Integration of Renewable Energy Sources with Smart Grid E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 487

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021

Beschreibung

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES WITH SMART GRID Provides comprehensive coverage of renewable energy and its integration with smart grid technologies. This book starts with an overview of renewable energy technologies, smart grid technologies, and energy storage systems and covers the details of renewable energy integration with smart grid and the corresponding controls. It also provides an enhanced perspective on the power scenario in developing countries. The requirement of the integration of smart grid along with the energy storage systems is deeply discussed to acknowledge the importance of sustainable development of a smart city. The methodologies are made quite possible with highly efficient power convertor topologies and intelligent control schemes. These control schemes are capable of providing better control with the help of machine intelligence techniques and artificial intelligence. The book also addresses modern power convertor topologies and the corresponding control schemes for renewable energy integration with smart grid. The design and analysis of power converters that are used for the grid integration of solar PV along with simulation and experimental results are illustrated. The protection aspects of the microgrid with power electronic configurations for wind energy systems are elucidated. The book also discusses the challenges and mitigation measure in renewable energy integration with smart grid. Audience The core audience is hardware and software engineers working on renewable energy integration related projects, microgrids, smart grids and computing algorithms for converter and inverter circuits. Researchers and students in electrical, electronics and computer engineering will also benefit reading the book.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Preface

1 Renewable Energy Technologies

1. Introduction

1.1 Types of Renewable Energy

References

2 Present Power Scenario in India

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Thermal Power Plant

2.3 Gas-Based Power Generation

2.4 Nuclear Power Plants

2.5 Hydropower Generation

2.6 Solar Power

2.7 Wind Energy

2.8 The Inherited Structure

References

3 Introduction to Smart Grid

3.1 Need for Smart Grid in India

3.2 Present Power Scenario in India

3.3 Electric Grid

3.4 Overview of Smart Grids

3.5 Smart Grid Components for Transmission System

3.6 Smart Grid Functions Used in Distribution System

3.7 Case Study: Techno-Economic Analysis

3.8 Case Study: Solar PV Awareness of Puducherry SG Pilot Project

3.9 Recent Trends in Smart Grids

References

4 Internet of Things–Based Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) for Smart Grids

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Advanced Metering Infrastructure

4.3 IoT-Based Advanced Metering Infrastructure

4.4 Results

4.5 Discussion

4.6 Conclusion and Future Scope

References

5 Requirements for Integrating Renewables With Smart Grid

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Challenges in Integrating Renewables Into Smart Grid

5.3 Conclusion

References

6 Grid Energy Storage Technologies

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Grid Energy Storage Technologies: Classification

6.3 Grid Energy Storage Technologies: Analogy

6.4 Applications of Energy Storage System

6.5 Power Conditioning of Energy Storage System

6.6 Conclusions

References

7 Multi-Mode Power Converter Topology for Renewable Energy Integration With Smart Grid

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Literature Survey

7.3 System Architecture

7.4 Modes of Operation of Multi-Mode Power Converter

7.5 Control Scheme

7.6 Results and Discussion

7.7 Conclusion

References

8 Decoupled Control With Constant DC Link Voltage for PV-Fed Single-Phase Grid Connected Systems

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Schematic of the Grid-Tied Solar PV System

8.3 Simulation and Experimental Results of the Grid Tied Solar PV System

8.4 Conclusion

References

9 Wind Energy Conversion System Feeding Remote Microgrid

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Literature Review

9.3 Direct Grid Connected Configurations of Three-Phase WDIG Feeding Single-Phase Grid

9.4 Three-Phase WDIG Feeding Single-Phase Grid With Power Converters

9.5 Performance of the Three-Phase Wind Generator System Feeding Power to Single-Phase Grid

9.6 Power Converter Configurations

9.7 Summary

References

10 Microgrid Protection

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Necessity of Distributed Energy Resources

