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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Winner of the 2023 E.B. Burwell, Jr. Award for outstanding contributions in engineering and environmental geology Introduction to Waste Management An introductory textbook offering comprehensive coverage of the management of municipal, hazardous, medical, electronic, and nuclear waste Written by an experienced instructor in the field of solid waste management, this modern text systematically covers the five key types of solid wastes: municipal, hazardous/industrial, medical/biological, electronic, and nuclear, discussing their sources, handling, and disposal along with the relevant laws that govern their management. With its emphasis on industry standards and environmental regulations, it bridges the gap between theoretical models and real-life challenges in waste disposal and minimization. Instructors and students in environmental science, geology, and geography may use Introduction to Waste Management: A Textbook to better understand the five main types of solid waste and their management both from a local and a global perspective.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Foreword
Preface
A Word to Students
…
To Instructors
…
Acknowledgments
Reference
1 Introduction
1.1 The Beginning
1.2 Importance of Waste Management in Sustainability, Ecological Health, and Climate Change
1.3 Overview of Waste Generation in the United States and Other Countries
1.4 Future Perspectives on Waste Management
1.5 Summary
Study Questions
References
Supplementary Readings
Web Resources
Acronyms/Symbols
2 Essentials of Geology, Geotechnics, and Toxicology
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Basic Concepts
2.3 Geologic Cycles
2.4 Earth Materials
2.5 Index Properties of Soils
2.6 Soil Classification Systems
2.7 Hydrogeology
2.8 Introduction
2.9 Dose–Response Relationship
2.10 Exposure Paths of Toxicants to Humans
2.11 Teratogenesis, Mutagenesis, and Carcinogenesis
2.12 Assessment of Health Risks of Hazardous Waste
2.13 Summary
Study Questions
References
Supplemental Readings
Web Resources
Acronyms/Symbols
3 Environmental Laws
3.1 History and Evolution of Environmental Laws in the United States
3.2 Important Environmental Laws
3.3 Summary
Study Questions
References
Web Resources
Acronyms/Symbols
4 Municipal Solid Waste
4.1 Historical Perspective
4.2 Introduction
4.3 US Laws Regulating Solid Waste Management
4.4 Source, Composition, and Quantity of MSW
4.5 Collection and Disposal of MSW
4.6 Physical and Chemical Properties of MSW
4.7 Landfill
4.8 Bioreactor Landfill
4.9 Waste Audit
4.10 Summary
Study Questions
References
Supplemental Reading
Web Resources
Acronyms/Symbols
5 Hazardous Waste
5.1 Introduction
5.2 US Laws Regulating Hazardous Waste
5.3 Definition and Classification of Hazardous Waste
5.4 Sources and Generators of Hazardous Waste
5.5 Storage and Transportation of Hazardous Waste
5.6 Treatment of Hazardous Waste
5.7 Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal
5.8 Superfund Program and Cleanup of Hazardous Waste Sites in the United States
5.9 Summary
Study Questions
References
Supplementary Reading
Web Resources
Acronyms/Symbols
6 Medical Waste
6.1 Introduction and Historical Context
6.2 Nature, Source, and Quantity of Medical Waste
6.3 Hazards Associated with Regulated Medical Waste
6.4 Treatment and Disposal of Medical Waste
6.5 The COVID‐19 Pandemic and Its Impact on Waste Management
6.6 Summary
Study Questions
References
Supplementary Reading
Web Resources
Acronyms/Symbols
7 Nuclear Waste
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Basics of Nuclear Science
7.3 Radioactivity, Natural and Induced Radiation, and Half‐Life
7.4 Nuclear Waste
7.5 Laws Regulating Management of Nuclear Waste
7.6 Nuclear Waste Storage and Transportation
7.7 Nuclear Waste Disposal
7.8 Global Status of HLW Disposal
7.9 Nuclear Waste From Reactor Decommissioning
7.10 Summary
Study Questions
References
Supplemental Reading
Web Resources
Acronyms/Symbols
8 Electronic Waste
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Laws Regulating Electronic Waste
8.3 Nature and Composition of Electronic Waste
8.4 E‐Waste Quantity
8.5 E‐Waste Recycling and Recovery of Valuable Metals
8.6 Health and Environmental Impacts
8.7 Sustainable Management of E‐Waste
8.8 Summary
Study Questions
References
Supplementary Readings
Web Resources
Acronyms/Symbols
9 Waste Minimization
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Definitions
9.3 Approaches to Waste Minimization
9.4 Recycling
9.5 Innovative Waste Minimization Technologies
9.6 Waste Exchange
9.7 Zero Waste
9.8 Ship Recycling
9.9 Airplane Recycling
9.10 Summary
Study Questions
References
Supplemental Reading
Web Resources
Acronyms/Symbols
10 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Concerns for PPCPs
10.3 Sources of PPCPs in the Environment
10.4 Environmental Impacts of PPCPs
10.5 Forensic Applications of PPCPs
10.6 Research Status and Future Needs
10.7 Summary
Study Questions
References
Supplementary Reading
Web Resources
Acronyms/Symbols
Glossary
Index
Geologic Time Scale
Common Units and Conversion Factors
United Nations’ classification of countries based on income (as of July 2021)
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Waste management share in achieving the UN Sustainable Developmen...
Table 1.2 Health risks to waste pickers.
Table 1.3 Global quantities of various wastes (compiled from various source...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Experts, their roles, and duration of involvement in characteriza...
Table 2.2 Exogenic and endogenic earth processes and their characteristics....
Table 2.3 Geologic time scale.
Table 2.4 Grain‐size classification of soil solids (mm) used by various exp...
Table 2.5 Hydraulic conductivity and porosity of geologic materials.
Table 2.6 The unified soil classification system.
Table 2.7 Toxicity rating chart.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Important environmental laws, years enacted and purpose.
