Ionic Interactions in Natural and Synthetic Macromolecules E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1552

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

This book is a comprehensive study of the subject of ionic interactions in macromolecules. The first parts of the book review and analyze the conventional treatments of fixed charges (e.g. in polyelectrolytes and polyampholytes), including screening and condensation by mobile ions. The interaction of ions with less polar sites on the macromolecule (e.g. amide bonds), and the origin of the lyotropic effects (focusing on binding versus condensation) will also be extensively addressed. The book also explores complex micellar organizations involving charged macromolecules (e.g. DNA) and low-molecular-weight ampholytes and strong protein associations. The resulting structures are relevant to a variety of functional biological systems and synthetic analogs. The contribution of electrostatic and hydrophobic interaction to the stability of proteins and other supramolecular structures will also be analyzed. There are chapters on applications such as deionization and cosmetic formulation. This 21-chapter book is divided into three sections: * Fundamentals * Mixed Interactions * Functions and Applications

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

PREFACE

CONTRIBUTORS

PART I: FUNDAMENTALS

CHAPTER 1 ION PROPERTIES

1.1 IONS AS CHARGED PARTICLES

1.2 SIZES OF IONS

1.3 THERMODYNAMICS OF AQUEOUS IONS

1.4 ION TRANSPORT

1.5 ION–SOLVENT INTERACTIONS

1.6 ION–ION INTERACTIONS

CHAPTER 2 IONIC INTERACTIONS IN SUPRAMOLECULAR COMPLEXES

2.1 INTRODUCTION/APPLICATIONS

2.2 SYSTEMS DOMINATED ENTIRELY BY ION PAIRING: IONOPHORES AND SO ON

2.3 ENTHALPIC VERSUS ENTROPIC CONTRIBUTIONS/HYDROGEN BOND CONTRIBUTIONS

2.4 QUANTIFICATION OF SALT BRIDGE CONTRIBUTIONS/ADDITIVITY OF BINDING INCREMENTS

2.5 SALT EFFECTS/INFLUENCE OF CONFORMATIONAL FLEXIBILITY

2.6 SYSTEMS WITH ADDITIONAL INTERACTIONS/ARTIFICIAL RECEPTORS FOR NUCLEOTIDES AND NUCLEOSIDES

2.7 SELECTIVITY IN COMPLEXES WITH ION PAIR CONTRIBUTION

2.8 CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 3 POLYELECTROLYTE FUNDAMENTALS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 PB EQUATION AND THE DH APPROXIMATION

3.3 EXTENDED CONDENSATION THEORY

3.4 ATTRACTION AND CLUSTERS OF LIKE-CHARGED STRONG POLYELECTROLYTES IN THE CONDENSATION APPROACH: MONOVALENT COUNTERIONS AND EFFECT OF CONDENSATION VOLUME

3.5 ATTRACTION OF LIKE-CHARGED POLYELECTROLYTES FOR MULTIVALENT COUNTERIONS: COUNTERION CORRELATION APPROACH

3.6 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN POLYELECTROLYTES AND OPPOSITELY CHARGED MACROIONS

CHAPTER 4 POLYELECTROLYTE AND POLYAMPHOLYTE EFFECTS IN SYNTHETIC AND BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 PERSISTENCE LENGTH OF PES

4.3 PAs

4.4 PAS WITH EXCESS CHARGES

4.5 ELASTIC RESPONSE OF FLEXIBLE PES

4.6 SIMULATIONS OF COLLAPSE OF AN ISOLATED PE CHAIN

4.7 THEORY OF COLLAPSE DYNAMICS

4.8 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

CHAPTER 5 MODELING THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF POLYELECTROLYTE MULTILAYERS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.2 STATE OF THE ART IN THE STUDY OF PEMS