10.3 Concept of Microgrid

10.4 Why the Protection With Microgrid is Different From the Conventional Distribution System Protection

10.5 Foremost Challenges in Microgrid Protection

10.6 Microgrid Protection

10.7 Literature Survey

10.8 Comparison of Various Existing Protection Schemes for Microgrids

10.9 Loss of Mains (Islanding)

10.10 Necessity to Detect the Unplanned Islanding

10.11 Unplanned Islanding Identification Methods

10.12 Comparison of Unplanned Islanding Identification Methods

10.13 Discussion

10.14 Conclusion

References

11 Microgrid Optimization and Integration of Renewable Energy Resources: Innovation, Challenges and Prospects

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Microgrids

11.3 Renewable Energy Sources

11.4 Integration of RES in Microgrid

11.5 Microgrid Optimization Schemes

11.6 Challenges in Implementation of Microgrids

11.7 Future Prospects of Microgrids

11.8 Conclusion

References

12 Challenges in Planning and Operation of Large-Scale Renewable Energy Resources Such as Solar and Wind

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Solar Grid Integration

12.3 Wind Energy Grid Integration

12.4 Challenges in the Integration of Renewable Energy Systems with Grid

12.5 Electrical Energy Storage (EES)

12.6 Conclusion

References

13 Mitigating Measures to Address Challenges of Renewable Integration— Forecasting, Scheduling, Dispatch, Balancing, Monitoring, and Control

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Microgrid

13.3 Large-Scale Integration of Renewables: Issues and Challenges

13.4 A Review on Short-Term Load Forecasting Methods

13.5 Overview on Control of Microgrid

13.6 Measures to Support Large-Scale Renewable Integration

References

14 Mitigation Measures for Power Quality Issues in Renewable Energy Integration and Impact of IoT in Grid Control

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Impact of Power Quality Issues

14.3 Mitigation of Power Quality Issues

14.4 Discussions

14.5 Conclusion and Future Scope

References

15 Smart Grid Implementations and Feasibilities

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Need for Smart Grid

15.3 Smart Grid Sensing, Measurement, Control, and Automation Technologies

15.4 Implementation of Smart Grid Project

15.5 Solar PV System Implementation Barriers

15.6 Smart Grid and Microgrid in Other Areas

15.7 Conclusion

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Installed generation capacity (in MW) of power stations in India.

Table 3.2 Generation and growth in conventional generation in India from 2009–20...

Table 3.3 Energy savings through peak load management.

Table 3.4 Details of DTMS installed in Puducherry SG pilot project.

Table 3.5 Details of faults detected by FPI during July to November 2014.

Table 3.6 Details and actions taken for tampering.

Table 3.7 Demographic data of the respondents.

Table 3.8 House details of the respondents.

Table 3.9 Concerns and interest of the respondents.

Table 3.10 Awareness and attitude of the respondents toward rooftop solar PV.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Types of smart grid network attacks.

Table 4.2 Load capacity.

Table 4.3 Load types.

Table 4.4 Load analysis.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Comparing conventional grid with the smart-grid.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Predetermined lookup data for SPWM.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Various signal features and the types of disturbance.

Table 10.2 Pros of pros and cons of literature papers.

Table 10.3 Comparison of various existing protection schemes for microgrids.

Table 10.4 Various standards for ceasing operation of DGs on island

Table 10.5 Comparison of various unplanned islanding identification methods [37–...

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Power quality issues.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Communication technologies for AMI.

Table 15.2 Example of typical house hold saving.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title page

Copyright

Preface

Begin Reading

Index

End User License Agreement

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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Next-Generation Computing and Communication Engineering

Series Editors: Dr. G. R. Kanagachidambaresan and Dr. Kolla Bhanu Prakash

Developments in artificial intelligence are made more challenging because the involvement of multi-domain technology creates new problems for researchers. Therefore, in order to help meet the challenge, this book series concentrates on next generation computing and communication methodologies involving smart and ambient environment design. It is an effective publishing platform for monographs, handbooks, and edited volumes on Industry 4.0, agriculture, smart city development, new computing and communication paradigms. Although the series mainly focuses on design, it also addresses analytics and investigation of industry-related real-time problems.

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Integration of Renewable Energy Sources with Smart Grid

Edited by

M. Kathiresh

A. Mahaboob Subahani

and

G.R. Kanagachidambaresan

This edition first published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2021 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

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Preface

As the electricity demand increases day by day, the dependence on fossil fuels and harmful emissions that affect health and the environment also increase. So, the best practice to overcome these problems is obtaining energy from the natural resources such as wind, solar, and tide, which are renewable in nature. With the traditional electric setup, it is highly impossible to achieve reliable and efficient power delivery. Thus, a new advanced version or modernization is necessary on the traditional electric grid architecture to overcome such glitches, and the solution is smart grid. The smart grid technology gives a roadmap for efficient, reliable, and clean future electric power delivery and also provides an opportunity for the effective integration of renewable energy sources. The intermittent energy generation of the renewable sources can be overcome by integrating energy storage systems such as battery energy storage system into the power grid. This integration needs a successful coordination between renewable power generation units, energy storage systems, and the power grid. Indeed, this coordination requires robust and innovative controls. The microgrid provides better opportunities for the consumers also to become a producer with highly efficient computing algorithms and triggering techniques. Furthermore, to reduce the stress on power system due to the uncertainty and inherent intermittence of renewable power generation units, the smart grid structure should consist of the main grid and multiple embedded microgrids.

