Infectious Diseases E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1017

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Beschreibung

The second edition of this concise and practical guide describes infections in geographical areas and provides information on disease risk, concomitant infections (such as co-prevalence of HIV and tuberculosis) and emerging bacterial, viral and parasitic infections in a given geographical area of the world.

• Geographic approach means that it�s the only book to guide the health care worker towards a diagnosis based on the location of symptoms and travel history by encouraging the question �where have you been?�
• New content covering MERS, Ebola, Zika, and infections transmitted during air and maritime travel
• Covers the major infectious disease outbreaks framed in their geographic setting such as  H7N9 �bird flu� influenza, H1N1, Ebola, and Zika
• Outstanding international editor team with vast experience on various international infectious disease and as journal editors and key leaders in infection surveillance

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

List of contributors

Foreword to the first edition

Foreword to the second edition

Preface

Envoi

Chapter 1: Historical overview of global infectious diseases and geopolitics

Introduction

The Near East and North Africa

Europe

The Americas

Australasia

Sub‐Saharan Africa

South Asia

East Asia

Conclusion

References

Chapter 2: Nontraditional infectious diseases surveillance systems

Introduction: informal internet sources for the surveillance of emerging infectious diseases

HealthMap

Infectious disease surveillance in travelers and migrants

One health

Regional ProMED networks

Effectiveness of informal‐source surveillance

Mobile technologies

Conclusion

References

Chapter 3: Air travel − which infectious disease control measures are worthwhile?

Introduction

Measles

Rubella

Enteric diseases

Travel‐specific behaviors for preventing disease

Universal disease control behaviors

Role of healthcare providers and healthcare workers

Health facility infection control measures

Airline responsibilities

Large‐scale infectious disease control measures

Recommendations

References

Chapter 4: Infectious illnesses on cruise and cargo ships

Introduction and background

Influenza

Acute gastroenteritis

Vaccine‐preventable diseases

Meningococcal disease

Legionnaires’ disease

Vectorborne diseases

Ciguatera

References

Chapter 5: Microbes on the move

Prevention of disease in travellers

Protection of travelers and destination populations

Yellow fever

Imported disease

Curtailment of disease

New times, new requirements

Conclusion

References

Chapter 6: Diagnostic tests and procedures

Understanding diagnostic tests

Is a result positive or not?

Validation of diagnostic tests

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis

Ear, nose, and throat

Pulmonary infections

Cardiac infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Hepatobiliary infections

Upper and lower urinary tract infections

Sexually transmitted diseases and other genital infections

Joint, muscle, skin, and soft tissue infections

Rash

Fever without focal symptoms

Zika virus infection

Malaria

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Diagnostics in areas with limited resources

References

Chapter 7: Central Africa

Dominating the picture: HIV and tuberculosis

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis

Ear, nose, throat, and upper respiratory tract infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Infections of liver, spleen, peritoneum

Genitourinary infections

Infections of joints, muscle, and soft tissue

Infections of skin and soft tissues

Lymphadenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia

Children

Antibiotic resistance

Demographic data

References

Chapter 8: East Africa

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Infections of liver, spleen, peritoneum

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, and soft tissue infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases in children

Basic economic and demographic data

References

Chapter 9: Eastern Africa

Parasites

Malaria transmission in Eastern Africa

Virus

Bacteria

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis, and other infections with neurological symptoms

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Infections of liver, spleen, peritoneum

Genitourinary infections

Joint and muscle infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases in children

Basic economic and demographic data

Cause of death in children under five expressed as % of the total number of deaths

Top ten causes of deaths all ages expressed as % of the total number of deaths

References

Chapter 10: North Africa

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Infections of liver, spleen, and peritoneum

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, and soft tissue infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases in children

Basic economic and demographic data

Causes of death in children underfive. Regional average

Most common causes of deaths all ages in three countries selected for a low (Sudan), middle (Morocco), and high (Libya) regional GNI per capita

References

Chapter 11: Southern Africa

Acute infections within four weeks of exposure

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis, and other infections with neurological symptoms

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, and soft tissue infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Adenopathy of more than four weeks duration and in the immunocompromised host

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases in children

Basic economic and demographic data

Cause of death in children under five expressed as % of the total number of deaths

Top ten causes of deaths all ages in 2002, expressed as % of the total

References

Chapter 12: West Africa

Viral hemorrhagic fever

Malaria

Pregnancy‐associated malaria

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis

Ear, nose, throat, and upper respiratory tract infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Infections of liver, spleen, peritoneum

Genitourinary infections

Infections of bone, joints, and muscles

Infections of skin and soft tissues

Lymphadenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia

Antibiotic resistance

Children

References

Chapter 13: East Asia

Acute infections within four weeks of exposure

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis, and other infections with neurological symptoms

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Infections of liver, spleen, and peritoneum

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, and soft tissue infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases in children

Basic economic and demographic data

Causes of death in children under five. Regional average

Most common causes of deaths in all ages in Mongolia, China, and Japan

References

Chapter 14: South Central Asia

Important regional infections within four weeks of exposure

CNS infections: meningitis and encephalitis

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, and soft tissue infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases in children

Basic economic and demographic data

Most common causes of deaths in all ages in the countries of the region (%)

References

Chapter 15: South‐east Asia

Important regional infections within four weeks of exposure

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis, and encephalopathy

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, and soft tissue infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases in children

Basic economic and demographic data

Causes of death in children underfive in SEA. Regional average

Ten most common causes of deaths all ages in three countries of SEA

References

Chapter 16: Western Asia and the Middle East

Vector‐borne diseases

Hemorrhagic fever virus

Soil‐ and water‐associated diseases

Zoonotic infections

Hajj – medical aspects

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Infections of liver, spleen, and peritoneum