Table 3.2 National ambient primary and secondary air quality standards.
Table 3.3 National primary drinking water quality standards.
Table 3.4 National secondary drinking water quality standards.
Chapter 4
Table B4.1 Top three fatal dumpslides of the twenty‐first century in the wo...
Table 4.1 Occupational risk for US workers.
Table 4.2 RCRA Subtitle D wastes.
Table 4.3 Comparison of MSW disposal by incineration and landfilling.
Table 4.4 Air pollutant emission and electric power output in WtE and LFGTE...
Table 4.5 Typical values of moisture content, density, and energy (heat) co...
Table 4.6 Main features of different types of landfills.
Table 4.7 Leachate composition of MSW landfills.
Table 4.8 Volume and properties of landfill gases (adapted from ATSDR and E...
Table 4.9 Maximum contaminant levels for MSWLF effluents (CFR 2011).
Table 4.10 Data/information need for landfill site selection.
Table 4.11 Safety equipment and supplies for waste assessment.
Chapter 5
Table 5.3A Contaminants concentration in Wells G and H.
Table 5.1 Exempt hazardous waste.
Table 5.2 Maximum concentration of contaminants for toxicity characteristic...
Table 5.3 EU's hazardous waste classes.
Table 5.4 EU's two‐digit codes for wastes from various sources.
Table 5.5 RCRA reporting requirements for hazardous waste generators.
Table 5.6 Organic compounds amenable to sorption treatment by AC.
Table 5.7 Cleanup mechanism of constructed wetland.
Table 5.8 Comparison of CERCLA and RCRA remediation processes.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Medical waste generated at hospitals and other health care facili...
Table 6.2 Major groups of hazardous chemicals in medical waste.
Table 6.3 Medical waste audit form.
Table 6.4 Generalized quantity of medical waste in 42 selected countries....
Table 6.5 Indicators for predicating medical waste quantity.
Table B6.1 Waste classification for final disposal.
Table 6.6 Infection risk from exposure to pathogens.
Table 6.7 Weight of various PPE.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 World uranium resource and production, 2019.
Table 7.2 New power reactor construction worldwide from 1954 to 2020.
Table 7.3 Characteristics of ionizing radiations.
Table 7.4 Estimated annual radiation exposure, the USA.
Table 7.5 Naturally occurring radioactive elements and their half‐lives.
Table 7.6 Various classes of low‐level waste and their activities.
Table 7.7 Comparison of IAEA and US nuclear/radioactive waste classification...
Table 7.8 Low‐level waste compacts and member states.
Table 7.9 Comparison of various management options for HLW.
Table 7.10 Commercial low‐level waste landfills.
Table 7.11 Major events in the United States’ nuclear program.
Table 7.12 Status of HLW management in various countries (as of 2020).
Table 7.13 U.S. power reactors undergoing decommissioning.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Selected critical mineral group elements, largest producer, price,...
Table 8.2 Items included in e‐waste by the USEPA, UN, and EU.
Table 8.3 Partial list of electronic and electrical equipment and their UN K...
Table 8.4 E‐waste laws in various states in the USA and year enacted.
Table 8.5 Regrouping of EU's WEEE categories per Directive 2012/19/EU.
Table 8.6 Estimated weight of selected electronics and electrical equipment....
Table 8.7 Average metal content (g) in laptop, tablet, desktop, smartphone, ...
Table 8.8 Total weight of e‐waste, metal quantities, and values of discarded...
Table 8.9 The world's top five countries in the quantity of e‐waste generate...
Table 8.10 Change in waste quantities generated in the five major EEE catego...
Table 8.11 Common toxic substances in e‐waste and their health impacts.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 The US EPA List of Priority Chemicals (PCs) for elimination/reduct...
Table 9.2 Code, application, and properties of common plastics.
Table 9.3 Generalized material content of a recycled ship at Alang, India....
Table 9.4 Average quantity of bulk hazardous waste in various types of merch...
Table 9.5 Material content of Boeing jet airplanes (data from aviation.stack...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 2020 ranking of the world's top 10 pharmaceutical companies.
Table 10.2 Excretion rates of some common pharmaceuticals.
Table 10.3 Major PPCPs with example products.
Table 10.4 Occurrence of common PPCPs in drinking water.
Table 10.5 Removal of selected pharmaceuticals by various drinking water tre...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Major revolutions and human population.
Figure 1.2 Relationship between per capita GDP (in 2011 US$) and MSW quantit...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 The system earth and its five components.
Figure 2.2 Economic loss from all‐natural hazards worldwide, 1980–2019.
Figure 2.3 Deaths from all‐natural hazards worldwide, 1978–2018.
Figure 2.4 The rock cycle.
Figure 2.5 The water cycle.
Figure 2.6 Occurrence and distribution of water on the earth.
Figure 2.7 Major plates of the earth and their direction of movement.
Figure 2.8 Earth’s tectonics and features associated with different plate bo...
Figure 2.9 A mature soil profile in a warm and moist climatic environment wi...
Figure 2.10 Three variations of soil phase (a) three‐phase, and (b, c) two‐p...
Figure 2.11 Atterberg limits.
Figure 2.12 Phase diagram for Problem 4.
Figure 2.13 USDA triangular diagram of soil texture.
Figure 2.14 Occurrence of groundwater.
Figure 2.15 Unconfined, confined, and artesian aquifers.
Figure 2.16 Hydraulic conductivity and hydraulic gradient.
Figure 2.17 Effective porosity of earth material.
Figure 2.18 Generalized dose–response curve.
Figure 2.19 The dose–response curves for two chemicals with different toxici...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Important US environmental laws and years enacted. ACA, Antarctic...
Figure 3.2 Map showing locations and remediation status of UMTRCA sites, as ...
Figure 3.3 Screenshot of USEPA Envirofacts website for access to TRI data....
