Integrated Vector Management E-Book

Graham Matthews

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 353

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Diseases transmitted by insects continue to have a major impact on human populations. Malaria, dengue, onchocerciasis, sleeping sickness and leishmaniasis all adversely affect man. Malaria is one of the most important causes of child mortality and reduces economic development in many countries, with agricultural productivity often greatly reduced, as many vectors are active in the wet season favourable for crop production. Vector control is crucial to reduce the extent to which drugs are needed to treat the diseases, as the parasite can become resistant, or the drugs are often too expensive for those living in rural areas and urban slums most affected by these diseases. Chemical control of vectors is often the only method that can reduce vector populations in a disease epidemic, but with vectors developing resistance to insecticides, there is increasing awareness that a single control method is often insufficient and also that chemical control must be integrated where possible with other control measures. In Integrated Vector Management, Graham Matthews covers the main chemical methods of vector control, including the use of indoor residual spraying, space treatments, the use of treated bed nets and larviciding, but also stresses the importance of drainage schemes and improvement of houses to prevent access of indoor vectors, techniques that have largely been responsible for reducing the risk of vector borne diseases in Europe and the USA. This book combines practical information from successful vector control programmes, including early use of DDT, and recent research into a vital resource for all those now involved in combating insect vector borne diseases. Integrated Vector Management is an essential tool, not only for medical entomologists and those directly involved in government health departments, but also for all those who provide the skills and management needed to operate successful area-wide vector management programmes. Libraries in all universities and research establishments world-wide, where biological sciences, medicine and agriculture are studied and taught should have multiple copies of this important book.

Leseprobe

Contents

Preface

Acknowledgements

Chapter 1 Introduction

Insect vectors

Chemical control

Conclusion

Chapter 2 Indoor Residual Spraying

Equipment for indoor residual spraying

Spray volume

Insecticides

Operator exposure

Resident exposure

Implementation of indoor residual spraying

Village intervention teams

Planning programmes

Insecticides

Equipment required

Storage

Training

Monitoring

Environmental assessment

Evaluation

Economics

Conclusion

Chapter 3 Space Treatment

Requirements for space treatments

Equipment for space treatments

Portable equipment

Mist treatments

Vehicle mounted equipment

Aerial application

Insecticides

Planning

Assessment of space sprays

Monitoring

Conclusion

Chapter 4 Bed Nets and Treated Clothing

Material

Mesh size

Shape

Insecticide

Insecticide impregnation

Impact of washing nets

Distribution of nets

Trial data

Operational use

Treated clothing

Impregnated sheeting

Conclusion

Chapter 5 Larviciding

Larvicide application

Mosquito control

Monitoring

Black flies

Insecticides

Conclusion

Chapter 6 Integrated Vector Management

Barrier treatments

Implementation of IVM

An example of IVM at Copper mines in Zambia (data from Peter Mukuka)

Costs

Development of new technology

Conclusion

Chapter 7 Other Insects – Flies, Cockroaches and Bed Bugs

Flies

Cockroaches

Bed bugs

Conclusion

Chapter 8 Looking Ahead

New insecticides?

Can insecticides with new modes of action be developed?

Insecticide resistance

Bio-pesticides

Spray technology

Using a paint

Innovative application technique

Genetically modified mosquitoes

Attractants

Urbanisation

Economics

Conclusion

References

Appendix A Calibration

Appendix B Conversion Tables

Index

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Matthews, G. A.Integrated vector management : controlling vectors of malaria and other insect vector borne diseases / Graham Matthews.p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN-13: 978-0-470-65966-3 (hardcover : alk. paper)ISBN-10: 0-470-65966-11. Insects as carriers of disease–Integrated control. 2. Vector control. 3. Insect pests–Integrated control. I. Title. II. Title: Controlling vectors of malaria and other insect vector borne diseases.RA639.5.M38 2011614.4’32–dc23

2011018906

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDF [9781119950325]; ePub [9781119950332]; Mobi [9781119950349]

Preface

Insects are responsible for the transmission of several extremely important diseases of man, including malaria, dengue hemorrhagic fever and onchocerciasis. While considering all major vectors, much of this book concentrates on the control of Anopheline mosquitoes, as the vectors of malaria. Globally, the number of cases of malaria is estimated at about 250 million with the greatest burden of this disease in sub-Saharan Africa, accounting for over 80% of the cases. Absenteeism from work causes an estimated reduction of economic growth of 1.3%. In 2006, WHO estimated that there were over 800,000 deaths, with 90% in the African region, where malaria is the cause of 17% of the mortality of children under 5 years of age.

One of the United Nations Millennium goals is to halt and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases by 2015. Much progress has been made and the Global Fund had approved funding for programmes that had distributed 104 million bed nets and treated 108 million cases of malaria by the end of 2009. However in Africa, where there is the greatest need to control malaria, work is hampered by poverty, weak health systems due to limited numbers of skilled health workers and problems of accessibility to those most in need.