This book starts with an overview of renewable energy technologies, smart grid technologies, and energy storage systems and covers the details of renewable energy integration with smart grid and the corresponding controls. This book provides better views on the power scenario in developing countries. The requirement of the integration of smart grid along with the energy storage systems is deeply discussed to acknowledge the importance of sustainable development of a smart city. The methodologies are made quite possible with highly efficient power convertor topologies and intelligent control schemes. These control schemes are capable of providing better control with the help of machine intelligence techniques and artificial intelligence. The book also addresses modern power convertor topologies and the corresponding control schemes for renewable energy integration with smart grid. The design and analysis of power converters that are used for the grid integration of solar PV along with simulation and experimental results are illustrated. The protection aspects of the microgrid with power electronic configurations for wind energy systems are elucidated. The book also discusses the challenges and mitigation measure in renewable energy integration with smart grid. This book serves to be a better material for the engineers and researchers working on microgrid, smart grid, and computing algorithms for converter and inverter circuits.

Sincere thanks to authors and reviewers for their best contributions in this book project. We would like to also thank Scrivener Publishing and Wiley for providing us a platform to share our knowledge and view towards sustainable development and renewable energy.

Sincere thanks to our parents, students, contributors, editor, and the Great Almighty.

The EditorsJuly 2021

1Renewable Energy Technologies

V. Chamundeswari1*, R. Niraimathi2, M. Shanthi3 and A. Mahaboob Subahani4

1Department of EEE, St. Joseph’s College of Engineering, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India

2Department of EEE, Mohamed Sathak Engineering College, Kilakarai, TN, India

3Department of ECE, University College of Engg. Ramanathapuram, Ramanathapuram, TN, India

4Department of EEE, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, TN, India

Abstract

Most of the people around the world rely on the conventional energy sources such as oil, natural gas, and coal for their energy needs. Because of the fast depletion of these energy sources, there is a current global need for clean and renewable energy sources (RESs). The RESs are derived from natural sources such as the sun, wind, rain, tides of ocean, biomass, and geothermal. These are also referred as endless energy since they are replenished constantly. They are also considered as the most suitable energy sources for the future to achieve sustainable development, because the energy produced from these renewable sources does not harm the environment. In addition, they produce less pollutant while the energy conversion process.

Keywords: Renewable energy sources, solar, wind, hydro, tidal, geothermal

1. Introduction

Today’s world is completely dependent on energy. As the demand for energy increases day by day and the conventional energy sources are depleting, there is an immediate need for finding out alternative energy sources. Hence, the contribution of renewable energy sources (RESs) in energy generation over the conventional energy sources has been increasing year by year as shown in Figure 1.1. It is because of the reason that, the RESs are readily available and they are also sustainable. The energy from these sources is converted into a usable form and utilized for domestic as well as industrial applications. The renewable energies such as solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, hydro, and ocean energy can be converted into more useful energy like electricity. They deliver power with minimal impact on the environment. These sources are typically more green/cleaner than conventional energies like oil or coal. Among all the RESs, solar and wind energy plays a significant role in electric power generation [1]. They can supply power to either gird or isolated AC or DC loads [2]. Hydro energy is the next most used source for electricity generation. Geothermal energy which is produced from the heat of the earth’s crust can also be used for energy conversion. Here, the thermal energy from the inner surface of the earth is converted into electricity. Tidal energy is also effectively utilized nowadays as low tide and high tide plays a vital role in producing electrical energy. All these RESs are discussed in detail in the following sections.

1.1 Types of Renewable Energy

Renewable energy includes:

Solar energy

Wind energy

Fuel cell

Biomass

Hydropower

Geothermal energy

Figure 1.1 Increasing rate of energy generation from RES (present and future).