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, and soft tissue infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Basic economic and demographic data

Causes of death in children under five in Yemen, Armenia, and Saudi Arabia

References

Chapter 17: Eastern Europe

Bacterial infections

Virus infections

Parasite infections (protozoans and helminths)

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, and soft tissue infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases in children

Basic economic and demographic data

Causes of death in children underfive. Regional average

Ten most common causes of deaths all ages in Moldova, Russian Federation, and Czech Republic

References

Chapter 18: Northern Europe

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Hepatobiliary infections

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, and soft tissue infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases in children

Basic economic and demographic data

Causes of death in children underfive. Regional average

Ten most common causes of deaths all ages in three countries selected for a regional low (Latvia), middle (Iceland), and high (Norway) gross national income per capita

References

Chapter 19: Southern Europe

Infectious diseases with incubation periods shorter than four weeks

Infectious diseases with incubation periods longer than four weeks

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases

References

Chapter 20: Western Europe

Introduction

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis, and other infections with neurological symptoms

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Infections of the liver

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, and soft tissue infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases in children

Basic economic and demographic data

Causes of death in children under‐five. Regional average

Ten most common causes of deaths all ages in Western Europe

References

Chapter 21: The Caribbean

Important regional infections

CNS infections acquired in the Caribbean region

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Infections of liver, spleen, and peritoneum

Genitourinary infections

Musculoskeletal infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia

Economic and demographic data for Caribbean countries

References

Chapter 22: Central America

Bacterial infections

Viral infections

Parasitic infections

Fungal infections

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis, and neurological syndromes

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Infections of liver, spleen, and peritoneum

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, and soft tissue infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable infections in children

Basic economic and demographic data, 2015 [16–18]

Top 10 causes of deaths, all ages [16–18]

References

Chapter 23: South America

South America travel and travelers

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, skin, and soft tissue infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Hemorrhagic and icterohemorrhagic fever

Selected endemic tropical infections in South America

Special considerations: malaria

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases in children

Basic economic and demographic data, 2014 – II

Causes of death in children under‐five

All top ten causes of deaths all ages in three countries elected for a low (Guyana), middle (Bolivia) and high (Brazil) BNI per capita

References

Chapter 24: Northern America

Acute infections within four weeks of exposure

Diversity within the region: important regional infections with particular exposures

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis, and other infections with neurological symptoms

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Infections of liver, spleen, and peritoneum

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, and soft tissue infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever with nonspecific complaints

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases in children

Basic economic and demographic data

Causes of death in children under five

Top 10 causes of deaths all ages

References

Chapter 25: Australia, New Zealand

Bacterial and mycobacterial infections

Viral infections

Parasite infections

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis, and other infections with neurological symptoms

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Infections of liver, spleen, and peritoneum

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, and soft tissue infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases in children

Basic economic and demographic data

Causes of death in children under five in Australia

Most common causes of deaths all ages in Australia

References

Chapter 26: Oceania

Bacterial and mycobacterial infections

Viral infections

Parasite infections

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis, and other infections with neurological symptoms

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Infections of liver, spleen, and peritoneum

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, and soft tissue infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases in children

Basic economic and demographic data

Causes of death in children underfive in Papua New Guinea and Fiji

Most common causes of deaths all ages in Papua New Guinea and Fiji

References

Chapter 27: Arctic and Antarctica

The regions

Risk for travelers

Important infections in the Arctic [1]

CNS infections: meningitis, encephalitis, and other infections with neurological symptoms

Ear, nose, and throat infections

Cardiopulmonary infections

Gastrointestinal infections

Infections of liver, spleen, and peritoneum

Genitourinary infections

Joint, muscle, and soft tissue infections

Skin infections

Adenopathy

Fever without focal symptoms

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE

Antibiotic resistance

Vaccine‐preventable diseases in children

Basic economic and demographic data. No separate figures for Antarctica

Most common causes of deaths all ages in Greenland, Canada, and Alaska

References

Chapter 28: The immunosuppressed patient

Introduction

Approach to the patient

Geographic distribution of opportunistic infections

Bacteria

Fungi

Viral infections

Conclusion

Case study, adapted from Hart et al [204]

References

Chapter 29: Emerging infections

Introduction

Major global trends

Travel, trade and migration

SARS and MERS

Monkeypox

Chikungunya virus

Aedes albopictus (Asian tiger mosquito)

Zika virus

Food‐borne infections

Conclusions

References

Chapter 30: Migration and the geography of disease

Migration and infectious diseases

Vaccine‐preventable diseases

Tuberculosis

HIV infection

Chagas’ disease (American trypanosomiasis)

References

Chapter 31: Climate change and the geographical distribution of infectious diseases

Introduction

Mechanisms for climate‐induced change in infectious disease incidence

The context: human actions and disease emergence

Human‐induced climate change

A framework for understanding the relation of climate and disease

The present: climate–disease relations

The future: projections for infectious disease incidence

Conclusion

References

List of abbreviations

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Malaria transmission in southern Africa.

Chapter 28

Table 28.1 Approach to assessing the immunocompromised patient.

Table 28.2 Categories of immunodeficiency and conferred disease susceptibility.

Table 28.3 Levels of immune compromise.

Table 28.4 Timeline of infection after transplantation.

Table 28.5 Risk of infectious complications of HIV as determined by CD4 blood counts.

Table 28.6 Geographically localized infections with special concern for immunosuppressed patients.

Chapter 29

Table 29.1 Examples of the dynamic nature of known infections.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 02

Figure 2.1 ProMED‐mail website allows viewing of posts and provides an interactive map linked to HealthMap, search capacity, subscription and information submission as well as access to regional network websites.