5.3 THEORETICAL AND ANALYTICAL APPROACHES TO THE MODELING OF PEMS

5.4 MODELING PEMS VIA NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS

5.5 TOWARD A BETTER PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF PEMS USING NUMERICAL MODELS

5.6 CHALLENGING TOPICS IN THE NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF PEMS

5.7 SUMMARY

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

PART II: MIXED INTERACTIONS

CHAPTER 6 IONIC MIXED INTERACTIONS AND HOFMEISTER EFFECTS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.2 POLYELECTROLYTES

6.3 ION PAIRING

6.4 ASSOCIATIONS MEDIATED BY MULTIVALENT MOBILE IONS

6.5 HYDROPHOBIC POLYELECTROLYTES

6.6 POLYMERIC IONIC LIQUIDS, POLYMERS-IN-SALT SYSTEMS

6.7 HOFMEISTER EFFECTS

6.8 MAIN CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

CHAPTER 7 HYDROPHOBIC POLYELECTROLYTES

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 HYDROPHOBIC AND HYDROPHOBICALLY MODIFIED POLYELECTROLYTES (HPE, HMPE)

7.3 SELF-ASSEMBLY OF HYDROPHOBIC POLYELECTROLYTES

7.4 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MICELLE-LIKE AGGREGATES

7.5 SOLUBILIZATION OF NONPOLAR MOLECULES INTO PSEUDO-MICELLES

CHAPTER 8 ASSOCIATION OF POLYELECTROLYTES TO SURFACTANTS AND SUPRAMOLECULAR ASSEMBLIES: COMPETITIVE ROLE OF CHAIN RIGIDITY AND ASSEMBLY STABILITY

8.1 INTRODUCTION

8.2 CHAIN FLEXIBILITY, SURFACTANTS, AND PROTEIN ASSEMBLIES

8.3 FLEXIBLE POLYELECTROLYTES AND SURFACTANTS

8.4 RIGID POLYELECTROLYTES AND SURFACTANTS

8.5 RIGID POLYLECTROLYTES AND PROTEIN ASSEMBLIES

8.6 WORM-LIKE CHAINS, SURFACTANTS, AND PROTEIN ASSEMBLIES

8.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

CHAPTER 9 ION TRANSFER IN AND THROUGH CHARGED MEMBRANES: STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES, AND THEORY

9.1 INTRODUCTION

9.2 STRUCTURE OF CHARGED MEMBRANES

9.3 ION AND WATER TRANSFER IN IEMS

9.4 CONCENTRATION POLARIZATION IN ED

9.5 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ELECTROCHEMICAL BEHAVIOR OF ION EXCHANGE MEMBRANES AND THEIR BULK AND SURFACE STRUCTURE: MEMBRANE MODIFICATION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

CHAPTER 10 REVERSIBLE COORDINATION POLYMERS

10.1 INTRODUCTION

10.2 ANATOMY OF A REVERSIBLE COORDINATION POLYMER

10.3 METAL–LIGAND BOND STRENGTH

10.4 LIGAND EXCHANGE KINETICS

10.5 CHAIN STOPPERS

10.6 RING–CHAIN EQUILIBRIUM

10.7 NETWORKS

10.8 SOLVENT INFLUENCE

10.9 CHARACTERIZATION OF REVERSIBLE COORDINATION POLYMERS

10.10 APPLICATIONS AND POTENTIALS

10.11 CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 11 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF METAL BINDING SITES IN NATURAL AND DESIGNED METALLOPROTEINS

