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Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
Sprache: Englisch

Beschreibung

Covering the various aspects of this fast-evolving field, this comprehensive book includes the fundamentals and a comparison of current applications, while focusing on the latest, novel achievements and future directions.
The introductory chapters explore the thermodynamic and electrochemical processes to better understand how electrolysis cells work, and how these can be combined to build large electrolysis modules. The book then goes on to discuss the electrolysis process and the characteristics, advantages, drawbacks, and challenges of the main existing electrolysis technologies. Current manufacturers and the main features of commercially available electrolyzers are extensively reviewed. The final chapters then present the possible configurations for integrating water electrolysis units with renewable energy sources in both autonomous and grid-connected systems, and comment on some relevant demonstration projects.
Written by an internationally renowned team from academia and industry, the result is an invaluable review of the field and a discussion of known limitations and future perspectives.

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Related Titles

Title Page

Foreword

Preface

List of Contributors

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Overview on Different Hydrogen Production Means from a Technical Point of View

1.2 Summary Including Hydrogen Production Cost Overview

References

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Water Electrolysis

2.1 Thermodynamics of the Water Splitting Reaction

2.2 Efficiency of Electrochemical Water Splitting

2.3 Kinetics of the Water Splitting Reaction

2.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 3: PEM Water Electrolysis

3.1 Introduction, Historical Background

3.2 Concept of Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

3.3 Description of Unit PEM Cells

3.4 Electrochemical Performances of Unit PEM Cells

3.5 Cell Stacking

3.6 Balance of Plant

3.7 Main Suppliers, Commercial Developments and Applications

3.8 Limitations, Challenges and Perspectives

3.9 Conclusions

References

Chapter 4: Alkaline Water Electrolysis

4.1 Introduction and Historical Background

4.2 Description of Unit Electrolysis Cells

4.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 5: Unitized Regenerative Systems

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Underlying Concepts

5.3 Low-Temperature PEM URFCs

5.4 High-Temperature URFCs

5.5 General Conclusion and Perspectives

References

Chapter 6: High-Temperature Steam Electrolysis

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Overview of the Technology

6.3 Fundamentals of Solid-State Electrochemistry in SOEC

6.4 Performances and Durability

6.5 Limitations and Challenges

6.6 Specific Operation Modes

References

Chapter 7: Hydrogen Storage Options Including Constraints and Challenges

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Liquid Hydrogen

7.3 Compressed Hydrogen

7.4 Cryo-Compressed Hydrogen

7.5 Solid-State Hydrogen Storage Including Materials and System-Related Problems

7.6 Summary

References

Chapter 8: Hydrogen: A Storage Means for Renewable Energies

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Hydrogen: A Storage Means for Renewable Energies (RE)

8.3 Electrolysis Powered by Intermittent Energy: Technical Challenges, Impact on Performances and Reliability

8.4 Integration Schemes and Examples

8.5 Techno-Economic Assessment

8.6 The Role of Simulation for Economic Assessment

8.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 9: Outlook and Summary

9.1 Comparison of Water Electrolysis Technologies

9.2 Technology Development Status and Main Manufacturers

9.3 Material and System Roadmap Specifications

References

Index

End User License Agreement

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Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Preface