Figure 2.2 The 62 travel/tropical medicine clinics and 220 affiliate members from six continents, all members of the International Society of Travel Medicine (ISTM), participate in provider‐based surveillance of international travelers and migrants. Surveillance does not cover endemic diseases in local populations.

Figure 2.3 GeoSentinel reporting systems.

Figure 2.4 Output of significant events is visually geolocated using a GoogleMaps platform. HealthMap heralds a generation of surveillance technology that complements existing travelers’ health surveillance systems.

Chapter 05

Figure 5.1 International Certificate of Vaccination and Prophylaxis.

Figure 5.2 Proportionate morbidity of disease according to type of traveler and region of travel. X axis shows the proportionate morbidity (PM) per 1000 ill travelers. Male:female and travel reason ratios are on the right.

Figure 5.3 Annex 2 – IHR 2005.

Chapter 24

Figure 24.1 Selected tick borne diseases reported to CDC as of 2016.

Figure 24.2 Distribution of endemic fungi in the United States.

Chapter 28

Figure 28.1 (a) Thermal dimorphism of

Penicillium marneffei

: mycelium at 25 °C producing red pigment. (b)

P. marneffei

mold form. Lactophenol cotton blue stain. (c) Division by fission of yeast‐like form of

P. marneffei

resulting in cross‐wall formation.

Figure 28.2 Dermatological and neurological findings in cases of tropical invasive fungal infection. (a) Skin lesions during disseminated

Penicillium marneffe

i infection in a south‐east Asian profoundly immunocompromised patient infected with HIV. (b) Skin lesions during disseminated

Histoplasma capsulatum

var.

capsulatum

infection in a Western African profoundly immunocompromised HIV‐infected patient. (c) Skin lesions occurring on the knee during pheohyphomycosis in an African kidney transplant recipient (courtesy of Sarah Guégan, MD, PhD). (d)

Rhinocladiella mackenziei

brain abscess. Postcontrast axial T1‐weighted magnetic resonance image showing the rim‐enhancing left temporal lobe lesion with a central hypointensity.

Chapter 29

Figure 29.1 Thai eagles infected with H5N1 smuggled into Brussels in hand luggage and confiscated at the Brussels International Airport.

Figure 29.2 Severe acute respiratory syndrome – Singapore, 2003.

Chapter 30

Figure 30.1 Estimated TB incidence rates, 2013. The number of incident TB cases relative to population size (the incidence rate) varies widely among countries.

Figure 30.2 Global distribution of cases of Chagas’ disease, based on official estimates, 2006–2010.

Chapter 31

Figure 31.1 Climate and transmission of dengue virus.

Figure 31.2 Climate and diarrheal disease.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

Pages

iii

iv

v

vi

vii

viii

ix

x

xi

xii

xiii

xiv

xv

xvi

xvii

xviii

xix

xx

xxi

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

196

197

198

199

200

201

202

203

204

205

206

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

226

227

228

229

230

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

242

243

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

251

252

253

254

255

256

257

258

259

260

261

262

263

264

265

266

267

268

269

270

271

272

273

274

275

276

277

278

279

280

281

282

283

284

285

286

287

288

289

290

291

292

293

294

295

296

297

298

299

300

301

302

303

304

305

306

307

308

309

310

311

312

313

314

315

316

317

318

319

320

321

322

323

324

325

326

327

328

329

330

331

332

333

334

335

336

337

338

339

340

341

342

343

344

345

346

347

348

349

350

351

352

353

354

355

356

357

358

359

360

361

362

363

364

365

366

367

368

369

370

371

372

373

374

375

376

377

378

379

380

381

382

383

384

385

386

387

388

389

390

391

392

393

394

395

396

397

398

399

400

401

402

403

404

405

406

407

408

409

410

411

412

413

414

415

416

417

418

419

420

421

422

423

424

425

426

427

428

429

430

431

432

433

434

435

436

437

438

439

440

441

442

443

444

445

446

447

448

449

450

451

452

453

454

455

456

457

458

459

460

461

462

463

464

465

466

467

468

469

470

471

472

473

474

475

476

477

478

479

480

481

482

483

484

485

486

487

488

489

490

491

492

493

494

495

496

497

Infectious Diseases: A Geographic Guide

Second Edition

Edited by

Eskild Petersen MD, DMSc, DTM&H

Institute of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, DenmarkandSenior Consultant, Department of Infectious Diseases, The Royal Hospital,Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

Lin H. Chen MD, FACP, FASTMH

Travel Medicine Center, Division of Infectious Diseases,Mount Auburn Hospital, Cambridge, Massachusetts,and Harvard Medical SchoolBoston, Massachusetts, USA

Patricia Schlagenhauf-Lawlor PhD, FFTM, RCPSS (Glasg), FISTM

University of Zürich, WHO Collaborating Centre for Travellers’ Health,Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Prevention Institute, Zürich, Switzerland

This edition first published 2011. © 2017 John Wiley & Sons LtdFirst edition published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Wiley‐Blackwell is an imprint of John Wiley & Sons, formed by the merger of Wiley’s global Scientific,Technical and Medical business with Blackwell Publishing.

Registered officeJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

Editorial offices9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UKThe Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030‐5774, USA

For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley‐blackwell.

The right of Eskild Petersen, Lin H. Chen and Patricia Schlagenhauf‐Lawlor to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

The contents of this work are intended to further general scientific research, understanding, and discussion only and are not intended and should not be relied upon as recommending or promoting a specific method, diagnosis, or treatment by physicians for any particular patient. The publisher and the author make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of fitness for a particular purpose. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of medicines, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each medicine, equipment, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. Readers should consult with a specialist where appropriate. The fact that an organization or Website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or Website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that Internet Websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements for this work. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising herefrom.