11.1 INTRODUCTION

11.2 CHEMISTRY OF COORDINATION COMPOUNDS: AN OVERVIEW

11.3 METAL COFACTORS AND METALLOPROTEIN FUNCTIONS

11.4 COORDINATION SITE SPECIFICITY AND METALLOPROTEIN FUNCTIONS: A LESSON FROM IRON

11.5 METALLOPROTEIN DESIGN AND ENGINEERING

11.6 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

CHAPTER 12 CHARGE-INDUCED EFFECTS ON ACID–BASE TITRATION AND CONFORMATIONAL STABILITY OF PROTEINS AND POLYPEPTIDES

12.1 INTRODUCTION

12.2 STUDIES OF PROTEINS

12.3 THE CONTINUUM DIELECTRIC MODEL

12.4 POLYPEPTIDE HELICES

APPENDIX 1 IONIZABLE GROUPS IN PROTEINS

APPENDIX 2 COUPLING OF BINDING AND CHEMICAL POTENTIAL

APPENDIX 3 THEORY OF THE HELIX–COIL EQUILIBRIUM IN HOMOPOLYPEPTIDES

PART III: FUNCTIONS AND APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 13 IRON TRANSPORT IN LIVING CELLS

13.1 OVERVIEW

13.2 BACKGROUND

13.3 A COMPLEX SUITE OF IONIC AND MIXED INTERACTIONS DRIVES IRON TRANSPORT

13.4 PROTEIN–PROTEIN INTERACTIONS

13.5 PROTEIN/IRON–SMALL MOLECULE INTERACTIONS

13.6 PROTEIN–ANION INTERACTIONS

13.7 CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

GLOSSARY

CHAPTER 14 DNA–LIPID AMPHIPHILES FOR DRUG AND GENE THERAPY

14.1 INTRODUCTION

14.2 VIRAL AND NONVIRAL GENE CARRIERS

14.3 CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF CATIONIC AMPHIPHILES

14.4 COMPLEXATION

14.5 CHARACTERIZATION OF CATIONIC LIPID CARRIER

14.6 EXTRACELLULAR BARRIERS

14.7 INTRACELLULAR BARRIER: CELL ADHESION, INTERNALIZATION, AND INTRACELLULAR TRAFFICKING

14.8 CYTOTOXICITY OF LIPOSOMES

14.9 DETERMINATION OF TRANSFECTION EFFICIENCY

ABBREVIATIONS

CHAPTER 15 POLYELECTROLYTE INTELLIGENT GELS: DESIGN AND APPLICATIONS

15.1 INTRODUCTION AND TECHNICAL OVERVIEW

15.2 MODELS OF SWELLING EQUILIBRIUM AND KINETICS

15.3 PHYSICALLY RESPONSIVE GELS

15.4 CHEMICALLY RESPONSIVE GELS

15.5 BIORESPONSIVE GELS

15.6 BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS

APPENDIX 1 NETWORK READJUSTMENT KINETICS

APPENDIX 2 ELECTRODIFFUSION–REACTION KINETICS

APPENDIX 3 A NONEQUILIBRIUM THERMODYNAMICS VIEW OF ELECTROMECHANICAL PHENOMENA

CHAPTER 16 IONIC POLYMER–METAL COMPOSITES FOR SENSORS AND ARTIFICIAL MUSCLES: MECHANOELECTRIC PERSPECTIVES

16.1 INTRODUCTION

16.2 MANUFACTURING

16.3 IPMC MECHANOELECTRIC MODEL

16.4 ENERGY HARVESTING APPLICATIONS

16.5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 17 FUNCTIONAL LAYER-BY-LAYER POLYELECTROLYTES: ASSEMBLY STRATEGIES, CHARACTERIZATION, AND SELECTED APPLICATIONS

17.1 INTRODUCTION

17.2 USEFUL SUBSTRATES

17.3 INTERACTIONS IN MULTILAYERED LBL FILMS

17.4 SPR SPECTROSCOPY

17.5 POLYMER BRUSHES AND SIP TECHNIQUES

17.6 CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 18 POLYELECTROLYTES AT INTERFACES: APPLICATIONS AND TRANSPORT PROPERTIES OF POLYELECTROLYTE MULTILAYERS IN MEMBRANES

18.1 INTRODUCTION

18.2 PE MULTILAYER BUILD-UP AND MORPHOLOGY

18.3 PEM-BASED MEMBRANES

18.4 CONCLUSION

ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

CHAPTER 19 SELF-ASSEMBLY OF POLYELECTROLYTES FOR PHOTONIC CRYSTAL APPLICATIONS

19.1 PHOTONIC CRYSTAL PROPERTIES

19.2 PHC PREPARATION AND APPLICATIONS

19.3 CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 20 APPLICATIONS OF CHARGED MEMBRANES IN SEPARATION, FUEL CELLS, AND EMERGING PROCESSES

