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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Wiley - IEEE
- Sprache: Englisch
Provides technical and scientific descriptions of potential approaches used to achieve indoor positioning, ranging from sensor networks to more advanced radio-based systems This book presents a large technical overview of various approaches to achieve indoor positioning. These approaches cover those based on sensors, cameras, satellites, and other radio-based methods. The book also discusses the simplification of certain implementations, describing ways for the reader to design solutions that respect specifications and follow established techniques. Descriptions of the main techniques used for positioning, including angle measurement, distance measurements, Doppler measurements, and inertial measurements are also given. Indoor Positioning: Technologies and Performance starts with overviews of the first age of navigation, the link between time and space, the radio age, the first terrestrial positioning systems, and the era of artificial satellites. It then introduces readers to the subject of indoor positioning, as well as positioning techniques and their associated difficulties. Proximity technologies like bar codes, image recognition, Near Field Communication (NFC), and QR codes are covered--as are room restricted and building range technologies. The book examines wide area indoor positioning as well as world wide indoor technologies like High-Sensitivity and Assisted GNSS, and covers maps and mapping. It closes with the author's vision of the future in which the practice of indoor positioning is perfected across all technologies. This text: * Explores aspects of indoor positioning from both theoretical and practical points of view * Describes advantages and drawbacks of various approaches to positioning * Provides examples of design solutions that respect specifications of tested techniques * Covers infra-red sensors, lasers, Lidar, RFID, UWB, Bluetooth, Image SLAM, LiFi, WiFi, indoor GNSS, and more Indoor Positioning is an ideal guide for technical engineers, industrial and application developers, and students studying wireless communications and signal processing.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Preface
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Attempt to Clarify the Problem
Comments for a Deployment in Real Conditions
Conclusion
1 A Little Piece of History …
1.1 The First Age of Navigation
1.2 Longitude Problem and Importance of Time
1.3 Link Between Time and Space
1.4 The Radio Age
1.5 First Terrestrial Positioning Systems
1.6 The Era of Artificial Satellites
1.7 New Problem: Availability and Accuracy of Positioning Systems
Bibliography
2 What Exactly Is the Indoor Positioning Problem?
2.1 General Introduction to Indoor Positioning
2.2 Is Indoor Positioning the Next “Longitude Problem”?
2.3 Quick Summary of the Indoor Problem
Bibliography
3 General Introduction to Positioning Techniques and Their Associated Difficulties
3.1 Angle‐Based Positioning Technique
3.2 Distance‐Based Positioning Technique
3.3 Doppler‐Based Positioning Approach
3.4 Physical Quantity‐Based Positioning Approaches
3.5 Image‐Based Positioning Approach
3.6 ILS, MLS, VOR, and DME
3.7 Summary
Bibliography
4 Various Possible Classifications of Indoor Technologies
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Parameters to Be Considered
4.3 Discussion About These Parameters
4.4 Technologies Considered
4.5 Complete Tables
4.6 Playing with the Complete Table
4.7 Selected Approach for the Rest of the Book
Bibliography
5 Proximity Technologies: Approaches, Performance, and Limitations
5.1 Bar Codes
5.2 Contactless Cards and Credit Cards
5.3 Image Recognition
5.4 Near‐Field Communication – NFC
5.5 QR Codes
5.6 Discussion of Other Technologies
Bibliography
6 Room‐Restricted Technologies: Challenges and Reliability
6.1 Image Markers
6.2 Infrared Sensors
6.3 Laser
6.4 Lidar
6.5 Sonar
6.6 Ultrasound Sensors
Bibliography
7 “Set of Rooms” Technologies
7.1 Radar
7.2 RFID
7.3 UWB
Bibliography
8 Building Range Technologies
8.1 Accelerometer
8.2 Bluetooth and Bluetooth Low Energy
8.3 Gyrometer
8.4 Image‐Relative Displacement
8.5 Image SLAM
8.6 LiFi
8.7 Light Opportunity
8.8 Sound
8.9 Theodolite
8.10 WiFi
8.11 Symbolic WiFi
Bibliography
9 Building Range Technologies: The Specific Case of Indoor GNSS
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Concept of Local Transmitters
9.3 Pseudolites
9.4 Repeaters
9.5 Repealites
9.6 Grin‐Locs
Bibliography
10 Wide Area Indoor Positioning: Block, City, and County Approaches
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Amateur Radio
10.3 ISM Radio Bands (433/868/… MHz)
10.4 Mobile Networks
10.5 LoRa and SigFox
10.6 AM/FM Radio
10.7 TV
Bibliography
11 Worldwide Indoor Positioning Technologies: Achievable Performance
11.1 Argos and COSPAS‐SARSAT Systems
11.2 GNSS
11.3 High‐Accuracy GNSS
11.4 Magnetometer
11.5 Pressure Sensor
11.6 Radio Signals of Opportunity
11.7 Wired Networks
Bibliography
12 Combining Techniques and Technologies
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Fusion and Hybridization
12.3 Collaborative Approaches
12.4 General Discussion
Bibliography
13 Maps
13.1 Map: Not Just an Image
13.2 Indoor Poses Specific Problems
13.3 Map Representations
13.4 Recording Tools
13.5 Some Examples of the Use of Indoor Mapping
13.6 Synthesis
Bibliography
14 Synthesis and Possible Forthcoming “Evolution”
14.1 Indoor Positioning: Signals of Opportunity or Local Infrastructure?
14.2 Discussion
14.3 Possible Evolution of Everybody's Daily Life
14.4 Internet of Things and Internet of Everything
14.5 Possible Future Approaches
14.6 Conclusion
Bibliography
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 The “navigation” function and the continuity of service.