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Petersen, Eskild, editor. | Chen, Lin H., editor. | Schlagenhauf‐Lawlor, Patricia, editor.Title: Infectious diseases : a geographic guide / [edited by] Eskild Petersen, Lin H. Chen, Patricia Schlagenhauf‐Lawlor.Other titles: Infectious diseases (Petersen)Description: Second edition. | Chichester, West Sussex, UK ; Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2016058312 (print) | LCCN 2016059476 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119085720 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781119085737 (ePDF) | ISBN 9781119085751 (Wiley online library) | ISBN 9781119085744 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119085737 (Adobe PDF)Subjects: | MESH: Communicable Diseases–epidemiology | Disease Outbreaks | Epidemiologic Methods | Topography, Medical–methodsClassification: LCC RA643 (print) | LCC RA643 (ebook) | NLM WC 100 | DDC 616.9–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016058312

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDF 9781119085737;

Wiley Online Library 9781119085751; ePub 9781119085744

Cover Design: WileyCover Credit: alexaldo/Gettyimages (map); Joao Paulo Burini/Gettyimages (mosquito)

List of contributors

Gulzhan AbuovaDepartment of Infectious Diseases,South‐Kazakhstan State Pharmaceutical Academy,Shymkent, Kazakhstan

Seif S. Al‐AbriDirectorate General for Communicable Disease Surveillance,Ministry of Health, Sultanate of Oman

Rodrigo Nogueira AngeramiEpidemiological Surveillance Section, Division of Infectious Diseases,Hospital of Clinics, University of Campinas and Department of Public Health,School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas,Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

Jaffar A. Al‐TawfiqJohns Hopkins Aramco Healthcare, Dhahran,Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Patrick Ayeh‐KumiSchool of Biomedical and Allied Health Sciences,University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana

Frank J. BiaDepartment of Internal Medicine,Infectious Disease Section, Yale School of Medicine,New Haven, Connecticut, USA

Barbra M. BlairDivision of Infectious Diseases,Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston,Massachusetts, USA; Harvard Medical School,Boston, Massachusetts, USA

Lucille BlumbergEpidemiology and Outbreak Response Unit,National Institute for Communicable Diseases,Johannesburg, Sandringham, South Africa

Tom BoylesInfectious Diseases, Department of Medicine,University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

Clive M. BrownQuarantine and Border Health Services Branch,Division of Global Migration and Quarantine,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

Michael G. BruceArctic Investigations Program, DPEI, NCEZID,CDC, Anchorage, Alaska, USA

Gerd D. BurchardBernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine,Hamburg, Germany

Bin CaoDepartment of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology,Beijing Chao‐Yang Hospital, Beijing, China;Institute of Respiratory Medicine,Capital Medical University, Beijing, China

Francesco CastelliUniversity Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseaases,University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy

Eric CaumesDepartment of Infectious and Tropical Diseases,Hôpital Pitié‐Salpêtrière, Université Pierre et Marie Curie,Paris, France

Lin H. ChenTravel Medicine Center, Division of Infectious Diseases,Mount Auburn Hospital, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA;Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

Francis E.G. Cox (in memoriam)Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine,London, UK

Peter J. de VriesDepartment of Internal Medicine, Tergooi Hospital,Hilversum, The Netherlands

Alexander ErovichenkovDepartment of Infectious Diseases,Russian Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education,Moscow, Russia

Birgitta EvengardDivision of Infectious Diseases,Department of Clinical Microbiology,Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden

Philip R. FischerDepartment of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine,Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA

Philippe GautretUnité de Recherche sur les maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Emergentes,Aix‐Marseille Université, Marseille, France

Matthew GermanLi Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St Michael’s Hospital,Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Pier Francesco GiorgettiUniversity Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseaases,University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy

Martin P. GrobuschCenter for Tropical Medicine and Travel Medicine,Department of Infectious Diseases,Division of Internal Medicine, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam,Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Davidson H. HamerCenter for Global Health and Development,Boston University Schools of Public Health and Medicine,Boston, Massachusetts, USA; Tufts University FriedmanSchool of Nutrition Science and Policy, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

David HarleyNational Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health,Australian National University,Canberra, Australia

Christoph HatzEpidemiology, Biostatistics and Prevention Institute,University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland;Department of Medicine and Diagnostic Services,Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland

Luiz Jacintho da Silva (in memoriam)Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medical Sciences,University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

Kamran KhanLi Ka Shing Knowlege Institute, St Michael’s Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada;Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Toronto,Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Mikio KimuraShin‐Yamanote Hospital, Japan Anti‐Tuberculosis Association,Higashi‐Murayama, Tokyo, Japan

Anders KochDepartment of Epidemiology Research,Statens Serum Institut and Department of Infectious Diseases,Rigshospitalet University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark

Karin LadefogedDepartment of Internal Medicine, Queen Ingrid’s Hospital,Nuuk, Greenland

Karin LederTravel Medicine and Immigrant Health, Victorian Infectious Disease Service,Royal Melbourne Hospital and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Unit,Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine,Monash University, Australia

Michael LibmanJ.D. MacLean Centre for Tropical Diseases;Division of Infectious Diseases; and Department of Microbiology,McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Rogelio López‐VélezNational Referral Unit for Tropical Diseases, Infectious Diseases Department,Ramón y Cajal University Hospital, Madrid, Spain

Larry I. LutwickDepartment of Infectious Diseases, Microbiology and Immunology,Stryker School of Medicine, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo,Michigan, USA; Editor, ID Cases; Moderator,ProMED Program for Monitoring Emerging Diseases

Lawrence C. MadoffEditor, ProMED‐mail; International Society for Infectious Diseases,Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology,University of Massachusetts Medical School, Boston,Massachusetts, USA

