Ionizing Radiation Technologies E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Institute of Food Technologists Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 538

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022

Beschreibung

Ionizing Radiation Technologies An authoritative overview of major advances in the application of ionizing radiation technologies to industrial, agricultural, and municipal waste products In Ionizing Radiation Technologies: Managing and Extracting Value from Wastes, a team of expert researchers delivers a broad overview of the value trapped in waste streams and how a strategic application of ionizing radiation technologies can be valuable from both an environmental and an economic perspective. A valuable addition to the discussions around sustainability and green technologies, the book introduces ionizing radiation technologies, including gamma (cobalt-60) irradiation and high and low energy electron beam technologies. The contributions included explore the major advances taking place in the application of ionizing radiation technologies to derive high value end-products from agricultural, municipal, and industrial wastes. Each chapter reviews original research and data and considers likely future directions in research and development. The book also includes: * A thorough introduction to the application of ionizing radiation technologies to agricultural waste, including the production of activated carbon * Comprehensive explorations of the application of ionizing radiation technologies to municipal waste, including municipal solid wastes and recycling wastewater * Practical discussions of the application of ionizing radiation technologies to industrial waste, including textile wastewater management and polymer recycling * In-depth examinations of the economics of waste valorization, including several case studies of businesses involved in waste valorization Perfect for consulting engineers and industry professionals involved in waste management and mitigation, Ionizing Radiation Technologies will also earn a place in the libraries of professionals at government agencies, international food organizations, and NGOs focused on waste management, environment sustainability, and urban planning.

Leseprobe

The IFT Press series reflects the mission of the Institute of Food Technologists—to advance the science of food contributing to healthier people everywhere. Developed in partnership with Wiley-Blackwell, IFT Press books serve as leading-edge handbooks for industrial application and reference and as essential texts for academic programs. Crafted through rigorous peer review and meticulous research, IFT Press publications represent the latest, most significant resources available to food scientists and related agriculture professionals worldwide. Founded in 1939, the Institute of Food Technologists is a non-profit scientific society with 22,000 individual members working in food science, food technology, and related professions in industry, academia, and government.

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IFT Press Editorial BoardMalcolm C. BourneDietrich KnorrTheodore P. LabuzaThomas J. MontvilleS. Suzanne NielsenMartin R. OkosMichael W. ParizaBarbara J. PetersenDavid S. ReidSam SaguyHerbert StoneKenneth R. Swartzel

Ionizing Radiation Technologies

Managing and Extracting Value from Wastes

Edited by

Shima ShayanfarResearch and Development ScientistHerbalife Nutrition U.S., TorranceCalifornia, USA

Suresh D. PillaiDirector of the National Center for Electron Beam ResearchProfessor of Microbiology, College of Agriculture and Life SciencesTexas A&M University, College StationTexas, USA

This edition first published 2022

© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd and the Institute of Food Technologists

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The right of Shima Shayanfar and Suresh D. Pillai to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Shayanfar, Shima, editor. | Pillai, Suresh D., editor.Title: Ionizing radiation technologies : managing and extracting value from wastes / edited by Shima Shayanfar, Research and Development Scientist, Herbalife Nutrition U.S., Suresh D. Pillai, Director of the National Center for Electron Beam Research, Professor of Microbiology, Texas A&M University.Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, [2022] | Series: Institute of food technologists series | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2021061691 (print) | LCCN 2021061692 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119488538 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119488569 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119488576 (epub) | ISBN 9781119488583 (obook)Subjects: LCSH: Materials--Effect of radiation on. | Irradiation--Industrial applications. | Factory and trade waste. | Sewage--Purification--Irradiation. | Radiation preservationof food. | Refuse and refuse disposal--Technological innovations.Classification: LCC TA418.6 .I594 2022 (print) | LCC TA418.6 (ebook) | DDC 620.1/1228--dc23/eng/20220217LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021061691LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021061692

Cover images: (right) Courtesy of Suresh D. Pillai; (left) © Emilija Manevska/Getty Images

Cover design by Wiley

Set in 10/12pt Warnock by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India

Titles in the IFT Press series

Accelerating New Food Product Design and Development, 2

nd

Edition (Jacqueline H. Beckley, Leslie J. Herzog, and M. Michele Foley)

Anti-Ageing Nutrients: Evidence-Based Prevention of Age-Associated Diseases (Deliminda Neves)

Bioactive Compounds from Marine Foods: Plants and Animal Sources (Blanca Hernandez-Ledesma and Miguel Herrero)

Biofilms in the Food Environment, 2

nd

Edition (Anthont L. Pometto III and Ali Demirci)

Bitterness: Perception, Chemistry and Food Processing (Michel Aliani and Michael N.A. Eskin)

Dietary Polyphenols: Metablism and Health Effects (Francisco A . Tomás-Barberán, Antonio González-Sarrías, and Rocío García-Villalba)

Essential Oils in Food Processing: Chemistry, Safety and Applications (Seyed Mohammed Bagher Hashemi, Amin Mousavi Khaneghah, and Anderson de Souza Sant’Ana)

Flavor, Satiety and Food Intake (Beverly Tepper and Martin Yeomans)