Begin Reading

List of Illustrations

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2

Figure 1.3

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.6

Figure 1.7

Figure 1.8

Figure 1.9

Figure 1.10

Figure 1.11

Figure 1.12

Figure 1.13

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4

Figure 2.5

Figure 2.6

Figure 2.7

Figure 2.8

Figure 2.9

Figure 2.10

Figure 2.11

Figure 2.12

Figure 2.13

Figure 2.14

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.3

Figure 3.4

Figure 3.5

Figure 3.6

Figure 3.7

Figure 3.8

Figure 3.9

Figure 3.10

Figure 3.11

Figure 3.12

Figure 3.14

Figure 3.13

Figure 3.15

Figure 3.16

Figure 3.17

Figure 3.18

Figure 3.19

Figure 3.20

Figure 3.21

Figure 3.22

Figure 3.23

Figure 3.24

Figure 3.25

Figure 3.26

Figure 3.27

Figure 3.28

Figure 3.29

Figure 3.30

Figure 3.31

Figure 3.32

Figure 3.33

Figure 3.34

Figure 3.35

Figure 3.36

Figure 3.37

Figure 3.38

Figure 3.39

Figure 3.40

Figure 3.41

Figure 3.42

Figure 3.43

Figure 3.44

Figure 3.45

Figure 3.46

Figure 3.47

Figure 3.48

Figure 3.49

Figure 3.50

Figure 3.51

Figure 3.52

Figure 3.53

Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

Figure 4.4

Figure 4.5

Figure 4.6

Figure 4.7

Figure 4.8

Figure 4.9

Figure 4.10

Figure 4.11

Figure 4.12

Figure 4.13

Figure 4.14

Figure 4.15

Figure 4.16

Figure 4.17

Figure 4.18

Figure 4.19

Figure 4.20

Figure 4.21

Figure 4.22

Figure 4.23

Figure 4.24

Figure 4.25

Figure 4.26

Figure 4.27

Figure 4.28

Figure 4.29

Figure 4.30

Figure 4.31

Figure 4.32

Figure 4.33

Figure 4.34

Figure 4.35

Figure 4.36

Figure 4.37

Figure 4.38

Figure 4.39

Figure 4.40

Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

Figure 5.3

Figure 5.4

Figure 5.5

Figure 5.6

Figure 5.7

Figure 5.8

Figure 5.9

Figure 5.10

Figure 5.11

Figure 5.12

Figure 5.13

Figure 5.14

Figure 5.15

Figure 5.16

Figure 5.17

Figure 5.18

Figure 5.19

Figure 6.1

Figure 6.2

Figure 6.3

Figure 6.4

Figure 6.5

Figure 6.6

Figure 6.7

Figure 6.8

Figure 6.9

Figure 6.10

Figure 6.11

Figure 6.12

Figure 6.13

Figure 6.14

Figure 6.15

Figure 6.16

Figure 6.17

Figure 6.18

Figure 6.19

Figure 6.20

Figure 6.21

Figure 6.22

Figure 6.23

Figure 6.24

Figure 6.25

Figure 6.26

Figure 6.27

Figure 6.28

Figure 6.29

Figure 7.1

Figure 7.2

Figure 7.3

Figure 7.4

Figure 7.5

Figure 7.6

Figure 7.7

Figure 7.8

Figure 7.9

Figure 7.10

Figure 7.11

Figure 7.12

Figure 7.13

Figure 7.14

Figure 7.15

Figure 7.16

Figure 7.17

Figure 7.18

Figure 7.19

Figure 7.20

Figure 7.21

Figure 8.1

Figure 8.2

Figure 8.3

Figure 8.4

Figure 8.5

Figure 8.6

Figure 8.7

Figure 8.8

Figure 8.9

Figure 8.10

Figure 8.11

Figure 8.12

Figure 8.13

Figure 8.14

Figure 8.15

Figure 8.16

Figure 8.17

Figure 8.18

Figure 8.19

Figure 8.20

Figure 8.21

Figure 8.22

Figure 8.23

Figure 8.24

Figure 8.25

Figure 8.26

Figure 8.27

Figure 8.28

List of Tables

Table 1.1

Table 1.2

Table 1.3

Table 1.4

Table 1.7

Table 1.5

Table 1.6

Table 1.8

Table 1.9

Table 1.10

Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 2.3

Table 2.4

Table 2.5

Table 2.6

Table 2.7

Table 3.1

Table 3.2

Table 3.3

Table 3.4

Table 3.5

Table 3.6

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Table 4.3

Table 4.4

Table 4.5

Table 4.6

Table 4.7

Table 6.1

Table 6.2

Table 6.3

Table 6.4

Table 7.1

Table 7.2

Table 7.3

Table 7.4

Table 7.5

Table 7.6

Table 8.1

Table 8.2

Table 8.3

Table 8.4

Table 8.5

Table 8.6

Table 8.7

Table 9.1

Table 9.2

Table 9.3

Table 9.4

Table 9.5

Table 9.7

Table 9.6

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Edited by Agata Godula-Jopek

Hydrogen Production

by Electrolysis

With a Foreword by Detlef Stolten

Editor

Dr.-Habil. Ing. Agata Godula-Jopek FRSC

Airbus Group Innovations

Willy Messerschmitt Str. 1

81663 Munich

Germany

and

Polish Academy of Sciences

Institute of Chemical Engineering

ul. Baltycka 5

44100 Gliwice

Poland

Cover:

The picture shows a modern PEM water electrolyzer with ancillary equipment in a container (by permission from CETH2).

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Foreword

The most impressive property of hydrogen is not just a single technical one, but the capability to provide reason for implementation even under shifting paradigms. In other words, hydrogen is very versatile and clean. In the 1970s hydrogen was investigated under the pressure of the oil price shocks and it was thought to be very much in line with photovoltaics and clean energy. In the following years a decreasing oil price marginalized these efforts until hydrogen was eyed as an extremely clean fuel by the car industry together with fuel cells, delivering zero-emissions tailpipe. Today, renewable energy, primarily wind power, but also photovoltaics, has reached a level of economics that strategies using hydrogen for storage and as a fuel in transportation are starting to make not just technical and ecological, but also economical sense. Particularly important in this context is the mass production of hydrogen from wind power and photovoltaics via water electrolysis.