Boubacar MaigaDepartment of Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases,Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odonto‐Stomatology,Malaria Research and Training Center, USTTB, Bamako, Mali

Audrone MarcinkuteUniversity Hospital, Santariškių Klinikos and Clinic of Infectious Diseases,Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania

Karen J. MarienauUS Public Health Service (Ret.), St Paul, Minnesota, USA

Anthony J. McMichael (in memoriam)National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health,Australian National University, Canberra, Australia

Ziad A. MemishMinistry of Health, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Marc MendelsonDivision of Infectious Diseases and HIV Medicine,Department of Medicine, Groote Schuur Hospital, University of Cape Town,Cape Town, South Africa

Maria D. MilenoWarren Alpert Medical School, Brown University,Providence, Rhode Island, USA

Brian T. MontagueDivision of Infectious Diseases, University of Colorado,Aurora, Colorado, USA

Terri L. MontagueWestern Nephrology, Arvada, Colorado, USA

Nadjet MouffokService des Maladies Infectieuses,Centre Hospitalier Universitaire d’Oran, Oran, Algeria

Holy MurphyCIWEC Hospital and CIWEC Clinic Travel Medicine Center,Kathmandu, Nepal

Andreas NeumayrDepartment of Medicine and Diagnostic Services,Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland;University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

Francesca F. NormanNational Referral Unit for Tropical Diseases,Infectious Diseases Department, Ramón y Cajal University Hospital,Madrid, Spain

Prativa PandeyCIWEC Hospital and CIWEC Clinic Travel Medicine Center,Kathmandu, Nepal

Daniel H. ParisCentre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health,Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford,Oxford, UK; Mahidol‐Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit,Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University,Bangkok, Thailand

Philippe ParolaUnité des Rickettsies, Faculté de Médecine,Université de la Méditerranée, Marseille, France

Malgorzata PaulDepartment and Clinic of Tropical and Parasitic Diseases,University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland

Androula PavliHellenic Center for Disease Control and Prevention,Athens, Greece

José‐Antonio Pérez‐MolinaNational Referral Unit for Tropical Diseases,Infectious Diseases Department, Ramón y Cajal University Hospital,Madrid, Spain

Olga PerovicCentre for Opportunistic, Tropical and Hospital Infections,National Institute for Communicable Diseasesand University of Witwatersrand, Johhannesburg, South Africa

Eskild PetersenInstitute of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University,Denmark; Department of Infectious Diseases,The Royal Hospital, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

Giles PoumerolWorld Health Organization, International Health Regulations Department,Geneva, Switzerland

Natalia PshenichnayaDepartment of Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology,Rostov State Medical University, Rostov‐on‐Don, Russia

Joanna J. ReganMaritime Activity Lead, Quarantine and Border Health Services Branch,Division of Global Migration and Quarantine,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

Alfonso J. Rodriguez‐MoralesPublic Health and Infection Research Group,Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Tecnologica de Pereira,Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia; Infectious Diseases Research Group,Hospital Universitario de Sincelejo, Sucre, Colombia

Christopher M. SalasWarren Alpert Medical School, Brown University,Providence, Rhode Island, USA

Francisco Santos‐O’ConnorLabour Administration, Labour Inspection andOccupational Safety and Health Branch,International Labour Office, Geneva, Switzerland

Patricia Schlagenhauf‐LawlorUniversity of Zürich,WHO Collaborating Centre for Travellers’ Health,Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Prevention Institute,Zürich, Switzerland

Marc ShawSchool of Public Health, James Cook University, Townsville,Australia; WORLDWISE Travellers Health Centres, New Zealand

Laura E. ShevyDepartment of Infectious Diseases and International Health,Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth,Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon,New Hampshire, United States

Ashwin SwaminathanDepartments of Infectious Diseases and General Medicine,Canberra Hospital, Canberra, Australia;National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health,Australian National University,Canberra, Australia

Elizabeth A. TalbotDepartment of Infectious Diseases and International Health,Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth,Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center,Lebanon, New Hampshire, United States

Joseph TorresiDepartment of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institutefor Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia;Eastern Infectious Diseases and Travel Medicine, Boronia, Victoria, Australia

J. Scott VegaMaritime Activity, Quarantine and Border Health Services Branch,Division of Global Migration and Quarantine,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta,Georgia, USA

Elvina ViennetAustralian Red Cross Blood Service,Brisbane, Australia;National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health,Australian National University,Canberra, Australia

Nicholas J. WhiteMahidol‐Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit,Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University,Bangkok, Thailand; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health,Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Mary E. WilsonDepartment of Global Health and Population, Harvard T.H.Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University,Boston, Massachusetts, USA;School of Medicine, University of California,San Francisco, California, USA

Fei ZhouDepartment of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology,Beijing Chao‐Yang Hospital, Beijing, China; Beijing Institute of Respiratory Medicine,Capital Medical University, Beijing, China

Foreword to the first edition

Where have you been? In the world of clinical medicine, this is a critical question that opens a treasure chest or sometimes a Pandora’s box of epidemiological information often leading the infectious disease specialist to a correct diagnosis or intervention that otherwise might not be considered. When this key question is forgotten, a poor or preventable outcome may follow. But what happens when the experienced physician or travel medicine specialist, who unfailingly includes this question in his or her initial assessment, hears a patient respond with a lengthy discussion of a complex itinerary, multiple exposures, or unusual symptoms? Sometimes the destination is not familiar, the exposures trigger a distant memory of “something important” but one cannot recall exactly the connection, or a specific finding can generate a limited differential diagnosis. The physician or travel medicine specialist then attempts to locate the missing information in published papers, books, and online references.