A key method of reducing the deaths of children has been the advocacy of deploying insecticide treated bed nets to protect young children. Funding from key philanthropic, bilateral and multilateral sources and increased manufacture of these nets, from 30 million in 2004 to 95 million in 2007, has enabled net distribution in many countries, but there is still much progress still to be made to achieve the distribution of an estimated 250 million treated nets to reach 80% coverage in sub-Saharan Africa. As well as the deaths of young children, illness due to malaria affects vast numbers of people including farmers and others, thus affecting food security and economic productivity. If the control of vectors can be extended to become area-wide control programmes and encompass not just the control of mosquitoes, but also include vectors of other diseases, there is hope that productivity can be increased in sub-Saharan Africa and other less developed areas of the world so that poverty can be alleviated.

Controlling the vector by different techniques is increasingly important as the malarial parasite, Plasmodium spp. continues to develop resistance to drugs, thus effective reduction of the vector will reduce the number of people that will require treatment. Operational research to enable implementation or improvement of the tools already developed to control the insect vectors remains poorly funded. There is a need to develop practical combinations of vector control as part of integrated vector management programmes, yet already there is talk of eradicating malaria when much more research is needed to develop any new controls and as yet unproven methods for such a strategy to work.

Few trained in medicine will have any training in vector control, while specialist medical entomologists get little training in the use of insecticides. This book aims to provide an update on the methods of vector control that can be utilised today in the context of development since DDT was used against vectors. Future developments look beyond our present knowledge to assess whether any new approach, such as the deployment of genetically modified mosquitoes, can be added to our toolbox of control methods.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the following who have read and commented on one or more chapters and for supplying information: Andy Adams, Andy Bywater, Pierre Baleguel, Jane Bonds, John Clayton, Nigel Frazer-Evans, John Invest, Helen Pates Jamet, John Lucas, Bob Mickle, Peter Mukuka, Don Roberts, Graham White and especially Mark Latham, who has contributed significantly with his experience of mosquito control in the USA. Their contribution in their areas of specialist knowledge in vector control has greatly improved this book.

I am also indebted to the following for the supply of photographs and diagrams: Didier Baleguel, Roy Bateman, Clive Boase, Jane Bonds, John Clayton, Hans Dobson, Nigel Frazer-Evans, Chung Gait Fee, Ulrike Fillinger, Jörg Heckel, Eliningaya John Kweka, Mark Latham, Steve Lindsay, John Lucas, Bob Mickle, Peter Mukuka, Michael Reihle, Don Roberts, Werner Stahl, John Thomas. Figures 2.2 and 2.3 are reproduced from The Excellent Powder – DDT’s Political and Scientific History by Donald Roberts, Richard Tren with Roger Bate and Jennifer Zambone, published by Dog Ear Publishing, Indianapolis, USA. Figure 4.1 is with permission of the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institute, Washington DC: Purchase – Harold P. Stern Memorial Fund, F1995.17. I thank Robert Hudson for alerting me to the illustration shown in Figure 4.1

The work has been based on experience with vector control equipment at the International Pesticide Application Research Centre, Imperial College since 1972, participating with the World Health Organisation Pesticide Evaluation Scheme in relation to equipment for vector control and more recently with field work by the Yaounde Initiative Foundation, Cameroon. I thank Moira for her understanding and encouragement during my visits to Cameroon and the writing of this book.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Vector borne diseases, such as malaria, are responsible for 17% of the global burden of parasitic and infectious diseases. They result in avoidable ill-health and death, economic hardship for affected communities and are a serious impediment to economic development. Malaria causes over 800,000 deaths a year, 85% of which occur in children under 5 years of age. Many people, in 100 countries still affected by malaria transmission, are unable to work due to recurring attacks of malaria.

Malaria was endemic in parts of the USA only 75 years ago, but vector control alongside development programmes has eliminated the disease. However, mosquito control remains essential in the USA, not only because the biting insects are considered to be an unacceptable nuisance, but they can also transmit a number of arboviral encephalitides, including St. Louis, Eastern Equine, Western Equine, Lacrosse and West Nile viruses.

Malaria was also endemic in parts of Europe, where drainage schemes and application of Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) during the 1940s led to its eradication, although still liable to return when travellers infected in the tropics return with the disease to areas where the vector species still occur. Sporadic occurrences of so-called ‘airport malaria’ happen every year in Europe or the USA, with a few locally transmitted cases reported, but with a suitable vector present such occurrences could become permanently established or re-established.

In addition to malaria, a number of other very important diseases are transmitted by insect vectors (Table 1.1). Some of the vector borne diseases are no longer a problem in many parts of the world with improved housing and living standards, but they have remained in remote rural areas and urban slums, and some have started to spread into other countries. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has grouped these as the Neglected Tropical Diseases (WHO, 2010a), as governments have not paid so much attention to these problems.