The above-mentioned types of RESs are described along with their features as follows.

1.1.1 Solar Energy

The light energy produced from the sun is considered as one of the abundant and readily available energy resources. It is a significant source of renewable energy. The heat from the sun can also be extracted as thermal energy and used for solar-based heating applications. Depending on the type of energy capture and distribution, the solar power conversion technique is broadly classified as follows:

Active solar technique

Passive solar technique

The active solar technique uses the concept of the solar photovoltaic (PV) system, concentrated solar power (CSP), and solar heating system, whereas the passive solar uses the technique of selecting materials of thermal nature and light dispersion property.

i. Active Solar Techniques

A. Solar Photovoltaic SystemIt works with the phenomenon of the PV effect, which is a combination of the physical and chemical process that generates voltage and current when light falls on a semiconducting device. In a semiconductor, conduction takes place when the electrons move from valence band to conduction band. There is some energy required for this operation. In a solar cell, the energy is produced from photons that are emitted from the sun. These photons help in moving the electrons from valence band to conduction band, thereby overcoming the gap between the bands. A photon incident on the surface could be reflected or transmitted. If it is reflected, then the electron cannot be dislodged. So, the photon must be absorbed to move the electrons from the valence band to the conduction band. Thus, the electron movement across the metallic junction takes place, creating a negative charge on one side with respect to the other. It is similar to a battery with a negative terminal on one side and positive on the other side. The voltage and current are generated as long as light radiation is incident on the material. This effect only exists in the solar cells used in solar panels.

A solar panel is constructed by arranging PV cells or solar cells in series and parallel. A solar cell is a typical PN junction layer sandwiched as shown in Figure 1.2. Sunlight consists of photons or radiant solar energy. When the photons are incident on a PV cell, some get reflected and some get absorbed [3]. The absorbed photons aids in dislodging the electrons from the atoms of the solar cell material. These electrons move to the front surface of the solar cell and create an imbalance with respect to the back surface due to more flow of negative charge on one side. This imbalance results in a developed potential which creates electricity and a flow of current through an external load as shown in Figure 1.2. In general, a solar panel may have 60 cells connected together, yet, some solar panels are having even 72 cells also.

Monocrystalline and polycrystalline are the two major types of the solar cell. A monocrystalline solar cell is made from a single crystal of silicon, whereas polycrystalline cells are made by melting together many shards of silicon crystals. Monocrystalline solar cells are efficient when compared to polycrystalline type. It is due to the usage of monolithic crystal of silicon which aids in the easy flow of electrons that constitute the electric current. The electricity flow in polycrystalline silicon is very difficult due to the many layers of silicon structure. The process of making solar panel using polycrystalline is very simple when compared to monocrystalline.

Figure 1.2 Structure of a solar cell.

B. Concentrated Solar PowerThe main objective of CSP is to focus the entire solar beam into a specific area. The heat energy thus produced in that area is converted into electricity. Other techniques developed based on the concept are parabolic trough system, dish system, and linear Fresnel collector. The concentrated solar beam produces heat energy which is used to drive the steam turbine and generate electricity.

Figure 1.3 shows the diagram of a CSP system. It uses lenses or mirrors to concentrate the major beam of light to concentrate on an area that is a receiver here. The light energy is converted into heat energy and it drives the steam turbine coupled with a generator and generates electricity. The following are the types of CPS system.

B1.1 Parabolic Trough CollectorFigure 1.4 shows the parabolic trough collector system which consists of a parabolic reflector that focuses the light onto a receiver aligned on the focal line of a reflector. The receiver is a tube which is filled with a working fluid and located above the reflector mirror arrangement. The working fluid is heated with the obtained light energy from the sun through the concentrator system [4].

Figure 1.3 Concentrated solar power system.

Figure 1.4 Parabolic trough collector.

B1.2 Parabolic Dish SystemFigure 1.5 shows the parabolic dish system which consists of a parabolic dish concentrator to focus the solar beam. An axis tracking system to follow the sun’s radiation is incorporated. The heat energy [5] from the concentrator is collected at the receiver side and used for generating electricity. The temperature at the dish can reach the maximum and can be used in solar reactors which are need for high temperature.