Chapter 4
Figure B4.1 Shenzhen landslide, 20 December 2015: (a) Aerial view of the lan...
Figure B4.2 Smoke emanating from smoldering Ghazipur landfill, India.
Figure B4.3 MSW dumpslide of 1 September 2017, Ghazipur Landfill, India.
Figure 4.1 Waste pickers at the Dhapa Landfill, Kolkata, India: (a) Waste pi...
Figure 4.2 Smoke plume from the 27 January 2016 fire at the Deonar dumpsite,...
Figure 4.3 Variation in MSW composition among the high‐ and low‐income count...
Figure 4.4 Change in composition and quantity of MSW in the USA for the peri...
Figure 4.5 U.S. population, MSW generation, and recycling rate for the perio...
Figure 4.6 Steps in the successful waste management program.
Figure 4.7 Mechanized collection and emptying of a residential waste bin ont...
Figure 4.8 Automated waste‐sorting machine.
Figure 4.9 Management of MSW in 2018 (global average).
Figure 4.10 Management of MSW in the USA in 2018.Food waste was managed ...
Figure 4.11 View of an operating MSW landfill showing various stages of wast...
Figure 4.12 Phases of landfill gas formation.
Figure 4.13 Layout and details of landfill gas collection system.
Figure 4.14 (a, b, c): Various types of sorted wastes – food, metals, and pl...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.2A Location map of the Tri‐State Mineral District.
Figure 5.2B Trash dumping near a water‐filled subsidence feature over a coll...
Figure 5.2C Heavily contaminated Tar Creek, Oklahoma.
Figure 5.3A Water supply wells G and H, and other contaminated sites, Woburn...
Figure 5.1 pH range for corrosivity characteristic.
Figure 5.2 Hazardous waste generated by major industries in 2019.
Figure 5.3 Main features of a secure landfill: (a): cross‐sectional view; (b...
Figure 5.4 A room‐and‐pillar mine in limestone being used for storage, light...
Figure 5.5 Permeable reactive barriers (PRBs): (a) continuous PRB, (b) funne...
Figure 5.6 Aerial view of a constructed wetland for treatment of acidic wate...
Figure 5.4A Schematic of the ART System.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Medical waste container with biohazard label.
Figure 6.2 Floor plan of a hospital showing collection and segregation of va...
Figure 6.3 Vacuum autoclave: (a) schematic diagram and (b) a portable shredd...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Aerial view of the Hanford site by the Columbia River in Washingt...
Figure 7.2 Volume and radioactivity of three classes of nuclear waste.
Figure 7.3 Periodic Table of elements.
Figure 7.4 Fission of
235
U; for each
235
U atom, three to four neutrons are g...
Figure 7.5 Principle of electric power generation: (a) conventional power pl...
Figure 7.6 Share of nuclear energy in various countries, July 2018.
Figure 7.7 Nuclear power reactors under construction, September 2021.
Figure 7.8 US radiation doses.
Figure 7.9 Half‐life cycles of
14
C.
Figure 7.10 The uranium fuel cycle.
Figure 7.11 Fuel pellet, fuel rod, and fuel assembly.
Figure 7.12 Wet storage of spent nuclear fuel.
Figure 7.13 Simplified flow diagram of the PUREX process.
Figure 7.14 Various types of nuclear wastes comprising TRU, LLNW, mixed with...
Figure 7.15 IAEA classification of radioactive wastes.
Figure 7.16 Cask for TRU waste transportation.
Figure 7.17 Transuranic waste disposal at the WIPP site, New Mexico, USA. Lo...
Figure 7.18 Interim SNFs storage facilities in the USA.
Figure 7.19 Existing and future estimate of SNFs' accumulation in the U.S., ...
Figure 7.20 Yucca Mountain. (a) Location map; (b) showing the Yucca Mountain...
Figure 7.21 Finland deep geological repository: (a) Location map, and (b) mu...
Figure 7.22 Predicted radiation decline over time at the Finland deep geolog...
Figure 7.23 Sweden deep geological repository: (a) Location mapand (b) C...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Average composition of waste electrical and electronic equipment ...
Figure 8.2 Generalized composition of desktop computers.
Figure 8.3 Past and predicted increase in global e‐waste quantity.
Figure 8.4 Steps in informal e‐waste recycling.
Figure 8.5 (a, b) Informal e‐waste recycling in India, using crude methods t...
Figure 8.6 United Nations' 17 sustainable development goals.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Waste minimization hierarchy.
Figure 9.2 Waste minimization methods.
Figure 9.3 Comparison of various source reduction methods (Data from Ranson,...
Figure 9.4 Waste‐to‐Energy plant, Johnson County Wastewater Treatment facili...
Figure 9.5 Discarded materials repurposed for various uses: (a) Bowling alle...
Figure 9.6 ZWIA waste minimization hierarchy
Figure B9.1 EMR’s US ship recycling facility at Brownsville, Texas. Note the...
Figure 9.7 South Asia shipbreaking yards at Chittagong, Bangladesh; Alang, I...
Figure 9.8 A Boeing 747 converted into a hotel, Stockholm Arlanda Airport, S...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Pathways of veterinary pharmaceuticals in the environment.
Figure 10.2 Sources and pathways of PPCPs in the environment.
Figure 10.3 Growth of published PPCP articles during the past 15 years.
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Glossary
Index
Geologic Time Scale
Common Units and Conversion Factors
United Nations’ classification of countries based on income (as of July 2021)
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Introduction to Waste Management
A Textbook
Syed E. Hasan
University of Missouri‐Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, USA
This edition first published 2022© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Hasan, Syed E.‐ author.Title: Introduction to waste management : a textbook / Syed E. Hasan.Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2021062790 (print) | LCCN 2021062791 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119433934 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119433958 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119433972 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Refuse and refuse disposal–Textbooks.Classification: LCC TD791 .H375 2022 (print) | LCC TD791 (ebook) | DDC 363.72/8–dc23/eng/20220330LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021062790LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021062791
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Lightspring/Shutterstock
In loving memory of my parents who instilled in me the value of honesty, integrity, and hard work.