Table 2.2 Specification by main domains.
Table 2.3 Specification by main places.
Table 2.4 Specification by technologies.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Specification by main domains.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Hardware table of indoor positioning technologies.
Table 4.2 Type and performances table.
Table 4.3 Real implementation parameters table.
Table 4.4 Physical aspects table of indoor positioning technologies.
Table 4.5 Technologies classified according to the “Accuracy” parameter.
Table 4.6 Technologies classified according to the “positioning mode” parameter.
Table 4.7 Technologies classified according to the “Range” parameter.
Table 4.8 Technologies obtained for accuracy better than a few meters and a cont...
Table 4.11 Technologies obtained for accuracy better than a few meters, a contin...
Table 4.12 The classification on the “range” parameter.
Table 4.13 The classification on the “accuracy” parameter.
Table 4.14 The classification on the “reliability” parameter.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Main proximity technologies.
Table 5.2 Summary of the main parameters for bar codes.
Table 5.3 Summary of the main parameters for contactless and credit cards.
Table 5.4 Summary of the main parameters for image recognition.
Table 5.5 Summary of the main parameters for NFC.
Table 5.6 Summary of the main parameters for QR codes.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Main “room” technologies.
Table 6.2 Summary of the main parameters for image markers.
Table 6.3 Summary of the main parameters for infrared sensors.
Table 6.4 Summary of the main parameters for laser.
Table 6.5 Summary of the main parameters for Lidar.
Table 6.6 Summary of the main parameters for sonar.
Table 6.7 Summary of the main parameters for ultrasound sensors.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Main technologies for “a few rooms.”
Table 7.2 Summary of the main parameters for Radar.
Table 7.3 Summary of the main parameters for RFID.
Table 7.4 Summary of the main parameters for UWB.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Main “building” technologies.
Table 8.2 Summary of the main parameters for accelerometers.
Table 8.3 Summary of the main parameters for Bluetooth.
Table 8.4 Summary of the main parameters for gyrometer.
Table 8.5 Summary of the main parameters for image‐relative displacement.
Table 8.6 Summary of the main parameters for image SLAM.
Table 8.7 Summary of the main parameters for LiFi.
Table 8.8 Summary of the main parameters for light opportunity.
Table 8.9 Summary of the main parameters for sound.
Table 8.10 Summary of the main parameters for theodolite.
Table 8.11 Summary of the main parameters for WiFi.
Table 8.12 Summary of the main parameters for symbolic WiFi.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Main “building” technologies.
Table 9.2 Summary of the main parameters for indoor GNSS.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Main “block,” “city,” and “county” technologies.
Table 10.2 Summary of the main parameters for amateur radio.
Table 10.3 Summary of the main parameters for radio 433/868 MHz.
Table 10.4 Summary of the main parameters for GSM/3/4/5G.
Table 10.5 Summary of the main parameters for LoRa and SigFox.
Table 10.6 Summary of the main parameters for AM/FM radio.
Table 10.7 Summary of the main parameters for TV.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Main “worldwide” technologies.
Table 11.2 Summary of the main parameters for COSPAS‐SARSAT and Argos.
Table 11.3 Summary of the main parameters for GNSS.
Table 11.4 Summary of the main parameters for high‐accuracy GNSS.
Table 11.5 Summary of the main parameters for magnetometers.
Table 11.6 Summary of the main parameters for pressure sensors.
Table 11.7 Summary of the main parameters for radio signals of opportunity.
Table 11.8 Summary of the main parameters for wired networks.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Technologies for which infrastructure and availability on smartphones...
Table 14.2 Technologies offering almost continuous decametric precision.
Table 14.3 Technologies available on smartphones and with low sensitivity to the...
Table 14.4 Technologies offering very high reliability.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Determining latitude with the pole star.
Figure 1.2 Representation of the hyperbolic approach.
Figure 1.3 Sputnik, called the “basketball.”
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Harrison's H4 clock.
Figure 2.2 Harrison's H1 clock.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 The compass bearing technique.
Figure 3.2 The triangulation technique.
Figure 3.3 Possible distances positioning system and environment.
Figure 3.4 The bistatic radar principle.
Figure 3.5 The bistatic radar principle.
Figure 3.6 The Cell‐Id concept (BS stands for base station).
Figure 3.7 The Cell‐Id + Timing Advance technique (left) alone and (right) wit...
Figure 3.8 The Doppler‐based positioning technique – I.
Figure 3.9 The Doppler‐based positioning technique – II.
Figure 3.10 A typical RSS map (1 m step in both north and east directions – Bl...
Figure 3.11 A piezoelectric accelerometer (modern implementations use nanotech...
Figure 3.12 Principle of a gyroscope.
Figure 3.13 The MLS concept.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 “Indoor Positioning” coded under a Code‐128 format.
Figure 5.2 “Indoor Positioning” coded under a GS1–128 encoding format.
Figure 5.3 “9781234567897” coded under an ISBN 13 format.
Figure 5.4 The BPS 300i system from Leuze electronic.
Figure 5.5 A typical deployment of a bar code positioning system in a building...
Figure 5.6 Principle of a contactless payment.
Figure 5.7 (a) The Eiffel Tower. (b) A country road somewhere..
Figure 5.8 Simple representation of the position uncertainty.
Figure 5.9 A typical electromagnetic passive NFC coupling between the tag and ...
Figure 5.10 A passive tag fixed on a wall, read by a smartphone (a), and the a...
Figure 5.11 A few examples of two‐dimensional codes. QR code (a), Data Matrix ...