20.1 INTRODUCTION

20.2 DESALINATION AND DEIONIZATION

20.3 ED CONCENTRATION

20.4 BMED

20.5 FRACTIONATION AND SEPARATION PROCESSES WITH CHARGED MEMBRANES

20.6 MEMBRANE-BASED HYBRID ZLD TECHNOLOGIES

20.7 MEMBRANE-BASED ENERGY CONVERSION TECHNIQUES

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

LIST OF SYMBOLS

CHAPTER 21 POLYMER GEL ELECTROLYTES: CONDUCTION MECHANISM AND BATTERY APPLICATIONS

21.1 INTRODUCTION

21.2 PGES

21.3 ROUTES TO A MOLECULAR UNDERSTANDING OF IONIC CONDUCTIVITY: NMR MEASUREMENTS

21.4 COMMERCIAL ISSUES FOR PGES

21.5 SUMMARY

SYMBOLS

Index

Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Ionic interactions in natural and synthetic macromolecules / edited by Alberto Ciferri, Angelo Perico.

p. cm.

 Includes bibliographical references.

 ISBN 978-0-470-52927-0

 ISBN 978-1-118-16584-3 (epub)

 ISBN 978-1-118-16586-7 (epdf)

 ISBN 978-1-118-16587-4 (mobi)

 1. Macromolecules. 2. Ion-ion collisions. 3. Supramolecular chemistry.

I. Ciferri, A. II. Perico, Angelo.

 QD381.I64 2012

 547'.7045723–dc23

2011041448

PREFACE

Two editions of Supramolecular Polymers (Dekker 2000 and CRC Press 2005) have dealt with the self-assembly of structures in the nano- and up-dimensional range in terms of molecular (chemical and shape) recognition and growth mechanisms. This third book is devoted to a more detailed description of how the components of chemical recognition are modulated to pro­duce the variety of properties that characterize the supramolecular organization of functional systems and adaptive polymers. Fundamental approaches are highlighted, along with descriptions of a selected number of sophisticated applications.

Ionic interactions definitively play a primary role in the self-assembly of functional biological and synthetic systems. Theoretical features of purely ionic interactions have been extensively described in the past, and structural features of several real systems in which ionic interactions play a prevailing role have been experimentally characterized. However, in the majority of real cases, ionic interactions are modulated (reinforced or antagonized) by the occurrence of other, charge-independent interactions that produce important alterations of the structure and properties of the systems.

The first section of the book includes chapters focused on fundamental aspects of purely ionic interactions. The properties of simple salts described by Marcus are essential for the analysis of specific details of their interaction with organic substrates. Polyelectrolyte theories are presented by Perico, who places particular emphasis on the role of ion condensation and like-charge attraction on the stabilization of biological assemblies. Systems with opposite fixed charges include host–guest complexes, described by Schneider, which will facilitate quantitative comparisons with the polymeric ion pair systems such as polyampholytes, described next by Thirumalai and coworkers, and layered polyelectrolytes, described by Holm and coworkers.

The second section of the book includes chapters focused on fundamental aspects of mixed interactions. Ciferri discusses correlations of mixed systems and the role of mixed interactions in the Hofmeister effects. Polyelectrolytes with a significant number of hydrophobic groups, described by Olea, and polyelectrolyte–surfactant/protein assemblies, described by Ciferri and Perico, offer vivid evidence for the variety of supramolecular structures that are promoted by the microsegregation of apolar segments or associated proteins. Also in the second section, Nikonenko and coworkers describe the structure and properties of charged membranes resulting from the microsegregation of hydrophilic channels within a hydrophobic matrix. Metal–ion coordination for reversible polymers is discussed by Marcelis and coworkers, whereas a broader range of the ligand interaction is described by Lombardi and coworkers in terms of protein thermodynamics, and the chapter by Hermans highlights the role of charges on the conformation of helical polypeptides and proteins