Where are you going? In the pretravel setting, this book is an indispensible reference for travel medicine practitioners advising individual long‐term travelers or making recommendations for expatriates who will stay for prolonged periods in a particular geographic area. Long‐term travelers have been shown to have a higher risk of acquiring travel‐associated illness because of their prolonged exposure, suboptimal adherence to preventive measures, and often a lack of knowledge on risks at the destination. The comprehensive regional disease profile presented in this volume will allow for tailored advice for this important group of travelers.

This important new book, Infectious Diseases: A Geographic Guide by Eskild Petersen, Lin H. Chen, and Patricia Schlagenhauf admirably fills the need for a single reference structured to assist the travel medicine practitioner to answer these questions.

Infectious Diseases: A Geographic Guide is organized by geographic regions of the world; for example, South Asia, Central Europe, South America, etc. Each chapter pertaining to a geographic region is then organized into an initial section on important regional infections, a series of very useful and easily scanned tables, a section on antibiotic resistance, a short section on vaccine‐preventable diseases in the region, and finally a section on background data from the region. The tables are organized by presenting clinical syndromes, the way we actually encounter patients, subdivided where appropriate into those that usually occur within four weeks of exposure and those that occur greater than four weeks after exposure. Each table then divides infectious pathogens into those that are frequently encountered, uncommonly encountered, and rarely encountered. The sections on antibiotic resistance are unique and quite useful. This kind of antibiotic resistance information is usually not presented by geographic region but rather by pathogen with a secondary linkage to geographic regions. Having this regional perspective is novel and fits nicely with the evaluation of the ill returned traveler. There are several other very interesting and useful chapters in the introductory and closing sections of the book with inviting titles such as “An historical overview of global infectious diseases and geopolitics,” “Detection of infectious diseases using unofficial sources,” “Microbes on the move: prevention, curtailment, outbreak”, “diagnostic tests and procedures”, “the immunocompromised patient”, “migration and the geography of disease,” and “Climate change and the geographical distribution of infectious diseases.”

The editors of this new text are leaders in the field of international travel medicine and have attracted a brilliant and luminous collection of chapter contributors. The regional chapters are written by individuals living in the region or expatriates with long‐standing affiliations with the area. A strength of this book is the editorial oversight and vision of the editors who skillfully bring together a very diverse, international team to yield a cohesive, multiauthored, yet well‐written textbook.

The global community of the twenty‐first century is connected by ever growing bonds of communication, economic growth, shared aspirations, and increasingly, a globalized enterprise of international treaties, agreements, covenants, and structures. Global health is now part of the daily lexicon of universities, governments, and multinational companies. The basis for this explosive growth over the last half century lies in the movement of people from one place to another. The motivation for movement is varied, but the most important questions that a travel medicine practitioner can ask are: “Where are you going?” in the pretravel setting or “Where have you been?” when seeing the ill returned traveler. Infectious Diseases: A Geographic Guide by Eskild Petersen, Lin H. Chen, and Patricia Schlagenhauf will be the first resource most of us reach for when those questions are fielded.

Alan J. Magill MD FACP FIDSA (deceased)President of the International Society of Travel Medicine (2009–11)

Foreword to the second edition

The ancient Romans produced some of the most relevant and important questions pertaining to the field of geographic medicine. For those giving pretravel advice, “Quo vadis?” (Where are you going?) is the critical question that enables travel medicine advisors to complete an individual risk assessment to ensure the safety of international travelers. On the other hand, “Ubi eras?” (Where have you been?) is the crucial question for clinicians evaluating the ill returned traveler in order to develop an appropriate differential diagnosis and investigation strategy. Of course, my favorite Latin phrase could apply in almost any situation: “Semper ubi sububi”… always wear underwear!

Never before in human history has knowledge of infectious disease in a global context, the field of geographic medicine, been so important from personal, public health and clinical perspectives. In 2014, more than a billion tourists crossed the globe, an estimated 200 million individuals traveled internationally for business, and in 2013, 82 million migrants arrived in the North from developing countries. It now takes less than 36 hours to cross the globe, well within the incubation periods of many infectious diseases. Thus, global travel provides an excellent opportunity for the acquisition and spread of infectious diseases. In the past two decades, we have seen SARS spread from South‐east Asia to North America, chikungunya virus from Africa through Asia to the Caribbean and Latin America, MERS co‐virus throughout the Arabian peninsula, and, more recently, Zika virus from the South Pacific to Brazil and beyond in the Western hemisphere. Each of these infections has played havoc with the health of local populations and visitors.

So, what is a healthcare provider to do when faced with an ill traveler returned from some unfamiliar remote destination? How to counsel a volunteer planning to provide healthcare or education in some rural area of a developing country? Is there a single resource that will provide information on the risks of infectious diseases globally by geographic region that also includes an approach to clinical diagnosis by incubation period and presenting symptoms? Yes, in the following chapters of this book.

Infectious Diseases: A Geographic Guide is probably the only print publication that provides both the clinical and epidemiological approach to infectious diseases on a global basis. A passage from the Foreword of the first edition bears repeating: “The editors of this text are leaders in the field of international travel medicine and have attracted a brilliant and luminous collection of chapter contributors. The strength of this book is the editorial oversight and vision of the editors who skillfully bring together a very diverse, international team to yield a cohesive, multi‐authored, yet well‐written textbook.” I couldn’t have said it better than the author of this quote, the late Dr Alan McGill, one of the most accomplished and beloved tropical disease and travel medicine experts of this generation.