Figure 5.12 A larger QR code (a) and a credit card format positioning passive ...
Figure 5.13 Direct marking of parts for industrial logistic purposes.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Diagram of the transformation we have to carry out, from image to g...
Figure 6.2 A QR code included in an image.
Figure 6.3 The “active badge” system: beacon (a) and transmitters (b).
Figure 6.4 Possible laser positioning system and environment.
Figure 6.5 Typical lidar architecture.
Figure 6.6 A two‐dimensional representation of the “depth map” obtained with l...
Figure 6.7 A three‐dimensional representation of the “depth map” obtained for ...
Figure 6.8 TX8 lidar from Trimble.
Figure 6.9 Image reconstruction from a sonar.
Figure 6.10 Image reconstruction from a sonar.
Figure 6.11 The Bat system: beacon (a) and transmitters (b).
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Three‐dimensional direction of arrival measurement principle.
Figure 7.2 A typical RFID system architecture.
Figure 7.3 A typical UWB indoor positioning configuration.
Figure 7.4 A typical two‐way ranging approach.
Figure 7.5 A typical symmetrical double‐sided two‐way ranging approach.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 A typical acceleration response of a pedestrian's footstep.
Figure 8.2 A typical indoor Bluetooth‐based deployment.
Figure 8.3 Theodolite positioning principle.
Figure 8.4 WiFi positioning system.
Figure 8.5 The symbolic WiFi positioning system.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 A typical urban canyon situation.
Figure 9.2 Illustration of an indoor pseudolite configuration (
P
i
refers to ps...
Figure 9.3 Code (top) and phase (bottom) techniques for pseudolite generators ...
Figure 9.4 A typical indoor pseudolite configuration.
Figure 9.5 Typical results of an indoor pseudolite positioning system.
Figure 9.6 A typical indoor “RnS” repeater configuration (S refers so satellit...
Figure 9.7 A typical indoor “R1S” repeater configuration (
ρ
refers to pse...
Figure 9.8 Indoor repeater‐based positioning system.
Figure 9.9 A typical pseudo range evolution.
Figure 9.10 The resulting autocorrelation function at the receiver.
Figure 9.11 The repealite system.
Figure 9.12 Standard Grin‐Loc‐based positioning system.
Figure 9.13 Standard geometry between a Grin‐Loc and the receiver.
Figure 9.14 Positioning with two Grin‐Locs.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Angle of arrival principle.
Figure 10.2 Time of arrival approach.
Figure 10.3 Time difference of arrival approach.
Figure 10.4 The matrix positioning approach.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Overview of ARGOS system.
Figure 11.2 Overview of COSPAS‐ARSAT system.
Figure 11.3 A typical Assisted‐GNSS configuration (BS stands for base station)...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Problem definition.
Figure 12.2 Definition of the angles.
Figure 12.3 Cartesian geometry in the case of three fixed transmitters (
A
,
B
, ...
Figure 12.4 Geometry of the four‐node system.
Figure 12.5 One symmetry of the problem.
Figure 12.6 Symmetry of the problem with respect to the
AC
axis.
Figure 12.7 Ambiguity of position in a triangle for distance measurements.
Figure 12.8 Set of possible cases of deformation of a three‐node network.
Figure 12.9 Set of different cases of deformation of a three‐node network.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Oblique view and 3D buildings of an outdoor navigation system.
Figure 13.2 Indoor navigation system in augmented reality.
Figure 13.3 Example of indoor mapping with information on the use of a given r...
Figure 13.4 Example of a tool for overlaying and dimensioning a building in it...
Figure 13.5 Interface for managing the attributes of a part of the cartography...
Figure 13.6 The successive steps of a guidance application: (a) determining th...
Figure 13.7 Graphical help for user orientation: (a) red feet wrong orientatio...
Figure 13.8 In case of an emergency mode (© LittleThumb).
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Principle of the inverted radar in two dimensions.
Figure 14.2 A user‐initiated approach.
Figure 14.3 A cooperative model exchanging Doppler and relative angles of arri...
Figure 14.4 The link between the timetable and the course venue.
Figure 14.5 Some ideas for a mobile terminal and guidance instructions.
Figure 14.6 Real‐time patient follow‐up.
Figure 14.7 Real‐time patient follow‐up.
Figure 14.8 Visualization of congestion areas in a museum.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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IEEE Press
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Piscataway, NJ 08854
IEEE Press Editorial Board
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Editor in Chief
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Ahmet Murat Tekalp
Indoor Positioning
Technologies and performance
Nel Samama
Electronics and Physics Department Institut Mines-Telecom, France
Copyright
Copyright © 2019 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per‐copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750‐8400, fax (978) 750‐4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748‐6011, fax (201) 748‐6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data:
Names: Samama, Nel, 1963- author.
Title: Indoor positioning : technologies and performance / Nel Samama,
Electronics and Physics Department, Institut Mines-Telecom, France.
Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2019] | Includes
bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2019010513 (print) | LCCN 2019017747 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119421856 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119421863 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119421849
(hardback)
Subjects: LCSH: Indoor positioning systems (Wireless localization)
Classification: LCC TK5103.48323 (ebook) | LCC TK5103.48323 .S27 2019 (print)
| DDC 006.2—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019010513
Cover design by Wiley
Cover image: Photo by Tobias Fischer on Unsplash.
Preface
This preface gives some ideas about the way this book has been written: the main philosophy and how it has been designed. It is intended to provide an overview of indoor positioning technologies and systems. Note that as it deals with indoor, it is mainly oriented toward pedestrians or objects.