—Syed E. Hasan
Foreword
The seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) established by the United Nations Environmental Program in 2015, were bold, visionary, and aimed at achieving a sustainable future for humanity, underpinned by environmental preservation. To translate the 17 SDGs into measurable actions, 25 performance indicators were developed that aimed at eliminating hunger, reducing inequalities, and building sustainable communities across the globe. These indicators cover topics related to resource management and protection of biological, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems; circular economy, and environmentally sound management of chemicals and waste, with the latter being the key element in all. Given the increase in the magnitude and frequency of natural disasters exacerbated by climate change, it is imperative that these goals be incorporated into all sectors of human endeavors. For the academia, it means restructuring the traditional curriculum–utilizing appropriate materials spanning several disciplines–to develop a balanced program, with sustainability at its core, to prepare the future work force.
At the University of Missouri‐Kansas City (UMKC), we have taken a bold step to integrate key disciplines having a direct bearing on environmental issues. A single functional unit, named Natural & Built Environment, brings the faculty of architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, and earth and environmental sciences under one administrative and academic unit. These disciplines are closely tied to infrastructure, environment, and sustainability and have a direct influence on the workforce needed to implement the United Nations 17 SDGs. This combination provides unique, broad and deep, multidisciplinary educational, research, and civic (social) learning experiences; thereby creating a new type of sustainability‐engaged and focused workforce and researchers. Consolidation of these disciplines that have traditionally conducted individualized research and teaching in a variety of environmental topics, will enable us, as educators, mentors, and researchers, to maximize the synergy of creative minds, academicians and students, leading to the development of new ideas and advanced technologies, supported by solid science and engineering; thereby offering novel and cost‐effective solutions to environmental problems.
Introduction to Waste Management is authored by Dr. Syed E. Hasan, an acclaimed expert in the field of waste management. His comprehensive grasp of conventional and emerging waste issues has resulted not only in a masterful treatment of solid, hazardous, medical, nuclear, and electronic wastes, but also the rarely discussed airplane and ship wastes. The ship breaking industry, which is mainly concentrated in the developing south Asian countries, has been threatening the marine ecosystems and adversely impacting workers’ health for many years. The author has drawn attention to these issues in this book and emphasized the need for strict and forceful implementation of the international and national laws. In addition, the inclusion of COVID‐19 related medical waste is very timely as the lessons learned will serve in better management of medical waste due to the anticipated upsurge in occurrences of zoonosis, causing marked increase in both the severity and duration of future epidemics/pandemics. The aging human population in developed countries along with provision of better healthcare in developing countries, will result in complex medical therapies and larger quantities of medical waste that would require safe and efficient waste management technologies. The chapter on pharmaceuticals and personal care products addresses this critical issue.
The book is a solid contribution to waste management literature with the distinction of being the first textbook to include emerging types of wastes that have received little or no attention so far. Introduction to Waste Management will serve as a valuable initiation to students and practioners to the field of waste management.
Kevin Z. Truman, PhD; F.ASCE
Dean, School of Science & Engineering
University of Missouri‐Kansas City
1 July 2022
Preface
Waste is a universal issue that transcends the boundary of space and time. It concerns people all over the world in all countries, both poor and rich. Concern for proper waste management goes as far back as 500 BCE when the city of Athens, Greece, issued a decree prohibiting garbage dumping on the street and required its citizens to dispose of their waste at least one mile away from the city walls. In modern time, waste management has evolved from being a dirty business to an essential service in a civic society and is considered an indispensable component of a community’s infrastructure. Just as reliable water and electric supplies, functional schools, hospitals, roads, and communication systems are essential to a thriving and healthy community, so is a sound waste management system. Indeed, in recent decades, we have witnessed a change in waste management philosophy: waste management is now referred to as resource management, emphasizing the use and reuse of materials in the most productive and sustainable ways throughout their entire life cycle. The United Nations Human Settlements Program in 2010 reviewed municipal solid waste (MSW) management practices in 20 cities located in rich and poor countries across 6 continents and concluded: “Managing solid waste well and affordably is one of the key challenges of the 21st century, and one of the key responsibilities of a city government” (UN‐Habitat 2010, p. xix). It is imperative that our current way of production of goods and consumption of resources and energy undergoes a major transformation to achieve a sustainable future.
Waste will continue to remain an inevitable product of society that would challenge the ingenuity of future generations to manage it in a safe and sustainable manner. While smart technologies and devices are being increasingly incorporated in smart cities’ operations, it is yet to be fully integrated into the waste management industry. Radio frequency identification (RFID), load cell sensors, and advanced weighing technology can be used to improve efficiency of the waste management system. Machine learning, barcode reading device, imaging, and web‐based cloud computing, combined with Geographical Information System (GIS) technology can facilitate real‐time tracking of waste from its points of origin to final treatment and disposal. It is predicted that waste management in future would move toward using smart technologies along with the Internet of Things (IoT) for a more efficient, less labor‐intensive, and sustainable system.
The concept of zero waste (ZW) has been gaining attention globally because of its emphasis on elimination of the waste so that nothing (ZW) ends up in the landfill. The large‐scale urbanization, coupled with impacts of globalization, call for a bold vision to manage urban growth and development. Adoption of ZW principle in MSW management policies of local and regional governments is essential in view of the fact that cities of the world use 75% of world’s natural resource and generate over 70% of the waste. As our world continues to move toward greater urbanization, city growth must incorporate the three vital elements of sustainable development: environmental preservation, social equity, and economic growth. Waste management must be given high priority in formulating development policies to avoid the triple threat of pollution, wasted resources, and ailing ecosystem. Waste management sector faces problems that can be solved through collaboration with environmental, social, and behavioral scientists, and economists on one hand, and politicians, decision‐makers, policy enforcers on the other.