B1.3 Linear Fresnel SystemFigure 1.6 shows the Fresnel reflector system. It uses flat mirrors to focus sunlight onto the receiver tubes which contains fluid in it. The diagram shows a primary and a secondary reflector system to make light energy completely fall on the receiving tubes [6]. As a result of it, the fluid is heated and steam produced drives the steam turbine. The generator coupled with the turbine generates electricity and fed to the loads. They are cheaper than the parabolic system and also captures more light energy from the sun. It can also be designed in various sizes.

Figure 1.5 Parabolic dish system.

Figure 1.6 Linear Fresnel system.

Sometimes, the output yield is very low in this Fresnel system and so Fresnel reflectors with ray tracing was introduced to yield maximum output.

1.1.2 Wind Energy

In the current scenario, the wind energy system is one of the fastest-growing renewable energy. Wind turbine capacity has increased over time. In 1985, typical turbines had a rated capacity of 0.05 megawatts (MW) and a rotor diameter of 15 meters. Today’s new wind power projects have turbine capacities of about 2-MW onshore and 3- to 5-MW offshore. Commercially available wind turbines have reached 10-MW capacity, with rotor diameters of up to 164 meters. The average capacity of wind turbines increased from 1.6 MW in 2009 to 2 MW in 2014 [7].

Wind energy conversion system (WECS) comprises of a wind turbine, gearbox, generator, converter, and transformers as shown in Figure 1.7. The wind energy or the kinetic energy is converted to mechanical energy using a wind turbine. The mechanical energy input is given to the generator and converted into electrical energy. Permanent magnet synchronous generator, Squirrel cage induction generator or doubly fed induction generator can be used in the WECS. The AC output from the generator is converted to a required form using power electronic converter. It is then connected to grid through to a step-up transformer.

Figure 1.7 Wind energy conversion system (WECS).

The wind energy is captured by the rotor blades and transferred to rotor hub. The rotating shaft provides mechanical energy input to the generator, which is further converted into electricity. The gear box helps in increasing the rotational speed of the shaft for the generator. The power extracted by the rotor blades may be expressed as follows:

where α is perturbation factor, ρ is density of the air, A is swept area of the blades, and uo is speed of the upstream wind.

The wind turbines are largely classified into Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT) and Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT). As the name implies, the HAWT has their blades rotating on an axis parallel to the ground. If the blades are placed in such a way that their rotational axis is perpendicular to the ground, it is called as VAWT. The HAWT can capable of producing more electricity as compared to VAWT. It is because the HAWT has more swept area than VAWT. Hence, the HAWT is generally preferred for commercial WECS. However, VAWT is used for small power applications.

1.1.3 Fuel Cell

In search of a clean energy source in the current energy sector, fuel cell has gained its importance. Fuel cell uses hydrogen as a fuel and the energy companies have started concentrating on low carbon hydrogen production. The industries have started using electrolyzer to produce clean hydrogen. In recent years, the electrolyzer installation has increased considerably. The survey says that 350,000 tonnes of low carbon hydrogen production has taken place by the end of year 2019 and 20 other new projects have been targeted by 2020. Fuel cell plays a vital role in generating electricity by using hydrogen as fuel. The more the hydrogen, the more the power. It is similar to a battery in some aspects but can supply energy for a long period of time and it is due to the continuous supply of fuel and oxygen to produce power. Due to these factors, fuel cell finds its application in satellites, manned spacecraft, and other relevant areas. It is also a type of RES that works on the principle of electrochemical reaction that converts chemical energy into an electrical energy. It converts the chemical energy of a fuel, namely, the hydrogen and an oxidizing agent, the oxygen, into electricity.

Figure 1.8 shows the diagram of a fuel cell. A fuel cell consists of an anode, cathode, and an electrolyte membrane. Hydrogen fuel is passed through the anode of a fuel cell and oxygen through the cathode. The hydrogen is split into electrons and protons at the anode side. The protons will pass through the membrane to the cathode side and the electrons are made to flow through an external circuit connected to the load After passing through the circuit, the electrons combine with the protons along with oxygen in air and produces water and heat as their by-product. Fuel cells are very clean as they use pure hydrogen as fuel. The efficiency of the fuel cell is high when compared to conventional techniques like steam turbine and internal combustion engine. The efficiency of a fuel cell can further be increased by interfacing it with a combined heat power system. The waste heat generated from the fuel cell can be used for various applications.

The types of fuel cell are as follows:

Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell

Direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC)

Alkaline fuel cell (AFC)

Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC)

Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC)

Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)

Reversible fuel cell

Figure 1.8 Diagram of a fuel cell.