The two main reasons for the book are to take stock of the real performances, i.e. in fact the limitations, of the various indoor positioning technologies and its corollary, to show that it is already possible to produce many systems, meeting real needs, on the simple condition of very slightly changing the angle of our vision of positioning. This vision is indeed the result of a long process that makes us understand positioning only in the form proposed by the GPS. Thus, all solutions should follow the same mode, forgetting, for example, that continuous positioning is only necessary in very specific cases.
I also felt that there was a need for clarification: how can we understand that this area, which has been promised a high turnover for years, is only implemented in limited cases. The book was chosen to comment on the various indoor positioning technologies, according to a classification that mixes the physical techniques used. As a result, this may seem a little strange to purists, but the objective is to better understand the reasons for the limited level of penetration of these solutions in everyone's daily life. This break with more traditional presentations is also an attempt to “move” the points of view and angles of approach.
The way to treat technologies is to consider them in an “elementary” way, i.e. individually. This allows us to extract the performance and see what complementarities each would need in order to extend its performance. Chapter 12 will provide some insights into the various ways in which these individual technologies can be combined.
A fundamental aspect when it comes to indoor location, and in particular when talking about the citizen and his mobile phone, is of course respect for everyone's privacy. This point is not addressed in this book, which is intended to be technically oriented, but must be present in everyone's mind.
The last chapter of the book could have been the introduction if the only targeted audience were “specialists.” Thus, after a few hours of “navigation” through the book, the reader will easily be able to move on to this last chapter, which summarizes, giving simple examples, all the current difficulties of defining an acceptable system.
The book was written as a broad discussion on the field and technologies rather than a technical reference book for academic use. It is intended for those who wish to understand the reasons for the relative stagnation of deployments or who wish, in the short term, to carry out such a deployment. Practical aspects therefore play a significant role.
Discussion also means exchange. In this way, readers' comments are encouraged.
Nel Samama
Paris, February 2019
Acknowledgments
In the acknowledgments to my previous book, Global Positioning, I thanked all those who had to endure my many absences: my family members of course, and also my colleagues at work. It seems to me that I told them I would never do it again.
I reiterate here my sincere gratitude for so much self‐sacrifice on their part, often leaving me in my corner quietly when they understood that it was necessary. I would have no credibility if I said I would never write a third book, but I hope they know how much I have understood and appreciated the efforts they have made for me. Without mentioning them by name because they will easily recognize themselves, I thank them for their constant help and support.
A big thank you to the two Alexandres, Alexandre Vervisch‐Picois and Alexandre Patarot, whose comments have greatly improved several chapters.
Last but not least, as for Global Positioning, a very special thanks to Dick who made many corrections to the English language of the book: he is once again certainly the only person who will ever read the complete book twice!
Introduction
Main Objectives of this Book
Abstract
This introduction explains the main reasons that led me to write this book. The writing of a book is exciting but very time‐consuming: I learned this from a previous experience. Thus, for me, such an adventure is the result of an observation, and the format I have chosen follows quite logically (in my opinion). The observation is that indoor positioning is a long‐standing quest of many actors: industrialists, small and medium‐sized enterprises, institutions, academics, researchers, etc. The economic outlook, although probably often overestimated, has been described for many years as exceptional. What is surprising to me is that it always remains at a very high level. However, no “viable” solution (we will come back to this term later) is really available today on a scale commensurate with what the stakes seem to be (economic but also applicative). From a technical point of view, I did not find the problem complex to state, but it was probably because of my daily “immersion” in it. So what is the problem? Why do I have such difficulty getting my interlocutors to understand the field, whatever it may be, in order to solve a very real problem? Why is it that after so many years and so much effort we do not have “indoor GPS”? This introductory chapter gives some information on the path that led me to the writing of this book as well as on the format chosen for the latter, which is more a discussion than a purely technical work.
Keywords: Introduction; indoor positioning; indoor GPS; indoor problem;
I have been involved in the field of indoor positioning for about 20 years now. In the early years, it was the daily excitement. There was not a day without a new need emerging: pedestrian guidance of course, but management of production and animal welfare in hangars; piloting drones for structural analysis in arsenals; continuity of the car navigation function in covered areas, tunnels, or car parks; monitoring of firefighters in their interventions, etc. Many calls for projects were available and the fact that we were working in the field was in itself rewarding. This is quite classical in the world of research and development: it is the normal life of an applied research subject. Where things seem different to me is that despite all this, despite the very many solutions proposed in extremely varied technical directions, despite the scale of potential markets that has never been denied, there is still not a catalog of acceptable technical and technological solutions. All deployments are unitary while the need seems global.
A first reason, which is not sufficient but “enlightening,” is undoubtedly our over‐reliance on “technology,” which will solve any problem if the need and especially the markets are present. The global positioning system (GPS) was capable of an incredible achievement. The second element follows from this: as the markets are described as gigantic, some have been tempted to sell the chickens before they are hatched, without any real technical solution. This has made it possible both to recover R&D funding, which is sometimes very substantial, and to make real technological progress. However, these have not been enough. One thing leading to another, investors have become more reluctant and that is how we have witnessed (and still witness) the succession of financing and slowdown phases of the latter. Some major projects, such as the European Galileo program, are sometimes one‐off accelerators.