Long-standing research and development efforts of the car industry have recently turned into the first automated production of fuel cell vehicles, and other manufacturers have announced to follow within the next 1–3 years. Fuel cell cars benefit from a cruising range similar to those of existing gasoline cars with the option of quick and easy refilling with hydrogen. As there is a broad consensus of the car industry that hydrogen is the best fuel for fuel cell vehicles it is crucial and timely to make the most important way to produce hydrogen from renewable sources – water electrolysis – well known to scientists and the technical community.

In this context, this book makes a great contribution to disseminate the state-of-the-art science and technology of water electrolysis and the challenges thereof.

July 2014

Detlef Stolten

Jülich, Germany

Preface

“Low-cost hydrogen will foster a new era of energy sustainability, based on hydrogen”.

Over the last decades, severe economic and environmental constraints have appeared on global hydrocarbon-based energy economy. Growing demands for increasing energy leads to reduced capacity in fossil fuels and as such will threaten global energy supply and put more strain on the environment. Therefore it is of vital importance to look for a replacement for hydrocarbon fuels. One promising alternative is hydrogen, which itself presents several advantages. It adds flexibility to energy production and end use chain by making a bridge between fossil, nuclear and renewable energy sources and electrical energy. When produced by electrolysis from renewable energies, it can be considered as a low carbon footprint energy carrier. Furthermore, hydrogen as a product is also used in several industrial applications, which grant electrolysis multiple opportunities of valorization. Hydrogen also appears as an excellent chemical for the transformation of carbon dioxide into synthetic carbonaceous fuels. A most significant part of hydrogen economy is hydrogen production in a sustainable, efficient and environmental-friendly way.

Due to the international energy situation, water electrolysis remains a fast-evolving field. Its high potential for transforming zero-carbon electricity sources into the supply of zero-carbon hydrogen and oxygen for miscellaneous end uses has attracted renewed attention over the last decade and many research and development (R&D) programmes have been launched in many countries to develop new integrated technologies for the management of renewable energy sources.

The transition towards this global ‘hydrogen economy’ is not expected to take place within a few years, but publicly supported R&D efforts and deployment of a hydrogen infrastructure will certainly contribute to making this vision a reality. In the recent years, the European Union (EU) has adopted ambitious energy and climate change objectives for 2020 and beyond. Long-term commitments to the decarbonization path of the energy and transport system have been made. Security of energy supply is also high on the political agenda. These strategic objectives have been reflected in the proposal of the European Commission for Horizon 2020, the research and innovation pillar of Europe 2020. Fuel cell and hydrogen (FCH) technologies have the potential to contribute in achieving these goals, and they are part of the SET Plan, the technology pillar of the EU's energy and climate policy. These technologies have made significant progress in the last 10 years in terms of efficiency, durability and cost reduction. Competitiveness with incumbent technologies is contemplated for 2015–2020, and targets in terms of performance have been established for that purpose and are considered reachable with a sufficient effort on R&D. Commercialization within some niche applications has already started, which is reflected in a fast-growing market, expected to be US$ 43 billion and US$ 139 billion annually over the next 10–20 years, from a forecasted US$ 785 million in 2012. Several hundreds of thousands of jobs may be created as a consequence of this growth.

The question is how Europe can capture a maximum share of this nascent sector, and what has to be done in the next few years. In this general context, water electrolysis and more specifically polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) water electrolysis is expected to play an increasing role.

New markets are appearing for hydrogen of electrolytic grade because water splitting appears to be the best option to convert transient electricity load profiles into easy-to-store-and-distribute chemical fuels. New materials have been developed for operation over an extended range of temperature. Existing technologies have been optimized and new technologies have been developed.

Hydrogen production from electrolysis presents rather interesting features. It is indeed a suitable technology for renewable energy sources as it can adapt its power consumption to available input power. It also offers the advantage of being a fully scalable technology, allowing systems in the range of a few kilowatts to several tenths of megawatts. Unlike most storage technologies (batteries, flywheels, etc.), electrolysis allows the separation of the charging power and the stored energy, which can be of a great interest when designing a system with contrasted power and energy needs.

