession on climate change cannot be ignored.

Regarding CO2 emissions, it is important to note that CO2 is a vital component for plant life and, by extension, all biological life on Earth. While plants absorb CO2 and humans exhale it, a significant portion of biomass does not decompose and is sequestered in soil and ocean sediments. Thus, the introduction of new CO2 into the atmosphere is essential for the continuation of the biosphere. Volcanic eruptions also contribute CO2 to the atmosphere, but contrary to some beliefs, the total CO2 emissions from volcanic activity are only a fraction of those produced by human activities.

While the role of anthropogenic activities in climate change is significant, it is part of a complex interplay of natural and human‐induced factors. The challenge lies in understanding these interactions and their implications for the future of our planet (Fig. 1.3).

The CO2 emissions from human activities are substantial. In 2021, global CO2 emissions from energy combustion and industrial processes alone reached a record high of 36.3 gigatons, as depicted in Fig. 1.4.

We should not ignore significant emisions of the GHGs in forms of methane, contributed by livestock and related manure management. In accordance to Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN estimation of the livestock produces 16.1% of the global GHGs emissions. The other studies conclude that such emissions can reach up to 19.6%.

The climate system is incredibly complex, encompassing the movement of water and air masses, the influences of chemistry and biology, and processes like vaporization, ice melting, and the reflection and absorption of sunlight. This complexity makes it challenging to distinguish between natural variations and changes caused by human activities (Fig. 1.5).

Fig. 1.3 Volcano Eruption.

Sources: Jeronimo Ramos/Adobe Stock Photos

Fig. 1.4 CO2 Emissions from Energy Combustion and Industrial Processes 1900–2021.

Sources: International Energy Agency/https://www.iea.org/data‐and‐statistics/charts/co2‐emissions‐from‐energy‐combustion‐and‐industrial‐processes‐1900‐2021, last accessed 26 March 2024/CC BY 4.0

Fig. 1.5 The Relentless Rise of Carbon Dioxide.

Sources: NASA Climate/The National Aeronautics and Space Administration/Public Domain

While the correlation between fossil fuel emissions and planetary temperature is often attributed to GHG emissions, other factors, such as astronomical events, also play a significant role in global warming. Over 2,000 years ago, ancient Egyptian astronomers discovered the phenomenon of Earth’s precession – a slow, cyclic movement of the Earth’s axis relative to the Sun. This gradual shift, occurring over approximately 25,772 years, results in different parts of the planet receiving varying amounts of sunlight over millennia, thereby influencing the global climate.

Human lifespans are too short to observe the direct effects of precession on climate change. However, it is evident that Earth’s climate – encompassing temperature, humidity, ocean levels, and ecological systems – is influenced by this astronomical cycle. Precession, a lesser‐known motion of the Earth alongside its daily rotation and annual revolution, results in significant long‐term climate variations.

The last Ice Age in Europe ended approximately 12,000 years ago. As the Earth’s axis continues its precessional movement, the Northern Hemisphere has yet to experience the peak of this warming cycle, which is expected to occur in about a thousand years. Following this peak, a gradual cooling will lead to the onset of another Ice Age in approximately 13,000 years. During this “peak of cold,” regions like Scandinavia, northern Europe, Siberia, and Canada will experience significant cooling, and ocean levels will drop considerably. Interestingly, Antarctica is predicted to become ice‐free and potentially habitable during this period.

1.5 Energy Ethics

Human civilization’s quest for energy has profoundly impacted our planet. In just a few generations, we are on the brink of depleting fossil fuel reserves that took hundreds of millions of years to form. The combustion of coal and oil releases sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere at rates surpassing natural sources, such as the decomposition of dimethyl sulfide from oceans. Similarly, the emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx) from burning fossil fuels and biomass now likely exceeds natural emissions, contributing to photochemical smog in urban areas. GHGs like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), often linked to energy production, are accelerating the global warming process. These impacts have led to discussions about defining our current geological period as the “Anthropocene Epoch.”

A comprehensive energy policy is essential to promote energy conservation, minimize environmental impact, and facilitate a transition to sustainable environmental management at all societal levels – from individuals and families to local, national, and international communities. As consumers and society members, we must understand the connection between our consumption choices and global impacts. Adopting energy‐efficient appliances, homes, and vehicles, especially for long‐distance single‐person travel, is crucial. Opting for hybrid vehicles, locally sourced products, installing solar panels, and purchasing green power are steps toward meeting future energy needs while preserving the environment. Additionally, recycling and choosing recycled materials over new products contribute to energy conservation.

Government policies play a pivotal role in promoting energy efficiency and environmental improvement. Taxes, subsidies, incentives, and standards should encourage energy‐efficient practices in automobiles, factories, appliances, and homes. In some countries, robust bike infrastructure, public transportation, and high vehicle registration taxes have shifted transportation preferences from cars to bikes, subways, or buses. Notably, countries with higher energy prices often have lower per capita energy needs compared to those with lower energy prices.

To ensure the sustainability of human civilization, society must focus on improving energy efficiency and embracing alternative energy sources, including hydrogen technology. Transitioning to renewable energy sources and hydrogen technology is a significant step toward sustainable environmental management.