During the past few decades, several books on waste management have been published; some of which, including my award‐winning textbook Geology and Hazardous Waste Management (Prentice Hall, 1996), were used as a textbook for students enrolled in environmental sciences/studies and environmental engineering degree programs. These texts either covered a specific waste type, e.g. hazardous waste, or the three common types of wastes: MSW, hazardous waste, and medical waste. No existing book covers the entire universe of waste generated in modern societies. When I introduced the course Introduction to waste management for our environmental science/studies majors in the late 1990s, I realized the need of an introductory textbook dealing with all types of wastes, designed to meet the need of a diverse group of students with different levels of academic preparation. This book is written to fulfil that need. Recognizing that all students may not have taken courses in college mathematics, I have used mathematical treatment to a minimum, making it simple for students who had taken math courses in high school only.
Introduction to Waste Management is based on my 25 years of teaching waste management at the University of Missouri‐Kansas City, where I had designed and taught four courses in waste management from introductory to graduate levels. I have written this book with students as my primary audience and have included materials that I found helpful to students while teaching the course. So, this book has been classroom‐tested and represents a most up‐to‐date treatment of the subject. I believe the addition of a chapter on pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) along with thorough discussion of nuclear, electronic or e‐waste, airplane, and ship wastes will be very useful for all readers of this book. And, while COVID‐19 has impacted everyone in one way or the other, I can claim this book to be the first to discuss its impacts in the waste management field.
Unlike other books, Introduction to Waste Management offers a comprehensive coverage of all types of waste. In addition to the commonly discussed MSW, hazardous waste, and medical waste, this book includes detailed coverage of nuclear waste, waste containing PPCPs, and airplane and ship wastes. The last three have not been included in waste management textbooks, and nuclear waste has been dealt with in a cursory manner, if at all. With the current emphasis on sustainability, and increasing volume of discarded airplanes and ships, inclusion of these types of wastes is a timely necessity. Introduction to Waste Management is the first textbook to discuss these emerging waste types.
A Word to Students…
Introduction to Waste Management will enable you to grasp the relevance of waste management to modern society, gain in‐depth knowledge of problems facing the world caused by mismanagement of solid, hazardous, medical, electronic, and nuclear wastes. You will understand the importance of promising concepts of green remediation, circular economy, and ZW in waste minimization efforts; and will be able to perform waste audits. You will also comprehend the potential ecological and human health issues associated with consumption and use of PPCPs and other wastes.
As you will go through the book, you will notice the tremendous need for skilled professionals to work in the waste management field. I would add this additional note: regardless of what you chose as your major, jobs will be there for you because of two reasons: (i) waste management is one of the fastest expanding sectors in a nation’s economy – growing at an annualized rate of 6% worldwide, and (ii) waste management is an interdisciplinary field that needs people with background in business, finance, social and behavioral sciences, engineering and health sciences, and of course environmental sciences/studies. My advice to you is: instead of focusing on a “hot field” put your energy into excelling in whatever major you choose – a good career awaits people who excel in what they do.
To Instructors…
Most chapters have been designed to be covered in one week’s lectures, except Chapter 2 on essentials of geology, geotechnics, and toxicology. Condensing even the basics of these three disciplines in a limited space has been a daunting task. But based on my teaching experience and feedback from students, I feel that the coverage provided in Introduction to Waste Management is adequate and will not overwhelm the students. Instructors may choose to cover the material in Chapter 2 in two to three weeks.
Acknowledgments
A major undertaking, like writing a college textbook, relies heavily on support from many individuals and organizations. I take this opportunity to offer my sincere thanks to Dr. Ajim Ali, Aligarh, India, for sharing his photographs (Chapter 8). To Dr. Arsalan A. Othman, Iraq Geological Survey, I owe special thanks for his untiring help in preparation of illustrations for this book. Without his cooperation and support, the high‐quality illustrations would not have been possible. My long‐time college friend, Dr. Lokesh Chaturvedi, Deputy Director (retired), New Mexico Environmental Evaluation Group, Albuquerque, who passed away in July 2020, had reviewed the draft of Chapter 7 (nuclear waste) and offered valuable insights into transuranic waste disposal at the WIPP site in his home state of New Mexico. I pay tribute and offer my heartfelt gratitude to Lokesh for a life‐long friendship and professional association, extending over 55 years. I thank Robert Sanchez, Senior Analyst, Natural Resources and Environment, U.S. Government Accountability Office, Denver, Colorado, for providing material for Chapter 7. I am grateful to Dr. S. Shahid Hasan and Irfan Gilani for their assistance in arranging visits and accompanying me to the Ghazipur Landfill in Delhi, India. I thank Scott Martin, Burns and McDonnell, Kansas City, Missouri, for his help in landfill cost estimation and to Dr. David Drake, retired Section Chief, Superfund Division, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7, Lenexa, Kansas, for his help with materials for the Tri‐State Mining District. I owe special thanks to Scott Curtis, Teaching and Learning Librarian, Miller Nichols Library, University of Missouri‐Kansas City, for sharing his expertise in identifying and obtaining hundreds of journal articles and reports that I have consulted while writing this book. I thank Robert L. Berry, Vice President, International Shipbreaking Limited, Brownsville, Texas, for his insightful tips on ship recycling and permission to use the photograph of the ship recycling facility in Texas (Chapter 9). I offer thanks to the chair and staff, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Missouri‐Kansas City, for help and use of equipment and facilities during the course of preparation of this book. Finally, I would like to express my deep gratitude to Dr. Frank Weinreich, Publisher, Books and Reference Works, Wiley, whose personal interest in the design of the book cover and production has resulted in a magnificent publication. I will be amiss if I fail to record the support of the entire Wiley team, particularly Umar Saleem, Content Refinement Specialist, whose editorial support and prompt response to my questions made my job pleasant and less arduous.