The book provides an overview of water electrolysis technologies based on alkaline electrolysis and PEM water electrolysis for the production of hydrogen and oxygen of electrolytic grade. A brief introduction to the historical background and a general description of the technologies are presented, including electrochemical performances, techniques used for stacking individual electrolysis cells into electrolysers of larger capacity and the performance and characteristics of these stacks. Details about process flowsheet, ancillary equipment and balance of plant are provided as well for both technologies. Last but not the least, current technological developments and applications are presented including discussions on existing limitations, challenges and future perspectives. Furthermore, a deep insight into high-temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE) technology is presented with details on fundamentals of solid-state electrochemistry in HTSE, performances and durabilities, limitations and challenges as well as specific operation modes. Moreover, different hydrogen storage options have been presented and compared taking into consideration existing limitations and targets set by the US Department of Energy (DOE).

It seems important to bring to the reader's attention the challenges related to the coupling of renewable sources with electrolyser systems. A comprehensive review of the associated requirements and their impact on system design, power electronics and process control is presented, including analysis of the impact of intermittency on electrolysis system performances and reliability in terms of produced hydrogen characteristics, efficiency and system lifetime. On the basis of selected key criteria, a qualitative comparison is provided on the suitability of PEM, alkaline and HTSE for integration with renewable energy sources.

The ambition of the authors was to edit a reference textbook in that field and discuss existing limitations and future perspectives. As such, the book offers a comprehensive review of the state of the art, covering different aspects of water electrolysis and high-temperature electrolysis (materials, technologies) and provides a comparison of the existing technologies in terms of performance and cost.

Last but not the least, I wish to acknowledge the excellent cooperation of all the authors, submitting manuscripts and corrections on time. Many thanks are also due to Dr Waltraud Wuest, Dr Heike Noethe and other colleagues from Wiley-VCH Weinheim, Germany, for help with obtaining permissions for reprinting figures and for an excellent job in editing the manuscript of the book.

October 2014

Munich, Germany

Agata Godula-Jopek

List of Contributors

Cyril Bourasseau

CEA Grenoble

DRT/LITEN/DTBH/SCSH/LPH

17, rue des Martyrs

Grenoble Cedex 9

France

Agata Godula-Jopek

Airbus Group Innovations—TX6

Willy Messerschmitt Str. 1

Munich

Germany

and

Polish Academy of Sciences

Institute of Chemical Engineering

ul Baltycka 5

Gliwice

Poland

Nicolas Guillet

University of Grenoble Alpes

F-38000 Grenoble

and

CEA, LITEN

F-733575 Le Bourget-du-Lac

France

Benjamin Guinot

CEA Grenoble

DRT/LITEN/DTBH/SCSH/LPH

17, rue des Martyrs

Grenoble Cedex 9

France

Jérôme Laurencin

CEA Grenoble

DRT/LITEN/DTBH/SCSH/LPH

17, rue des Martyrs

Grenoble Cedex 9

France

Pierre Millet

Université Paris-Sud 11

Chemistry Department, ICMMO

Bâtiment 410

rue Georges Clémenceau

Orsay Cedex

France

Julie Mougin

CEA Grenoble

DRT/LITEN/DTBH/SCSH/LPH

17, rue des Martyrs

Grenoble Cedex 9

France

Chapter 1Introduction

Agata Godula-Jopek

We find ourselves on the cusp of a new epoch in history, where every possibility is still an option. Hydrogen, the very stuff of the stars and our own sun, is now being seized by human ingenuity and harnessed for human ends. Charting the right course at the very beginning of the journey is essential if we are to make the great promise of a hydrogen age a viable reality for our children and a worthy legacy for the generations that will come after us.

Jeremy Rifkin [1].

Hydrogen is being considered as an important future energy carrier, which means it can store and deliver energy in a usable form. At standard temperature and pressure (0 °C and 1013 hPa), hydrogen exists in a gaseous form. It is odourless, colourless, tasteless, non-toxic and lighter than air. The stoichiometric fraction of hydrogen in air is 29.53 vol%. Abundant on earth as an element, hydrogen is present everywhere, being the simplest element in the universe representing 75 wt% or 90 vol% of all matter. As an energy carrier, hydrogen is not an energy source itself; it can only be produced from other sources of energy, such as fossil fuels, renewable sources or nuclear power by different energy conversion processes. Exothermic combustion reaction with oxygen forms water (heat of combustion 1.4 × 108 J kg−1) and no greenhouse gases containing carbon are emitted to the atmosphere.

Selected physical properties of hydrogen based on Van Nostrand are presented in Table 1.1 [2].

Table 1.1 Selected physical properties of hydrogen.

Parameter

Value

Unit

Molecular weight

2.016

Mol

Melting point

13.96

Boiling point (at 1 atm)

14.0