However, the main parameters, both technical and applicative, remained simple enough from my point of view. The past tense used in the previous sentence is fundamental in my decision to write this book: I was obliged to note my inability to convey my message of “simplicity” of the technical problem to my interlocutors. In such a case, it is probably necessary to question yourself a little in order to move forward. As far as technology is concerned, my contribution is based on this book, which has enabled me to understand that what I thought was simple is not really so simple, even if it is based on only a few basic broad lines but which are expressed in a multitude of details. On the application level, however, my initial feeling was reinforced during the writing process: it is in fact the needs that are very poorly formalized, preventing “technicians” from making useful progress. Some will object that the latter are not supposed to solve a specific practical problem but should be used, in their reflections, by all without segmentation. Okay, but then let us find “intermediate structures” combining research and development because these two aspects are essential to progress in this field. That, I believe, is the root cause of our current problem. Leaving those who have a technological solution (or think they do), the power to guide responses to (generally poorly expressed) needs has led us to the current impasse.
I would thus advocate, stronger than ever, the need for exchanges built between the various actors, institutional, financial, technical, and application in order to bring out the main classes of what we are looking for. This would make it possible both to know what we want, but above all to give strong (and potentially profitable) objectives to technical actors. The efforts made so far are gradually being dispersed, replaced by new techniques that do not know better where to go. Leaving the choice of the parameters to optimize to the technicians is to allow them to conclude favorably in the contexts that suit them best, and experience shows us that this has not been, in any case so far, the right one.
Attempt to Clarify the Problem
First of all, throughout the book, a semantic difference is made between technique and technology. The first term applies to the “mathematical” (or geometric) approach that leads to the position of a terminal (any object, person, or entity). Examples include triangulation, trilateration, or the determination of the slope of a Doppler curve when the transmitter moves relative to the terminal. Technology is then a specific way of carrying out measurements. Thus, for example, the trilateration technique is implemented by the GPS technology, but also by the UWB (ultra‐wideband radio) one.
The aim of the book is to list the many technologies available today. The scope is large, without of course being totally exhaustive. These technologies are described in their “elementary” functioning, i.e. without coupling them together and without implementing overly elaborate associated treatments. The objective is thus to remain at a relatively “physical” level in order to characterize their intrinsic potential. However, Chapter 12 presents some current approaches to coupling, merging, or hybridizing technologies and provides an opportunity to discuss some fundamental elements of these approaches, and especially the links between these approaches and the “physics” of technologies.
About 40 technologies are discussed. In the presence of such a list, the question arises of the organization and classification, or grouping, of them: how to support the reader in his journey of understanding? My choice was to classify them by “range,” not by technique. Indeed, in the relative complexity of the problem, I tried to put myself in the shoes of a reader of this book in order to answer a practical question about deploying a system under its own conditions. It seems to me that the first question to ask, long before knowing what we are going to implement, is the geographical scope of our problem.
This being said, the selected organization does not solve all the problems. First of all, classification is not always very simple to decide because some technologies have the particularity of being able to be implemented according to different modalities, which would position them in different categories. Then, because in other cases, classification may depend on the way the technology is implemented. All this will be discussed in the corresponding chapters.
After the first chapter introducing a history of indoor positioning, we will discuss the problem more fully in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 then presents the description of the techniques (as defined above) and we will come to Chapter 4, which is a lengthy discussion on a significant set of parameters and criteria for indoor positioning. We will take time to identify all the potential problems in this area and conclude with a set of summary tables of all technologies, arranged in alphabetical order according to all the criteria selected.
We will then become fully aware, by using these tables, of the complexity of the problem. By complexity, we will see that it is not really a question of technical complexity, but more of an application and practical implementation complexity, of extra technical constraints if we can say so. In fact, it is the accumulation of the latter that makes the problem almost insoluble, except in limited cases. Thus, it is then suggested, in the following discussion, to look for a solution not only on a technical or technological point of view but also of the potential revision of the said constraints.
All this only makes sense if, and doubt is allowed, the markets for indoor positioning are real and not fantasized. However, we will not enter into this debate.
Nevertheless, Chapter 4 is certainly the most important one in the book for those who wish to understand the field without a priori and who wish to get their own idea on the issues of indoor positioning and continuity of the positioning service.
Comments for a Deployment in Real Conditions
The following Chapters, from 5 to 11, organized according to the range of the technologies will allow some technical descriptions, but more specifically discussions on the strengths and weaknesses of these technologies. The comments are then proposed as part of a real deployment of the technology, and their main objective is to highlight the important points to be considered. The overall idea of the book is not to discourage but, on the contrary, to make it clear that among the many approaches available, it is likely that the solution to a given deployment exists, but that it is necessary to be able to understand the limitations in order to adapt the system requirements objectively. Disillusionment with the true capabilities and performance of a system is just counterproductive, i.e. it generates disappointment and frustration, often leading to a diversion from the whole field of positioning. It is this attitude that the book seeks to avoid by announcing, as objectively as possible (I hope), what can be expected from the technologies discussed, and what cannot.
It is useful to understand that the classification used is not free from potential criticisms. The boundary between two chapters is not necessarily very clear and certainly questionable. However, it allows you to make choices and quickly understand some of the basic issues of an indoor positioning solution.
The modern world is looking at how to analyze and process the massive amount of data that are becoming increasingly available. The world of positioning is no exception to this strong trend. Thus, based on the observation that one technology alone is not able to meet the various needs, the current direction is based on the coupling, more or less subtle, of several technologies. The basic principle is that if two complementary technologies are combined, it is potentially possible to obtain the best performance by combining the two. This is undeniable in theory but still poses some practical problems. As a result, many approaches exist and will be briefly described in Chapter 12. The book's approach consists in giving the main current leads and references on the subject, and also to propose a new discussion on the limitations (and perhaps fantasies?) of these approaches. The fact, for example, that they effectively provide performance improvement, sometimes significant, in many cases is very real and cannot be questioned. However, it would be dangerous not to understand that in complex cases (i.e. when “elementary” technologies are at the limit of their fields of use), these approaches no longer present the previous performance gain. Chapter 12 will provide an opportunity to return to this point in more detail.