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences
University of Missouri‐Kansas City
27 May 2022
Reference
UN‐Habitat (United Nations Human Settlement Program) (2010).
Solid Waste Management in the World’s Cities: Water and Sanitation in World’s Cities 2010
, 257 p. London: Earthscan.
1Introduction
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
Outline the universe of waste and associated issues.
Identify human and ecological health consequences of improper waste management.
Describe the significance of waste management in environmental sustainability and climate change mitigation.
Summarize future prospects of waste management.
1.1 The Beginning
Humans have been relatively new occupants of the life‐sustaining, 4.54‐billion‐year‐old planet Earth, where life in the form of halobacteria is thought to have first appeared about 3.8 billion years ago (Dodd et al. 2017). While the appearance, growth, abundance, and ultimate extinction of species have been part of the natural process, humans have significantly altered this process. We have developed capabilities to level a hill in a matter of hours and razing a mountain to the ground in weeks; our sophisticated technologies can decimate all life in a matter of seconds with powerful nuclear bombs; we can land humans on other planets and take them to the abyssal depths of oceans; we can fight wars without setting foot on battlegrounds, yet we have not been able to treat the Earth in the way it deserves. In fact, we have mistreated and abused it and have exploited its resources in the most careless manner, inflicting great harm to its ecosystem. It is an irony that the Earth, which has been the source of our sustenance, should be so ill‐treated and mismanaged: instead of being its caretaker, we assumed the role of an arrogant and selfish master.
Climate change has come to the tipping point and if humanity does not collectively rise to reduce CO2 levels to around 300 ppm, future generations will face a tough time to survive. No matter whether we look at the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, or lithosphere, human activities have degraded the quality and value of all of these natural life support systems through unwarranted pollution. It is time – perhaps the last and only time – that we, the most intelligent, resourceful, and capable species among the millions that have appeared on the Earth, heed nature’s warning and come together as world citizens to solve the problems facing us. Doing it on a national, political, or any other basis would not help us get out of this predicament.
Waste is far from a glamourous subject, but it can’t be avoided. Depending on lifestyle and consumption patterns, each of us can generate tons of waste over our lifetimes, from longstanding sources such as table scraps, old newspapers, and bottles and cans to the ever‐growing stream of consumer electronics that nowadays approach obsolescence mere months after purchase. The total really skyrockets if you include the farm, mine, and industrial wastes generated to produce food, power, and products in the first place.
—Nick Wigginton et al. (2012, p. 663).
1.1.1 Historical Perspectives
It was not too long ago, about two generations back, that people could throw their waste on the ground and it would biodegrade and become harmless. Not so anymore because of the huge quantity of plastics and harmful chemicals that have become ubiquitous in modern life. Open dumping of waste is still common among one‐half of the world’s population of over seven billion, causing the plastics to clog drainage ways leading to flooding (Chapter 4) and killing animals upon ingestion. Chemicals seep out of the dumps, polluting streams and rivers, threatening aquatic lives, and contaminating groundwater, causing diseases and deaths (Chapter 5).
Looking from a historical perspective, we find that concern and need for environmentally safe management of waste has been an evolving challenge for human societies. Starting soon after the 1950s, safe management of municipal solid waste (MSW) in the United States and some other developed countries held the attention of scientists, policymakers, and other stakeholders for over 20 years until the sanitary landfill as a safe method of garbage disposal was developed. Soon afterwards, beginning in the 1970s, we were confronted with hazardous wastes and its horrible impacts on human and ecological health (Case Study 5.1). Next, an increasing quantity of nuclear or radioactive waste and its safe management kept us engaged during the 1960s–1980s. Then, the fast‐growing quantities of electronic or e‐waste, and the resulting impairment of environmental quality caused by its informal recycling in China, India, and other developing countries brought to fore the need for implementing regulations for its safe management. Recently, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are being studied for their impacts on human health and the environment to determine ways for the safe management of waste containing these substances.
In 2015, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) identified the global waste problem as one of the major environmental issues of the twenty‐first century, describing it as: “Waste is a global issue. If not properly dealt with, waste poses a threat to public health and the environment. It is a growing issue linked directly to the way society produces and consumes. It concerns everyone” (UNEP 2015). The waste problem will become more challenging due to the increasing global population and urbanization with the resulting increase in MSW and e‐waste quantities, along with a substantial increase in medical waste (MW) caused by aging populations in developed countries and their greater dependence on medication and other health care products. In addition, a significant increase in MW quantities caused by an outbreak of epidemics and pandemics that are likely to become more frequent due to climate change and loss of forest ecosystem under the pressure of urbanization and agriculture will demand rapid and safe management of MW. The positive aspect is that we can control major impacts by safely managing our waste and taking suitable measures to mitigate climate change threats, thereby achieving a balance between our needs and environmental preservation to change our role as caretakers instead of masters of the Earth.
All evidence point to the troubling reality that climate change and human alteration of natural habitats would exacerbate zoonosis, and outbreaks of the COVID‐19‐like pandemics will become more frequent and intense. Advance planning and adequate preparation to deal with such situations should be given top priority by policymakers the world over. Adequate workforce of personnel in the health care and waste management sectors must be trained and stand on call to deal with such disastrous events.
COVID‐19 has reaffirmed Dr. Martin Luther King’s prophetic words that he had spoken at the Memphis Sanitation Workers’ Strike on 19 March 1968, barely three weeks before he was assassinated as he was getting to address the crowd that had gathered outside his hotel in Memphis: “One day our society will come to respect the sanitation worker if it is to survive, for the person who picks up our garbage is … just as significant as a physician. For if he does not do this, disease is rampant.”