1.1.3.1 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

The frequently used fuel cell is PEM fuel cell. Figure 1.9 shows the PEM fuel cell. It is a light weight fuel cell and delivers high power density. It is also called as polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell [8]. It consists of carbon porous electrodes with solid polymer as an electrolyte and platinum as a catalyst. It operates with hydrogen, oxygen and water. Hydrogen fuel is given as an input from storage tanks. It operates at low temperatures and so considered as a durable one. A good catalyst is used but platinum is not so economical and it is sensitive to carbon monoxide poisoning. It requires a reactor to eradicate this poisoning effect and hence the cost also increases. Since it operates at low temperatures, its start-up time is very quick, and hence, it is suitable for automotive applications.

1.1.3.2 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell

Most of the fuel cells use hydrogen as the fuel to generate electricity, However, DMFC use methanol as a fuel input along with water. Methanol has higher energy density than hydrogen and it is easy to transport as it is like a liquid and similar to gasoline. It is a dense liquid but considered as a stable one. Its efficiency is around 40% and the operating temperature is between 50°C and 120°C. It is used as a powering circuit for laptops, cell phones, and other portable items.

Figure 1.9 Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell.

1.1.3.3 Alkaline Fuel Cell

AFCs were the widely used fuel cells in space industry. Alkaline fuel cell is also called as “Bacon fuel cell” as it was invented by Francis Thomas Bacon. It is one of the considered fuel cell design. It is similar to PEM fuel cell except for the use of alkaline membrane instead of acid membrane. It uses a solution of potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and non-precious metal as a catalyst at the anode and cathode. It uses hydrogen as fuel and pure oxygen to produce water and electricity. Because of its efficiency greater than 60%, it is used in space industries.

1.1.3.4 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

It was the first commercial fuel cell in the mid-1960s. PAFC uses phosphoric acid as an electrolyte. The electrolyte is a pure or concentrated liquid phosphoric acid (H3PO4) in a silicon carbide matrix. It operates in the temperature range between 150°C and 210°C. Electrodes are made of carbon paper coated with platinum catalyst. It is used in buses and in stationary power generators in the range of 100 to 400 kW.

1.1.3.5 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

The conventional source–based power plants use MCFC for industrial and military applications. The electrolyte used in MCFC is a molten carbonate salt mixture immersed in ceramic matrix of beta alumina solid electrolyte. Because of its high operating temperature, metals are used as catalyst at the anode and cathode. It offers better efficiency when compared to PAFC which is around 65%. PAFC’s efficiency is only 30% to 40%.

Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) and reversible fuel cells are the other types of fuel cell that are generally employed for various applications.

1.1.4 Biomass Energy

The energy derived from the organic matter of the living organism is the biomass. It is a RES that produces electricity with minimum cost. The organic material produced from plants and animals, crops and algae are used in biomass energy production. The global cumulative biomass energy generation is shown in Figure 1.10. When biomass is burned, heat is generated and the thermal energy is converted into electrical energy. This biomass can either be burned directly or converted into liquid biofuels or biogas. The conversion methods for biomass energy production include chemical, thermal, and bio-chemical [9].

Figure 1.10 Cumulative bioenergy generation.

Initially, direct combustion method was employed with wood as a fuel to produce energy. In the recent times, chemical treatments such as pyrolysis, fermentation, and anaerobic processes are implemented to convert these sources into a usable form such as ethanol. During pyrolysis treatment, coal is obtained as a product that strengthens the matter by burning it in the absence of oxygen.

The sources of biomass energy generation include the following:

Wood and its processing waste: Heat energy is generated from the combustion of wood waste.

Agricultural waste: It is burned as a fuel and it can be converted into liquid bio-fuels.

Food and garbage waste: It is converted to bio-gas by landfill method or burned to generate electricity in power plants.

Animal manure and sewage waste: it is converted to bio-gas.

1.1.4.1 Energy Production From Biomass

Solid biomass, such as wood and garbage, can be burned directly to produce heat. Biomass can also be converted into a gas called biogas or into liquid biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel. These fuels can then be burned for energy production.

Biogas is formed when paper, food scraps, and yard waste are decomposed in landfills; it can also be produced by processing sewage and animal manure in special vessels called digesters. Ethanol is extracted from crops such as corn and sugar-cane by fermentation process. Biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils and animal fats and can be used in vehicles and as heating oil.