The same is true for Chapter 13 on mapping. This is an absolutely fundamental area when it comes to positioning and localization. However, it is often necessary to make this map much more than just an image, as has been done in the field of road mapping. Indeed, it is essential to associate with each element of the map attributes that will allow it to be able to provide the required services. For example, it will be necessary to be able to say whether an element is a displacement zone or not, whether it is possible to pass through a partition because there is a door or an opening in this partition. Similarly, when calculating a route, it is important to characterize a corridor by a high speed of movement compared to that possible in a room, even if the latter has several doors (the route must go around the room and especially not cross the room if the latter is a meeting room, for example). The same applies to areas where one changes from one floor to another, whether it is by elevators or stairs. An attribute “persons with reduced mobility” is again essential for the service to be acceptable. All this requires a specific approach, of a type similar to what was done a few decades ago for the outside world. In the indoor case, the size of a building's mapping is reduced (compared to road mapping), but involves new functionalities, such as floor management or bidirectionality of all spaces.
The last chapter is a description of what some daily situations could be if a real continuity of service (position) existed. It is a matter of imagining, in a realistic way, how the current organization could be modifiable in order to offer more flexibility in everyone's schedules. The basic idea is that our lives are mainly governed by the rhythm of the passing of time (a notion well assimilated today and especially shared by all on the same basis, the watch, which is individual, portable, and available everywhere and all the time). Imagining that the position of every person is equally shared and available everywhere and all the time, how this would simplify everyone's daily life, while reducing unnecessary expenses.
Conclusion
The book seems to me to be useful for anyone wishing to approach the subject of indoor positioning or the continuity of the localization function. In particular, application and service developers are often confronted with the implementation of software blocks whose finesse of use they do not always perceive as required. We then end up with inefficient systems. This is often due to a lack of knowledge of the mechanisms and limitations of the technologies deployed, which have a significant impact on the way data are processed. I hope that this book will help everyone to better understand the real technical and application challenges.
1A Little Piece of History …
Abstract
In this chapter, we briefly look back at the evolution of geographical positioning. Our intention is to show that indoor positioning is indeed a very recent need that has come about due to the spread of modern mobile‐connected terminals and owners wanting to receive numerous so‐called services, many of which are greatly enhanced when associated with the user location. The benefit of many of them is 10‐fold when associated with the user location. Thanks to the Global Positioning System, the famous GPS, this association was made possible in the early 1990s. Unfortunately, this fantastic system has been unable to meet the performance required indoors, where a “typical” urban citizen spends the majority of his or her time (The term “typical” will appear sometimes in the book. Although experience has shown such “typical” persons, objects, or environments do not exist, we will use this term to appoint a classical situation).
Keywords: History; longitude problem; navigation; clocks; Harrison;
As soon as human beings decided to explore new territories, or even just to move within new territories, they needed a way to locate themselves in their environment.
1.1 The First Age of Navigation
The origins of navigation are as old as man himself. The oldest traces have been found in Neolithic deposits and in Sumerian tombs, dating back to around 4000 years CE The story of navigation is strongly related to the history of instruments, although they did not have a rapid development until the invention of the maritime clock, thanks to John and James Harrison, in the eighteenth century. The first reason that pushed people to “take to the sea” is probably related to both the quest for discovery and the necessity of developing commercial activities. In the beginning, navigation was carried out without instruments and was limited to “keeping the coast in view.” It is likely that numerous adventurers lost their lives by trying to approach what was “over the horizon.”
The astronomical process used for positioning was quite inaccurate, and hence, frequent readjustments were required. The localization was even more complex because of the lack of maps. Nowadays, the situation of indoor positioning is in the same state: accuracy is not at the desired level, and frequent readjustments are needed. Moreover, one of the most important problems is the lack of indoor maps allowing navigation (i.e. not just an image). This very hot topic is dealt with in Chapter 13.
Unfortunately, astronomical positioning was only able to give the latitude of the point, as can be understood from Figure 1.1. The longitude problem would remain unresolved for centuries: will it be the same for indoor positioning?1
Figure 1.1 Determining latitude with the pole star.
A first remark can be made at this stage: positioning at the epoch was not continuous in time and space, contrary to what we are looking for today. However, is it really essential indoors?
1.2 Longitude Problem and Importance of Time
The so‐called longitude problem was much more difficult to solve and took almost three centuries. During this period, significant progress occurred concerning instruments and maps, but nothing for determining the longitude. As early as 1598, Philipp II of Spain offered a prize to whoever might find the solution. In 1666, in France, Colbert founded the “Académie des Sciences” and built the Observatory of Paris: one of his first goals was to find a method to determine longitude. King Charles II also founded the British Royal Observatory in 1675 in Greenwich to solve this problem of finding the longitude at sea. Giovanni Domenica Cassini, a professor of astronomy in Bologna, Italy, was the first director of the French academy and in 1668 proposed a method of finding the longitude based on the observations of the moons of Jupiter: this work followed the observations made by Galileo2 concerning these moons using an astronomical telescope. It had been known from the beginning of the sixteenth century that the time of the observation of a physical phenomenon could be linked to the location of the observation; thus, knowing the local time where the observations were made compared to the time of the original observation (carried out at a reference location) could give the longitude. Cassini established this fact with the moons of Jupiter after having calculated very accurate ephemeris. Unfortunately, this approach needs the use of a telescope and is not practically applicable at sea.