This book is divided into chapters by region of the world, written by credible and experienced authors who have worked in or have intimate knowledge of a particular geographic area. The chapters are organized into an initial section on important regional infections, a series of tables organized by presenting clinical syndromes, sections on antibiotic resistance and vaccine‐preventable diseases, and finally a section on background data from the region. From the initial regional overview of infectious diseases, the travel medicine practitioner can readily obtain a perspective on some of the major infectious disease risks facing the traveler‐to‐be. The second and major portion of each chapter is designed for the clinician facing the ill returned traveler or migrant. Tables, organized by presenting clinical syndromes, are subdivided into those that usually occur within four weeks or greater than four weeks after exposure. Each table then divides infectious pathogens into those that are frequently encountered, uncommonly encountered, and rarely encountered. What more could a healthcare provider ask than being able to consult clinically relevant tables setting out key infections that might be responsible for a patient’s symptoms? It almost makes geographic medicine easy when the work of providing a differential diagnosis is laid out so clearly.

In addition to chapters by geographic region, the editors have included a number of excellent and eclectic chapters that provide the reader with a perspective on the epidemiology of travel‐related infections such as infections by air and sea, climate change, and migration, as well as clinically oriented chapters pertaining to diagnostic algorthims, the immune‐compromised patient and emerging infections. For the public health expert, very interesting chapters are included on surveillance systems, novel techniques for tracking infections, and outbreak curtailment. Essentially, Infectious Diseases: A Geographic Guide has something for everyone!

This book belongs on the shelf of every practitioner who provides pretravel health advice, public health officials responsible for outbreak control, and especially for clinicians caring for ill returned travelers and newly arrived migrants. I will have one on my shelf even if I don’t receive a complimentary copy!

Jay S. Keystone CM MD MSc (CTM) FRCPCTropical Disease Unit, Toronto General HospitalUniversity of Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Preface

The microbe is nothing; the terrain everything.

(Louis Pasteur)

We beg to differ with Louis Pasteur regarding this statement. Both the microbe and the terrain are important and this book is concerned with both. It is primarily concerned with global disease risk. The increasing mobility in populations has challenged the traditionally distinct specialties of tropical medicine, infectious diseases, public health, and travel medicine to address advising travelers visiting specific destinations and evaluating returning patients with distinct geographical travel histories.

For the clinician, this book is intended as a guide to generate differential diagnoses in consideration of the geographical history and in concert with presenting symptoms and duration of illness. Once a diagnosis has been made, classic textbooks on infectious diseases should be consulted for guidance on specific management and therapy.

In the pretravel setting, the book provides information on risks of different infections in the destination region and will be particularly useful in advising and assessing travelers visiting environments off the beaten path and for travelers visiting friends and relatives in their countries of origin.

The book can also be used by healthcare personnel from one area of the world practicing medicine in another area as a guide to distinguish the infections that are locally prevalent from those that occur in their home medical environment.

In addition to general background chapters, the book is divided according to United Nations (UN) world regions and addresses geographic disease profiles, presenting symptoms, and incubation periods of infections. Geographic childhood vaccination coverage is addressed. Vaccination is probably the most successful disease control tool ever, and diseases like tetanus and diphtheria, Haemophilus influenzae type b, measles, rubella and mumps are now very rare in countries with high vaccination coverage. Each chapter therefore contains a section on childhood vaccination programs in the countries included in that region.

The important topic of antibiotic resistance is addressed on a regional basis. The distribution of antimicrobial resistance in common bacteria is disparate worldwide, and with the increasing volume of travelers an increasing number will travel with or import multiresistant infections. Early reports of gram‐negative Enterobacteriaceae with resistance to carbapenem conferred by the New Dehli metallo‐B‐lactamase‐1(NDM‐1) imported into the UK by “medical tourists” (patients who traveled for medical interventions or operations) flashed the early warning lights. Now there are increasing numbers of studies on the colonization of travelers with multidrug‐resistant pathogens. The situation has consequences for the returning travelers, their family contacts, and the healthcare systems encountered. This composite picture sketches a frightening, Orwellian scenario of the ease of the global travel of drug‐resistant microbes.

Our book has a special focus on immigrants and those visiting friends and relatives. It is estimated that nearly 200 million people are refugees or permanently displaced persons. In Europe alone, 30 million inhabitants have an immigrant background, of which approximately one‐third were born outside the industrialized countries. The current migration waves to Europe from Syria and countries in Africa create new challenges in preparation for screening and care of migrants. Individuals migrating from one country to another carry a history of exposures to infections not present in the destination country, and a sensible strategy for evaluating infections in this group requires knowledge of disease patterns in the country of origin and along the migration route. Information on childhood immunization coverage in the countries of origin is also most important. When a diagnosis or presumptive diagnosis is made, knowledge of the drug susceptibility patterns, including those for malaria, in the country of origin is crucial to determine the appropriate treatment.

Furthermore, exposures earlier in life should be included when diagnostic considerations are made, as tuberculosis, HIV, schistosomiasis, leishmaniasis, and onchocerciasis can remain undiagnosed for up to several decades.

Immigrants obtaining residency status through the UN program for refugees often originate in countries with rudimentary health systems, which are torn by civil strife, as is the case in Syria, and have spent years in refugee camps where healthcare facilities have limited resources. Health problems in this special group require specific knowledge of infections present in the countries of origin and the effect of civil war on the childhood vaccination program or disease control programs. The introduction of Chagas disease to Europe, in particular Spain, with immigrants from South America is another recent example of how migration can bring a health problem to the new country of residence.

This book also contains a number of fascinating background and general chapters. The riveting historical perspective on infectious diseases is key to understanding the present geopolitical distribution of infection. There are chapters describing infectious disease risks at sea and in the air. Another section addresses infection prevention, outbreak, and the role of the International Health Regulations (IHR) in the curtailment of disease. Data on disease epidemiology and changing disease patterns are provided by surveillance networks exemplified here by GeoSentinel and ProMED, that publish and rapidly disseminate information to the infectious disease and travel medicine communities. These networks utilize the development of electronic communication, which supports instantaneous publication of news on disease outbreaks worldwide.