The current availability of biomass in India is estimated at about 500 million metric tonnes per year [10]. Studies from the Ministry has estimated surplus biomass availability of about 120–150 million metric tonnes per annum covering agricultural and forestry residues corresponding to a potential of about 18,000 MW. Apart from this, it is predicted that about 7,000-MW additional power could be generated through co-generation process.

1.1.5 Hydro-Electric Energy

As water is a never depleted source and the pressure of water is used to generate energy, hydro-electric power plants gained its significance in renewable energy industry. The energy of flowing water is converted into mechanical energy using a turbine and the coupled generator produced electricity from the mechanical energy.

Figure 1.11 shows hydro-electric power plant. The generator generates electricity by converting the input mechanical energy produced from the energy of water flow. Whenever a magnet moves past a conductor, it causes electricity and the flow of current exists. In a large generator, the electromagnets are made by circulating direct current through wire loops which is wound on steel laminations. These are called as poles, which are held on the outer surface of the rotor. The rotor rotates at a fixed speed as it is connected to the turbine shaft. As the rotor rotates, it cuts the flux produced and induces an emf, and thus, a potential is developed across the generator output.

Figure 1.11 Typical hydro-electric power plant.

The reservoir system acts as a storage pump and can be used whenever required to generate electricity based on the demand. The construction of it is also very simple and this is one of the advantageous features of hydro-electric power generation [11].

1.1.5.1 Hydro Scenario

India is blessed with immense amount of hydro-electric potential and ranks fifth in terms of exploitable hydro-potential on global scenario. As per assessment made by CEA, India is endowed with economically exploitable hydro-power potential to the tune of 148,700 MW of installed capacity.

In 1998, Government of India announced “Policy on Hydro Power Development” under which impetus is given to development of hydropower in the country. This was a welcome step toward effective utilization of our water resources in the direction of hydropower development. During October 2001, Central Electricity Authority (CEA) came out with a ranking study which prioritized and ranked the future executable projects. As per the study, 399 hydro schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of 106,910 MW were ranked in A, B, and C categories depending upon their inter se attractiveness. During May 2003, Government of India launched 50,000-MW hydro initiative in which preparation of Pre-Feasibility Reports of 162 Projects totaling to 50,000 MW was taken up by CEA through various agencies. The PFRs for all these projects have already been prepared and projects with low tariff (first year tariff less than Rs.2.50/kWh) have been identified for preparation of DPR.

1.1.6 Geothermal Energy

As India is a tropical country, heat energy is abundant on our earth’s crust. The energy obtained from the heat of the inner surface of the earth is geothermal energy. It is the unused heat energy stored under the earth’s surface. It is carried to the earth’s surface by steam and water. It can be used for heating and cooling purpose. The temperature gradient on the earth’s surface with respect to the inner area is only used to generate electricity [12].

There are three types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle.

(i) Dry Steam: Dry steam power plants draw from underground resources of steam. The steam is piped directly from underground wells to the power plant where it is directed into a turbine/generator unit.

(ii) Flash Steam: Flash steam power plants are the most common and use geothermal reservoirs of water with temperatures greater than 360°F (182°C). This very hot water flows up through wells in the ground under its own pressure. As it flows upward, the pressure decreases and some of the hot water boils into steam. The steam is then separated from the water and used to power a turbine/generator. Any leftover water and condensed steam are injected back into the reservoir, making this a sustainable resource.

(iii) Binary Steam: Binary cycle power plants operate on water at lower temperatures of about 225°F–360°F (107°C–182°C). Binary cycle plants use the heat from the hot water to boil a working fluid, usually an organic compound with a low boiling point. The working fluid is vaporized in a heat exchanger and used to turn a turbine. The water is then injected back into the ground to be reheated. The water and the working fluid are kept separated during the whole process, so there are little or no air emissions.

Currently, two types of geothermal resources can be used in binary cycle power plants to generate electricity: enhanced geothermal systems (EGSs) and low-temperature or co-produced resources [13].

a) Enhanced Geothermal Systems:EGS provide geothermal power by tapping into the Earth’s deep geothermal resources that are otherwise not economical due to lack of water, location, or rock type

b) Low-Temperature and Co-Produced Resources:Low-temperature and co-produced geothermal resources are typically found at temperatures of 300°F (150°C) or less. Some low-temperature resources can be harnessed to generate electricity using binary cycle technology. Co-produced hot water is a by-product of oil and gas wells in the United States. This hot water is being examined for its potential to produce electricity, helping to lower greenhouse gas emissions and extend the life of oil and gas fields.