Waste management is one of the essential utility services underpinning societies in the twenty‐first century, particularly in urban areas. Waste management is a basic human need, which can also be regarded as a basic human right. Ensuring proper sanitation and environmentally safe waste management is no less important than the provision of safe drinking water, shelter, food, energy, transportation, and communications to citizens. Despite this, the public and political profiles of waste management are often lower than other utility services.
Modern societies generate a variety of wastes that must be managed in an environmentally sustainable way – a need that was grossly neglected in the past. Developed countries started to remedy the problem in the latter part of the twentieth century and have, to a great extent, been managing most, but not all, types of wastes, in a sound manner. The situation in developing and undeveloped countries, on the other hand, is very different. Waste mismanagement is still prevalent and continues to add high levels of polluting chemicals to the environment, threatening human and ecological health.
Improper waste management has resulted in the release of harmful pollutants that have impacted the Earth’s environment and disturbed its ecological balance. Two notables among these impacts are: (i) global warming and ensuing climate change, and (ii) serious and often irreversible impacts on human and ecological health. It is surmised that lack of safe management of wastes is the primary cause of all environmental problems and its solution lies in eliminating the release of harmful chemicals embedded in the waste into the air, water, and land.
Polluting chemicals, generated primarily from industrial sources, are one of the most serious environmental problems that we are facing in the twenty‐first century. While the harmful effects of dumping waste materials containing hazardous chemicals on land and water are easy to comprehend, similar impacts on the air may not be very obvious. In fact, one of the long‐lasting approaches in managing societal waste was “out of sight, out of mind.” As normally expected, the more visible land and water pollution became the focus of remediation efforts but the less visible air pollution remained unnoticed, allowing large amounts of toxic gases, particulate matters (PMs), and other pollutants to accumulate in the atmosphere. The slow but steady buildup of greenhouse gases (GHGs) finally tipped the balance, resulting in global warming.
Despite the fact that we produce enough food to feed the entire human population, globally 811 million people remain hungry every day. While poverty, conflicts, access to food supply, climate variability, and economic slowdown are some of the main causes, the staggering quantities of wasted food (about 1.3 billion t annually) are sobering. In developed countries, 931 million t of food worth $600 billion was wasted in 2019. For the past few decades, the UN and other organizations have taken several measures to alleviate hunger and food scarcity, including minimizing food waste, but the gains achieved in the past few years have been offset due to extreme climate events and the 2020–2021 COVID‐19 pandemic. Food waste reduction offers multifaceted solutions for people and the planet by improving food security, addressing climate change, saving money, and reducing pressures on land, water, biodiversity, and waste management systems. Yet this potential has not been utilized until now.
Food waste, as a class of waste, was overlooked until recently because the true scale of food waste and its impacts have not been well understood. Global estimates of food waste have relied on the extrapolation of data from a relatively small number of countries. Few governments have robust data on food waste to make the case to act and prioritize their efforts. The 2021 publication titled Food Waste Index Report, commissioned by the UNEP presents the most comprehensive food waste data to date, generating a reliable estimate of global food waste. The report provides country‐level food waste estimates that offer new insight into the scale of the problem and prevention strategies for low‐, middle‐ and high‐income countries (UNEP 2021). In addition, the UN Sustainable Development Goal, SDG 12, has set an ambitious target to “halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post‐harvest losses” by 2030 (UN 2021).
The presence of PPCPs in rivers, streams, lakes, and also in groundwater in several countries led to detailed investigations in the United States, Europe, China, and other countries during the past 30 years. Use of expired and discarded prescription medicines, and over‐the‐counter drugs, veterinary medicines, along with the myriad of personal care products, and their non‐entrapment through the wastewater (sewer) treatment plants, cause the medicinal products and their metabolites to enter the aquatic environment producing adverse health impacts on fish, amphibians, and other species. Effects on humans are not yet known.
1.2 Importance of Waste Management in Sustainability, Ecological Health, and Climate Change
Waste is a natural product of human existence – just as we cannot survive without air, water, and food, we cannot live without generating any waste. Ever since humans occupied the Earth when they were hunters and gatherers, they were producing waste from unused food (bones, eggshells, wild fruit peels, rinds, seeds, inedible plant stalks, wood, and ash, along with the excreta) that were thrown all around. As their life changed from “on the move” or mobile phase to settlements in villages, and following the discovery of agriculture, some 8000 years before the current era (BCE), waste began to be confined in the limited space of settlements, rather than dispersed over wide areas. Still, the nature and quantity of waste did not pose any problem because of: (i) small human population, and (ii) complete biodegradability of the waste. However, as human civilization advanced and we mastered the use of iron, copper, and other metals to initially fashion tools and equipment and later to make complex machineries and weapons, the quantity of waste soared, becoming increasingly hazardous. As illustrated in Figure 1.1, the advancement of human civilization can be characterized by three major revolutions or landmarks in our history: (i) the agricultural revolution, about 8000 years ago; (ii) the mechanical revolution, commonly known as the industrial revolution (IR), around 1760; and (iii) the digital revolution of 1970 (Hasan 2017). The human population also kept on increasing, acquiring an exponential growth pattern about two generations after the IR, touching the 1‐billion mark in 1804, and climbing steeply to 1.65 billion in 1900, 2.57 billion in 1950, and reaching 7.9 billion in 2021 (Figure 1.1).
The second half of the twentieth century has been a remarkable period in human history marked by improved quality of life, space exploration, and instant communication that have made life easier. On the negative side, we have used many of our discoveries and inventions for harmful purposes – nuclear energy for making powerful bombs that can annihilate hundreds of thousands of people instantly; hazardous and deadly chemicals in toxic wastes that cause serious illness and fatal diseases to people and destroy the ecosystems. The main difference between the pre‐ and postindustrial societies is the generation and mismanagement of large quantities of hazardous and toxic wastes that effectively overwhelmed the self‐cleansing ability of the natural systems that regulate and maintain the balance of the Earth’s ecosystem. Sadly enough, this state of affairs has been the result of our deliberate choice of prioritizing economic gains over environmental protection.