On 11 June 1714, Sir Isaac Newton confirmed that Cassini's solution was not applicable at sea and that the availability of a transportable timekeeper would be of great interest. It has to be noticed that Gemma Frisius also mentioned this around 1550, but it was probably too early. On 8 July 1714, Queen Anne offered, by Act of Parliament, a £20 000 prize3 to whoever could provide longitude to within half a degree. The solution had to be tested in real conditions during a return trip to India (or equivalent), and the accuracy, practicability, and usefulness had to be evaluated. Depending on the success of the corresponding results, a smaller part of the prize would be awarded.
The development of such a maritime timekeeper took decades to be achieved but finally had an impact on far more than navigation. The history of Harrison's clocks is quite interesting, and time is really the fundamental of modern satellite navigation capabilities. We have seen that Isaac Newton himself confirmed that the availability of a transportable maritime clock would be the solution to the longitude problem: the realization of such a clock, however, was not so easy. The main reason is that the clock industry was fundamentally based on physical principles dependent on gravitation (the pendulum). This was acceptable for terrestrial needs, but of no help in keeping time when sailing. Thus, a new system had to be found.
The reason that time is of such importance is because of the Earth's motion around its axis. As the Earth makes a complete rotation in 24 hours, it means that every hour corresponds to an eastward rotation of 15°. Thus, let us suppose that one knows a reference configuration of stars (or the position of the sun or the moon) at a given time and for a given well‐known location (e.g. Greenwich). If you stay at the same latitude, then you will be able to observe the same configuration but at another time (later if you are eastward and earlier if westward): the difference in times directly gives the longitude, as long as the time of the reference location (Greenwich in the present example) has been kept. The longitude is simply obtained by multiplying this difference by 15° per hour, eastward or westward. The method is very simple and the major difficulty is to “keep” the time of the reference place with a good enough accuracy, i.e. with a drift less than a few seconds per day. Pendulums, although of good accuracy on land, were unable to provide this accuracy at sea, mainly because of the motions of the ship and changes in humidity and temperature.
John Harrison built four different clocks, leading to numerous innovative concepts. After almost 50 years of remarkable achievements (August 1765), a panel of six experts gathered at Harrison's house in London and examined the final “H4” watch. John and William (his son) finally received the first half of the longitude prize. The other half was finally awarded to them by the Act of Parliament in June 1773. Certainly more important is the fact that John Harrison was finally recognized as being the man who solved the longitude problem.
One of the most famous demonstrations of Harrison's clocks' efficiency was given by James Cook during the second of his three famous voyages in the Pacific Ocean. This second trip was dedicated to the exploration of Antarctica. In April 1772, he sailed south with two ships: the Resolution and the Adventure. He spent 171 days sailing through the ice of the Antarctic and decided to sail back to the Pacific islands. He returned to London harbor in June 1775, after more than 40 000 nautical miles. During this voyage, he was carrying K1, Kendall's copy of Harrison's H4. The daily rate of loss of K1 never exceeded eight seconds (corresponding to a distance of two nautical miles at the equator) during the entire voyage: this was the proof that longitude could be measured from a watch.
Indoor positioning is almost in the same situation as that of the longitude determination in the early eighteenth century: it seems to be quite close, but there is indeed no satisfactory solution. Hopefully, it will take less than 50 years to find an acceptable approach.
1.3 Link Between Time and Space
The perception of time has changed quite a lot over the centuries until the current omnipresent availability of a precise time that can thus be shared by everybody. By briefly analyzing the evolution of the effects of this availability of time on people's life, some parallels are drawn concerning possible changes induced by the availability of positioning.
1.3.1 A Brief History of the Evolution of the Perception of Time
At the very beginning, time and space were notions that people felt: the number of days of walk needed to reach a given place and drawing simple maps of places. This was achieved long before writing was available.
With the augmentation of the diversity of his activities, human being has increased both his living space and the need to measure time in order to better organize commercial activities, for example. The lunar calendar appeared to help in this task: the observation of the phases of the moon was enough to give a date. Unfortunately, this was limited to activities such as agriculture, which relies more on annual cycles. Then, solar calendars appeared that allowed the collective organization of the activities of the society. The notion of year and months was already present. Furthermore, it was quite precise for seasonal activities. Further improvements were rapidly required in order to divide the day into time units to organize the activities within a given day. The initial approaches were based on the sundial, but the obvious problem is that the duration of a unit of time is not the same in every season: thus, a daytime unit lasted longer in summer than in winter. Ingenious water clocks (clepsydras) were imagined to solve this problem: in addition, this made the time available at night. Time became available: the next steps were to make it both transportable and synchronized from place to place.
The monks were the first to develop “clocks” in order to synchronize their religious practices. The first achievements were based on rings and gongs. Here, the interesting point is the fact that it allowed for synchronization for a whole group of people (those that heard the bells): knowing the precise time is absolutely not required.4 Universal time was nevertheless not yet a worry as life revolved around local affairs. Furthermore, the night remained “another world,” but it was acceptable to use the Sun for time. The evolution was, however, to develop clocks that were able to “ring” at various times of the day, even without a dial and hands. The most advanced such clocks were also able to ring at night in order to organize the whole life of the village.
The next step in the management of time measurement and restitution was the advent of mechanical dials that allowed people to “locate” themselves within the day. Representations are used (often based on religious or astronomical symbols) in such a way that even those that did not read were able to understand the time. All the mechanisms used at that time were based on gravitational effects meaning that it was not possible to use them at sea (this leads us back to the beginning of the chapter).