1.1.6.1 Geothermal Provinces of India

In India, nearly 400 thermal springs occur (Satellites like the IRS-1 have played an important role, through infrared photographs of the ground, in locating geothermal areas. The Puga valley in the Ladakh region has the most promising geothermal field.), distributed in seven geothermal provinces. These provinces include The Himalayas: Sohana: West Coast; Cambay: Son-Narmada-Tapi (SONATA): Godavari and Mahanadi [14].

These springs are perennial and their surface temperature range from 37°C to 90°C with a cumulative surface discharge of over 1,000 L/m. The provinces are associated with major rifts or subduction tectonics and registered high heat flow and high geothermal gradient. For example, the heat flow values and thermal gradients of these provinces are 468 mW/m2; 234°C/km (Himalayas); 93 mW/m2; 70°C/km (Cambay); 120–260 mW/m2; 60–90°C/km (SONATA); 129 mW/m2; 59°C/km (West Coast); 104 mW/m2; 60°C/km (Godavari) and 200 mW/m2; 90°C/km (Bakreswar, Bihar).

The reservoir temperature estimated using the above described geothermometers are 120°C (West Coast), 150°C (Tattapani), and 200°C (Cambay). The depth of the reservoir in these provinces is at a depth of about 1 to 2 km.

These geothermal systems are liquid dominated and steam dominated systems prevail only in Himalayan and Tattapani geothermal provinces. The issuing temperature of water at Tattapani is 90°C, at Puga (Himalaya) is 98°C, and at Tuwa (Gujarat) is 98°C. The power-generating capacity of these thermal springs is about 10,000 MW (Ravi Shanker, 1996). These are medium enthalpy resources, which can be utilized effectively to generate power using binary cycle method.

Since majority of these springs are located in rural India, these springs can support small-scale industries in such areas. Dehydrated vegetables and fruits have a potential export market and India being an agricultural country, this industry is best suited for India conditions.

Map of India showing the geothermal provinces, heat flow values (mW/m2: in italics) and geothermal gradients (°C/km). I: Himalaya; II: Sohana; III: Cambay; IV: SONATA; V: West Coast; VI: Godavari; VII: Mahanadi. M: Mehmadabad; B: Billimora.

All the geothermal provinces of India are located in areas with high heat flow and geothermal gradients. The heat flow and thermal gradient values vary from 75–468 mW/m2 and 59–234°C, respectively. Deep Seismic Sounding (DSS) profiles were carried out across several geothermal provinces (Son-Narmada-Tapi; West Coast and Cambay) to understand the crustal structure.

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Corresponding author

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2Present Power Scenario in India

Niraimathi R.1*, Pradeep V.2, Shanthi M.3 and Kathiresh M.4

1Department of EEE, Mohamed Sathak Engineering College, Kilakarai, India

2Department of EEE, Alagappa Chettiar College of Engineering and Technology, Karaikudi, India

3Department of ECE, University College of Engineering, Ramanathapuram, India

4Department of EEE, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, India

Abstract

The major chunk of power generation in India is done by thermal power plants spread across the nation. These plants are situated near to the coal reserves and near major ports. The working of thermal power plant along with major thermal plants of India is discussed. Indian motherland is blessed with huge potential of hydropower which stands second in producing the highest amount of electric power after coal-based plants. Renewable energy is the fastest-growing in this sector. Solar and wind energy–based power plants are discussed. The promising source for future energy is nuclear power plants. Hence, due importance has been paid to these plants. Specific challenges and opportunities in operating the various power plants are also discussed. India, as a vast land, necessitates bulk power transmission corridors to connect generating stations that are located in close proximity with the sources to the load centres and it is one of the world leaders in this field. This necessitates a discussion of various bulk power transmission lines.

Keywords: Power sector scenario in India, thermal power, gas turbine power plant, hydropower, solar power, wind power

2.1 Introduction

Electrical power is the fulcrum for leveraging the economies, as most activities of the present civilization like agriculture and manufacturing revolve with it and change the living standard of people.