Emerging infections is a key topic in a world where infected persons can travel half the globe in 12 hours. Newly emerging infections are very likely to emerge from a zoonotic reservoir whenever the contact between humans and the reservoir animal is altered. Like the recent outbreaks of Ebola and Zika virus, new emerging infections will be increasingly observed in the future and many will probably be zoonotic in origin.

Another chapter in this book addresses individuals with an impaired immune system who constitute a special risk group, including patients with transplants, HIV, and other conditions like immunoglobulin deficiency. These travelers will often have a decreased humoral and cellular immune response to vaccines and may be at higher risk of certain infections at their destination compared to immunocompetent individuals.

Climate change will affect the distribution of infectious diseases. Most obvious are effects on vector‐borne infections, where changes in temperature, humidity, vegetation, and distribution of the zoonotic reservoirs influence the distribution of the infections. The recent introduction of chikungunya virus in Italy, dengue transmission in the south of France, and dengue outbreaks in Key West, Florida, are associated with the recent establishment of Aedes albopictus in these regions.

We hope that this book will be a useful aid for those involved in global infections and that you, the reader, will enjoy using and browsing this volume. We thank the Wiley‐Blackwell team for their support and publishing expertise. Most of all, we are grateful to all the collaborators worldwide who contributed to this global project and who made it possible. Let’s do it again!

Eskild Petersen, Aarhus, DenmarkLin H. Chen, Cambridge, USA and Muscat, OmanPatricia Schlagenhauf‐Lawlor, Zurich, SwitzerlandNovember 2016

Envoi

Knowledge is little; to know the right context is much; to know the right spot is everything. (Hugo von Hofmannsthal, 1874–1929)

Chapter 1Historical overview of global infectious diseases and geopolitics

Francis E.G. Cox† and Frank J. Bia1

1Department of Internal Medicine, Infectious Disease Section, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA

Following the migration of Homo sapiens out of Africa, our species interbred with other archaic humans while spreading through present‐day Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia, ultimately arriving in the New Worlds of current‐day North and South America. Over subsequent millennia, national boundaries have largely been shaped by discrete populations of our human species, through the retention or acquisition of strategically important land areas necessary to satisfy their needs for resources such as food, settled agriculture and trade. Wars and conquest, for which we have only relatively recent information covering the past few millennia, have played important roles in these events. However, a number of infectious diseases, including cholera, leprosy, typhoid, typhus, plague, tuberculosis, measles, smallpox, yellow fever, and malaria, have also played significant roles in important historical events that we know of. This chapter highlights ways in which infectious diseases have influenced the course of recent human history and often changed political maps of the world.

Introduction

Superimposed upon physical maps of the world are political maps that show not only natural boundaries, but also boundaries created by humans through their acquisition of territories by conquest and colonization or subjugation by force. Geopolitics, a term that has had many meanings, some politically extreme, is concerned with “… power relationships in international politics including, inter alia, the acquisition of natural boundaries, the control of strategically important land areas and access to sea routes” – Kjellén’s original definition that will be adopted here [1,2].

The present‐day political maps of the world have been determined largely by earlier human migrations, and ultimately both military successes and failures. Throughout history, civilian casualties and deaths have been regarded as unfortunate consequences of conflicts. The role played by disease among both armies and civilians is seldom acknowledged despite the fact that in virtually all wars, morbidity and loss of life from disease have massively exceeded losses caused by weapons [3,4]. It can, therefore, be argued that disease within civilian populations, during and as an aftermath of conflict, has been as important in shaping the political maps of the world as military successes or failures [5].

Most anthropologists agree that our species, Homo sapiens, emerged in Africa about 150–200 000 years ago and from c.70 000 BC dispersed in waves throughout the world until by the end of the last ice age, c.10 000 BC, we had occupied most of the inhabitable planet except New Zealand and some other isolated islands [6]. The world’s population of modern humans was then about 1 million, but increasing and discrete populations began to covet territory that others already occupied, thus leading to conflict and occupancy – the beginnings of geopolitics. Acquisition of territory became more important as the population of the world grew to about 10 million by 3000 BC and nearly 500 million by AD 1500 when the political world as we know it today began to take shape [7]. Nearly all that we know about the epidemiology and effects of infectious diseases dates from about 1500.

The most important diseases in the past, as now, were those caused by microbial pathogens (broadly speaking, viruses, bacteria and protozoa) that multiply within their hosts, causing an immediate threat unless brought under control by an immune response. Individuals differ in their degree of susceptibility or resistance to infection and, over time, as more susceptible individuals die out, those who are more resistant pass on their genes. Thus whole populations develop “herd immunity” which protects them against diseases prevalent in their particular environment and communities [8]. When such individuals move into areas where there are infections to which they have not developed herd immunity, they rapidly succumb and, conversely, spread their own infections among susceptible local inhabitants. This is an oversimplification that takes no account of such factors as the role of nutrition, which markedly affects an individual’s capacity to resist infection. It has been argued that improvements in nutrition have, over the centuries, enabled populations to withstand diseases that would have killed their ancestors [9]. This is a study in itself and will not be considered further in this chapter,

Of approximately 150 common infectious diseases, 28 that are caused by viruses, 35 by bacteria and six by protozoa are the most serious [10,11]. Of these, cholera, leprosy, typhoid, typhus, plague, tuberculosis, measles, smallpox, yellow fever, and malaria in particular have, in turn, markedly affected the course of history [12]. Region by region, the following sections will discuss ways in which some of these diseases exerted profound changes upon the history of the world. The topics covered are, of necessity, selective and for more information, particularly regarding the background, the reader is referred to the following references: [2,5,9,10,13–24], for historical continuity [25–27], and for more information on disease and geopolitics [28].

The Near East and North Africa