Meanwhile, Western countries started to expand around the world where difficulties appeared for commercial activities and synchronization. The first trains are in operations, but clocks are still synchronized on the Sun midday and time drifts are “visible.” Trains raised the need for a coordinated universal time, and this was the starting point for time zones.
The industrial revolutions brought about a change in attitudes toward time: the work was no longer related to the task, but to a given amount of time, new relationships were created between employers and employees, and new claims arose concerning the rights of workers who sometimes organized strikes in support of their claims. Industry realized that “time is money” and life itself became defined in relation to time. In addition, time became a global notion, shared worldwide. This globalization raised the (paradoxical?) need for an individual timekeeper5: everybody needed to be synchronized with the rest of the world, or at least with his professional and personal neighborhood.
Over the past few centuries, time has clearly increased its ascendancy on human activities. Financial transactions are nowadays fundamentally based on time, and the Internet and all telecommunication networks must be synchronized. Almost every action is quantified in time (and hence in money): at work, this is clear, and also for travel, either professional or personal, leisure, entertainment, etc. In the development of time measurement, one has also faced the disappearance of the mechanisms that were the visual part of the time passing. Some displays, if not all, no longer have hands but give digital values.
1.3.2 Comparison with the Possible Change in Our Perception of Space
The representation of the Earth has also changed quite a lot over the centuries. As time was being synchronized around the world, there was also a need for more accurate representation of the world in terms of maps, routes, etc. Note that although many different needs are at the origin of this requirement, time is certainly one of the most important. As the world's activity is largely based on time, it is very important to be able to evaluate the time needed for any given trip, either of people or of goods.
If we try to make a comparison between the evolution of time measurement and the evolution of positioning systems, it is certainly possible to say that positioning is today in the situation time faced more than 150 years ago with the advent of portable clocks. This was this technical feat that allowed the appropriation of time by everybody. The equivalent in positioning is now available with satellite‐based positioning systems (thanks to the pioneer global positioning system [GPS]). A few features are similar between the first portable watches and basic GPS receivers of today: the similar approach of needing an identical referential worldwide, the availability of a personal local measurement, and the possibility to “synchronize”6 with anybody else using a similar device. In addition, time and position are closely linked in GNSS (global navigation satellite systems) and this feature will help bring together the two aspects.
In conjunction, there is another technical achievement that is fundamental for the dissemination of portable positioning devices and their incorporation into everybody's life: telecommunications. When someone uses the time read on a wristwatch, it is automatically shared with others because the uniqueness of the common referential is enough. This is absolutely not the case for positioning: even considering a shared geographical referential, the position is a specificity of one person. In order to share these data with others, there is the need to communicate this information. This is why the advent of both positioning and telecommunication are bound to provide a wide development of positioning (maybe on a similar scale to what happened for time).
In the scope of this evolution, it is possible to consider that positioning could be profitable in domains such as ubiquity, or in other words, the automatic discovery of anyone's environment, or also in group management. For ubiquity, it is clear that if the positions of all people and objects were easily available, in all possible environments and at almost no expense, the environment of everybody could be discovered. The telecommunications required are available today, but not positioning (and this book deals with the most difficult aspect: indoors). An extension of this could be that people would need to define themselves with some criteria that would lead to belonging to a group of like‐minded people. The above‐mentioned discovery of environments could then be to find, from a geographical point of view, people or objects that belong to your group (or any other group). This is currently being implemented in the Social Networks communities with applications such as “find a friend” or “find a point of interest.” The idea is to extend these applications to everything in the scope of the so‐called Internet of Things (IoT). The indoor positioning of objects and people is therefore a fundamental feature.
When compared to the evolution of time and its impact on society, it is even possible to imagine that positioning could be used in many other ways (considering positioning as the combination of positioning and telecommunications). Knowing how people are moving around in the city,7 it is possible to organize the “waves” of movement and then to define the policies to be followed by the town council in terms of roads, infrastructure, and public transport, for example. This aspect relating to flow management is also a strong concern for public buildings such as airports or museums, for example. This leads us to transportation. The health and safety authorities could also use positioning‐related devices: emergency calls are already in use, but one can imagine that the above‐mentioned group management approach could be part of the management of any emergency call. For example, if somebody fell ill in the street or in a building, an alert could be transmitted to people who are geographically close and who have been identified as competent in this medical field. This raises the problem of the definition and the access to the corresponding information files, and also to privacy issues, but could be one direction of future developments.
The current problem of “Data,” either geographical or not, and personal privacy is a fundamental one which must be dealt with urgently if one wants to provide valuable, but acceptable, services to users based on their location.
1.4 The Radio Age
The wish to communicate over long distances was described long before the radio conduction phenomenon was discovered. The first related facts are dated fourth and fifth century CE (by optical means) using fires on top of mountains, serving as “communication relays.” This approach was still used by the first optical telegraphs in the seventeenth century. Of course, the main disadvantage of such a system lies in the fact that transmission is limited to the optical line of sight and requires good “air conditions,” i.e. no fog. This problem led to the development of the electrical telegraph.
On the 24 November 1890, Edouard Branly discovered the phenomenon of “radio conduction”: an electrical discharge (generated by a Hertz oscillator) had the effect of decreasing the resistance of his “tube.” It appeared that electrical propagation was possible without cables. Further works showed that “adding” a metallic rod to the generator improved the range of the transmission (i.e. the detection was also possible further away from the generator): Alexander Popov was just about to invent antennas. The transmission path grew from a few tens of meters to 80 m. In 1896, Popov succeeded in transmitting a message over 250 m (the message was composed of two words: “Heinrich Hertz”).8