Figure 1.1 Major revolutions and human population.
Yet one other factor that has created the grave problem of uncontrolled waste generation is related to manufacturers embracing the planned obsolescence (PO) approach in product design and industrial engineering. In a simple way, PO is a production strategy that relies on designing consumer goods in such a way that it will stop working after a predetermined period of time, or work less efficiently than before, or become outdated, requiring the user to replace it much sooner than if the product were designed to last through its normal life span. Manufacturers of personal electronic devices have the distinction of being the leaders in thoroughly integrating PO philosophy in their product design and marketing. Think of your smartphone and laptop and how aggressively you are pushed by the manufacturers to upgrade these devices just a year or two after purchase. You will find a detailed discussion of PO in Chapter 8, but for now, it would suffice to state that manufacturers must divest from the century‐old practice of manufacturing products based on linear economy, and adopt the circular economy by redesigning their products for repair, reuse, and assuring a steady supply of replacement parts. You, as the future stewards of humanity’s home, have the responsibility to force this change. You must use all available tools at your disposal: telling Apple, GM, Samsung, Toyota, and other manufacturers whose products you use every day to adopt circular economy; become an activist to educate people about the harm the liner economy has inflicted for generations; and demand your elected representatives to enact legislations to ban short‐lived, disposable products. The Right to Repair legislation is under consideration in 25 states, and if your state is not among these, contact your elected representatives to promote it.
1.2.1 Waste Management and Environmental Sustainability
The word sustainable was first used during the 1610s to mean bearable. In 1845, it was adapted for legal use to mean defensible; after 1965, it was used to connote processes or patterns that could be continued at a certain level. For example, sustainable agricultural growth was used to assure an adequate supply of food. Sustainability is believed to have been used in the general sense of its current meaning in 1972. Later, in response to increasing concerns about ozone depletion, global warming, and other environmental problems, the UN Secretary‐General in 1983, invited Dr. Brundtland, then prime minister of Norway, to establish and chair the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). In the same year, the UN General Assembly convened a meeting of international experts to develop proposals for long‐term global sustainable development in concert with environmental preservation. The commission’s report published in 1987, titled Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future, authored by Gro Harlem Brundtland (1987), widely known as The Brundtland Report, defined sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Hasan and Johnston (2016) elaborated on this definition by defining environmental sustainability to include “…development plans that consider economic, environmental, and social factors to ensure that it would not take away the right of future generations to these resources.”
The Brundtland Report laid the foundation for the Rio Summit that resulted in the creation of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development in 1992. In 2015, the UN set up 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that have been adopted by a majority of world countries. Waste management can contribute both directly and indirectly to achieving all 17 of the SDGs (UN 2021). Table 1.1 lists the various SDGs and how the waste management sector can contribute to achieving them.
Table 1.1 Waste management share in achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
SDG
Waste management sector contribution in goals’ attainment
Remarks
SDG 1 Poverty alleviation
Waste management (WM) is a growing industry. The global WM market was valued at $2080 billion in 2020 and is poised to grow to $2389.9 billion by 2027. The 5% annualized growth rate holds great potential for both skilled and non‐skilled jobs.
Indirect
SDG 2 Zero hunger
Developed countries waste millions of tons of edible food. Preventing this loss will feed nearly 900 million people who go hungry each day.
Indirect
SDG 3 Good health
Proper waste management will reduce the release of toxic substances into the air, water, and soil, preventing diseases and illness and assuring well‐being of a large number of individuals.
Direct
SDG 4 Quality education
The projected growth of the waste management industry will need thousands of skilled and unskilled workers. It will require preparing the future workforce by imparting them education and training at all levels of education from vocational to college and professional degrees in accounting, IT, engineering, geosciences, economics, social sciences, math and statistical sciences, etc.
Direct
SDG 5 Gender equality
A large number of persons engaged in the waste management field include both men and women. The trend will continue with a larger number of women working in recycling and waste transportation areas.
Indirect
SDG 6 Clean water and sanitation
Proper waste management will prevent polluting substances from entering air, water, and soil, thus eliminating most of the major sources causing degradation of the Earth’s environmental quality.
Direct
SDG 7 Affordable and clean energy
Increasing global trend on using MSW and other wastes for energy generation will reduce dependence on fossil fuels and will cut down GHG emissions, notably CH
4
, by capturing and utilizing it to produce clean energy. Inedible remains of food waste can be converted into biogas and clean renewable energy.
Direct
SDG 8 Decent work and economic growth
Globally, 1% of the urban population in developing countries earns its livelihood from recovering recyclable materials from waste dumps. The waste management industry is one of the fastest growing in the world. In 2019, it employed over 270 000 people working for 11 000 companies and generating about $82.1 billion in revenue. The industry is poised to grow at an annual rate of 5.5%, with its global market share jumping from $2441.7 in 2017 to $2747.7 by 2027. A large number of millennials with degrees in science, engineering, technology, humanities, and business will be needed that will serve as a powerful catalyst for economic growth.
Direct
SDG 9 Industrial innovation and infrastructure
Waste management industry has been a leader in promoting recycling and waste‐to‐energy (WtE) conversion, driving industrial innovation in automated waste‐sorting machines, waste‐collection equipment, and efficient WtE plant design, using geographical information system (GIS), radio frequency identification device (RFID), sensors, and weighing and artificial intelligence (AI) technologies.
Direct
SDG 10 Reduction of inequity
The large number of semiskilled and unskilled workforce needed for the growing WM industry, along with fair wages and basic employment rights for all waste workers will go a long way in reducing inequities.
Indirect
SDG 11 Sustainable cities and communities