The third section of the book focuses on functions and applications of various systems, and is opened by the chapter by Crumbliss and Parker Siburt on ion transport across living cells. The biological transport mechanisms are brilliant examples of the way nature has engineered a complex sequence of ionic mixed interactions for a specific function. The chapter by Chan and Wang describes DNA–lipid assemblies that generate pseudoliposomic structures used for targeted gene and drug delivery. The chapters by Chiarelli and De Rossi and by Tiwari and Kim feature stimulus-responsive intelligent gels, with emphasis on biomedical applications and muscle-like actuators. The electromechanochemical functioning of the gels entails consideration of readjustment kinetics of forces and related fluxes, which are handled by continuum mechanics approaches.

The next three chapters deal with functional layered assemblies: Knoll and coworkers describe a variety of driving interactions exploited for the formation of nanostructured films; Seantier and Deratani emphasize the sequential polycation–polyanion approach and the formation of multilayered membranes; and Cavallo and Comoretto discuss the application as photonic crystals of ordered periodic structures formed by materials having alternating refractive indices. Next, the chapter by Pourcelly and coworkers describes complex separation processes (particularly water treatments) using charged membranes, and also the membrane-based energy conversion in fuel cells technology. Efficient energy sources, such as lithium batteries, are characterized by cationic conductivity even in the absence of water. Polymer gel electrolytes, described in the final chapter by Ward and Hubbard, are intermediate between typical liquid and solid polymeric electrolytes, and allow a molecular understanding of ionic conductivity.

The goal of this book is to provide a coordinated and comprehensive representation of ionic mixed interactions, and actual or potential applications. Proper design of the molecular structure of self-assembling building blocks requires the strategic inclusion of groups that will modulate their contributions so that tailored properties and even complex functions may be produced. The unified presentation of the systems described here, characterized by different blends of ionic and ionic mixed interactions, allows the identification of general mechanisms and a correlation between, at first sight, unrelated phenomena.

The result was made possible by the dedication and patience of the contributors. Extensive discussions followed the preliminary draft, and attempts were made to reach a consensus over controversial issues. The Editors express their appreciation to all colleagues who have cooperated in the preparation of the book, to the Chemistry Department at Duke University, and to the Institute for Macromolecular Studies (ISMAC) of the National Research Council.

The editors wish to honor the memory of their late colleague Eligio Patrone for his lifelong commitment to cultural and scientific values.

ALBERTO CIFERRI

ANGELO PERICO

CONTRIBUTORS

RIGOBERTO ADVINCULA

Department of Chemistry

University of Houston

Houston, TX 77204-50031

DARIO CAVALLO

Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry

University of Genoa

Via Dodecaneso 31,

16146 Genova

Italy

JUAN J. CERDÀ

Instituto de Fisica Interdisciplinar y Sistemas Complejos

IFISC (CSIC-UIB)