Table 1.1 Anthropological Factors vs. Nonanthropological Factors

Anthropological Factors

Nonanthropological Factors

Transport, using internal combustion

Precision Earth movement

Fossil fuels mining

Sun’s activities

Agricultural activities

Other planets and asteroids influence

Military actions

Volcano eruptions

Crypto currency mining

Flora photosynthesis

Fertilizers production

Fauna emissions

Chemical products

Energy production

Global Warming Verdict

Impossible to reject the human influence on our planet future

Impossible to ignore the nonanthropological factors on our planet future

An additional aspect of sustainability concerns the aftermath of military operations, which often leave behind minefields, destroyed infrastructure, and air contamination. While not the primary focus of this publication, the absence of war is crucial for preserving our planet for future generations, arguably as important as addressing potential climate change. The cessation of conflict and the promotion of peace are integral to the long‐term sustainability of our environment and civilization.

The main factors influencing climate change are presented in Table 1.1.

1.6 Hydrogen Economy: Pros and Cons

1.6.1 Incentives for Transition to Hydrogen

The quest for energy has evolved significantly over time. Our ancestors harnessed natural forces like water, animals, and wind. This was followed by the use of coal, oil, and gas. However, in the past two decades, concerns over pollution, habitat destruction, the finite nature of fossil fuel resources, and their impact on climate change have spurred the search for alternative energy sources, with hydrogen emerging as a promising option.

Key incentives for transitioning to a hydrogen‐based society include the following:

Hydrogen as an ideal alternative to diminishing natural resources.

Mitigating global warming and climate change.

Improving air quality.

Protecting and conserving environmental resources and landmarks.

Promoting energy decentralization.

Reducing dependence on energy imports.

The exponential increase in the global population, coupled with rising food production and energy demands, underscores the need for alternative energy sources. Hydrogen, along with electricity, offers pollution‐free energy solutions. Electricity, however, faces challenges in delivery, especially to remote areas, requiring extensive infrastructure and posing storage difficulties. The transition to zero‐emission vehicles (ZEVs) has been bolstered by advancements in fuel cell technology. Although hydrogen storage and transportation present challenges, it holds potential for a wireless society.

The European Union’s commitment to hydrogen energy is evident in its 2020 strategy, “A hydrogen strategy for a climate‐neutral Europe.” This strategy aims to develop a comprehensive hydrogen ecosystem, from research to production scale‐up and infrastructure development. The strategy recognizes hydrogen’s versatility as a feedstock, energy carrier, and storage medium, capable of spawning new products across various sectors. Crucially, hydrogen’s near‐zero emissions make it a key player in decarbonizing industries where reducing carbon emissions is both urgent and challenging, such as in the chemical and metallurgical sectors. This aligns with the EU’s goal of achieving carbon neutrality by 2050 and supports global efforts under the Paris Agreement.

Japan, too, is actively pursuing hydrogen energy. The government has revised its plans to increase annual hydrogen production sixfold to 12 million tons by 2040, with a commitment of $107 billion over the next 15 years to develop hydrogen supply chains. This investment aims to replace fossil fuels in carbon‐intensive industries, enhancing global competitiveness in sectors like steel and chemicals.

1.6.2 Existing Limitations

Many critics point out several challenges in transitioning to a hydrogen economy, contrasting it with the current reliance on conventional fossil fuels. The primary critique centers on the absence of naturally occurring hydrogen sources, unlike fossil fuels which can be extracted directly from the Earth.

Hydrogen’s highly reactive and lightweight nature causes it to escape easily into the atmosphere, making direct extraction impractical. However, extracting hydrogen from compounds like water or metal hydrates is feasible. Contrary to popular belief, there are instances of naturally occurring hydrogen, such as in Bourakebougou, Mali, where it is used for electricity generation. While the discovery of more natural hydrogen sources is possible, relying on them as a primary energy solution remains uncertain.

Critics also highlight the lack of efficient and long‐term storage solutions, the current high cost of hydrogen production, underdeveloped infrastructure, and substantial financial requirements for technology and infrastructure development. Overcoming these challenges will require concerted efforts from scientists, government involvement, and social advocacy.

Patrick Moore, a co‐founder of Greenpeace and environmental scientist, offers a perspective on the environmental movement. He observes that the younger generation is often led to believe that human activities are significantly harming the Earth, leading to feelings of guilt. Moore points out that some activist claims lack scientific grounding. For instance, contrary to the narrative of polar bear extinction due to melting Arctic ice, their population has actually increased from about 6,000 to 8,000 in 1973 to an estimated 26,000 today.

There is also debate over the role of CO2 in global warming. The term “carbon neutrality” is more political than scientific. CO2, comprising carbon and oxygen, is essential for plant growth and is fundamental to all life on Earth.

Regarding renewable energy sources like solar and wind, critics argue that they are costly and unreliable. These energy sources require vast land areas, are subject to weather conditions, and often need backup from nonrenewable energy sources.

The introduction of hydrogen as a new energy carrier, coupled with advancements in fuel cell technology, marks a significant step toward a hydrogen economy. Government support and the availability of low‐cost, clean electricity for fuel cell transportation are crucial for kickstarting the hydrogen economy.