Universitat de les Illes Balears

E-07122 Palma de Mallorca

Spain

PEGGY P.Y. CHAN

Department of Chemical Engineering

Monash University

Clayton, Vic. 3800

Australia

PIERO CHIARELLI

Institute of Clinical Physiology CNR

Via Moruzzi 1

56124 Ghezzano (Pi)

Italy

ALBERTO CIFERRI

Department of Chemistry

Duke University

Durham, NC 27078

DAVIDE COMORETTO

Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry

University of Genoa

Via Dodecaneso 31

16146 Genova

Italy

ALVIN L. CRUMBLISS

Department of Chemistry

Duke University

Durham, NC 27078

DANILO DE ROSSI

Faculty of Engineering

University of Pisa

56100 Pisa

Italy

ANDRÉ DERATANI

Institut Européen des Membranes

Université Montpellier II

CC 047 Place Eugène Bataillon

34095 Montpellier cédex 5

France

NICEL ESTILLORE

Department of Chemistry

University of Houston

Houston, TX 77204-50031

BAE-YEUN HA

Department of Physics and Astronomy

University of Waterloo

Waterloo, ON

Canada N2L 3G1

JAN HERMANS

Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics

University of North Carolina

Chapel Hill, NC 27514

CHRISTIAN HOLM

Institute for Computational Physics

Universitat Stuttgart

70569 Stuttgart

Germany

HUGH V. ST. A. HUBBARD

School of Physics and Astronomy

University of Leeds

Leeds LS2 9J

UK

KWANG J. KIM

Active Materials and Processing Laboratory

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Nevada

Reno, NV 89557

WOLFGANG KNOLL

AIT Austrian Institute of Technology

Donau City, Vienna

Austria

KIM DE LANGE

Laboratory of Organic Chemistry

Wageningen University

Dreijnplein 8

6703 HB Wageningen

The Netherlands

ANGELA LOMBARDI

Department of Chemistry

University of Naples Federico II

Via Cintia

80126 Naples

Italy

ORNELLA MAGLIO

Department of Chemistry

University of Naples Federico II

Via Cintia

80126 Naples

Italy

ANTONIUS T.M. MARCELIS

Laboratory of Organic Chemistry

Wageningen University

Dreijnplein 8

6703 HB Wageningen

The Netherlands

YIZHAK MARCUS

Institute of Chemistry

Edmond Safra Campus

The Hebrew University of Jerusalem

Jerusalem 91904

Israel

FLAVIA NASTRI

Department of Chemistry

University of Naples Federico II

Via Cintia

80126 Naples

Italy

VICTOR V. NIKONENKO

Department of Physical Chemistry

Kuban State University

149 Stavropolskaya St.

350040 Krasnodar

Russia

ANDRÉS F. OLEA

Departamento de Ciencias Químicas

Facultad de Ecología y Recursos Naturales

Universidad Andrés Bello

Santiago, Chile

JOS M.J. PAULUSSE

Laboratory of Organic Chemistry

Wageningen University

Dreijnplein 8

6703 HB Wageningen

The Netherlands

ANGELO PERICO

Istituto per lo Studio delle Macromolecole (ISMAC)

Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR)

Via De Marini 6

16149 Genova

Italy

NATALIA D. PISMENSKAYA

Department of Physical Chemistry

Kuban State University

149 Stavropolskaya St.

350040 Krasnodar

Russia

GÉRALD POURCELLY

Institut Européen des Membranes

Université Montpellier II

CC 047 Place Eugène Bataillon

34095 Montpellier cédex 5

France

BAOFU QIAO

Institute for Computational Physics

Universitat Stuttgart

70569 Stuttgart

Germany

HANS-JÖRG SCHNEIDER

FR Organische Chemie

Universität des Saarlandes

D 66041 Saarbrücken

Germany

BASTIEN SEANTIER

Institut Européen des Membranes

Université Montpellier II

CC 047 Place Eugène Bataillon

34095, Montpellier cédex 5

France

CLAIRE J. PARKER SIBURT

Department of Chemistry

Duke University

Durham, NC 27078

DAVE THIRUMALAI

Institute for Physical Sciences

University of Maryland

College Park, MD 20742

RASHI TIWARI

Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

Cornell University

Ithaca , NY 14850

NGO MINH TOAN

Institute for Physical Sciences

University of Maryland

College Park, MD 20742

LISHAN WANG

Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology

The Nanos 136889

Singapore

IAN M. WARD

School of Physics and Astronomy

University of Leeds

Leeds, LS2 9J

UK

ANDREY B. YAROSLAVTSEV

Kurnakov Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry

RAS, Leninsky Prospect 31a

119991 Moscow

Russia

HAN ZUILHOF

Laboratory of Organic Chemistry

Wageningen University

Dreijnplein 8

6703 HB Wageningen

The Netherlands