Food Carotenoids: Chemistry, Biology and Technology (Delia B. Rodriguez-Amaya)

Food Oligosaccharides: Production, Analysis and Bioactivity (F. Javier Moreno and Maria Luz Sanz)

Food Safety Design, Technology and Innovation (Helmut Traitler, Birgit Coleman, and Karen Hofmann)

Food Texture Design and Optimization (Yadunandan Lal Dar and Joseph M. Light)

Functional Foods and Beverages: In vitro Assessment of Nutritional, Sensory, and Safety Properties (Nicolas Bordenave and Mario G. Ferruzzi)

Ionizing Radiation Technologies: Managing and Extracting Value from Wastes (Shima Shayanfar and Suresh D. Pillai)

Mathematical and Statistical Methods in Food Science and Technology (Daniel Granato and Gaston Ares)

Membrane Processing for Dairy Ingredient Separation (Kang Hu and James Dickson)

Microbial Safety of Fresh Produce (Xuetong Fan, Brendan A. Niemira, Christopher J. Doona, Florence E. Feeherry, and Robert B. Gravani)

Microbiology and Technology of Fermented Foods, 2

nd

Edition (Robert W. Hutkins)

Microbiology in Dairy Processing: Challenges and Opportunities (Palmiro Poltronieri)

Modified Atmosphere Packaging of Foods: Principles and Applications (Dong Sun Lee)

Nanotechnology and Functional Foods: Effective Delivery of Bioactive Ingredients (Cristina Sabilov, Hongda Chen, and Rickey Yada)

Natural Food Flavors and Colorants, 2

nd

Edition (Mathew Attokaran)

Packaging for Nonthermal Processing of Food, 2

nd

Edition (Melvin A. Pascall and Jung H. Han)

Processing and Nutrition of Fats and Oils (Ernesto M. Hernandez and Afaf Kamal-Eldin)

Resistant Starch: Sources, Applications and Health Benefits (Yong-Cheng Shi and Clodualdo C. Maningat)

Spray Drying Techniques for Food Ingredient Encapsulation (C. Anandharamakrishnan and Padma Ishwarya S.)

Trait-Modified Oils in Foods (Frank T. Orthoefer and Gary R. List)

Water Activity in Foods: Fundamentals and Applications, 2

nd

Edition (Gustavo V. Barbosa-Ćanovas, Anthony J. Fontana Jr., Shelly J. Schmidt, and Theodore P. Labuza)

Contents

Cover

Series page

Title page

Copyright

Titles in the IFT Press series

List of Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgments

1 Introduction

References

2 Radiation Processing Using Cobalt-60 Gamma Rays

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Overview of Cobalt-60—The Radiation Source

2.3 Overview of Cobalt-60 Gamma Technology

2.4 Cobalt-60 Safety and Security

2.5 The Future of Cobalt-60 Gamma Technology

References

3 X-ray Technology

3.1 Introduction to X-ray Technology

3.2 Physical Properties of X-rays

3.3 X-rays Today

3.4 The X-ray Vision

References

4 Low-Energy Electron Beam Technologies: Deriving Value from Waste

4.1 Introduction and History

4.2 Ranges of Energy for Electron Accelerators

4.3 Shielding Considerations

4.4 Absorption of Electron Energy by Materials

4.5 Absorption of Electrons’ Negative Charges by Materials

4.6 Predicting Depth of Electron Penetration into Products

4.7 Dose Measurements and Machine Characterization

4.8 Equipment Supplier Brief History

4.9 Low-Energy EB Applications

4.10 X-ray Shielding and Product Processing

4.11 Low-Energy X-ray Machines Made from Low-Energy EB Machines

References

5 Accelerator Technology for Waste Valorization

5.1 Introduction

5.2 General Properties of the Electron Beam

5.3 Delivering “Dose” to Materials

5.4 Integration of Accelerator Technologies into Waste Processing Facilities

5.5 Integration of E-Beam Systems—An Overview (or “How to Speak to an Accelerator Supplier”)

5.6 Process Design, Accelerator Specification, and Machine Selection

5.7 Staffing Considerations for Waste Processing Facilities

5.8 It’s All about the Dose to the Product

5.9 An Overview of Radiation Processing Standards Related to Machine-Based Sources

Reference

6 Biofuel Production Using Ionizing Technology from Agricultural Waste

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Agriculture Waste

6.3 Biofuel

6.4 Pretreatment

6.5 Ionizing Radiation

6.6 Effect of Ionizing Radiation Pretreatment

6.7 Bioethanol

6.8 Biomethane

6.9 Biohydrogen

6.10 Conclusions

References

7 Ionizing Technology Effects on Bioactive Compounds from Food Products

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Valorization of Food Wastes

7.3 Food Components: Bioactive Compounds

7.4 Bioactive Compounds in Food Subjected to Ionizing Radiation

7.5 Conclusions

References

8 Remediation of Crude Oil Impacted Soils with Electron Beam Irradiation

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Demand for Novel Remediation Techniques

8.3 Potential Advantages of Electron Beam Remediation

8.4 Process Implementation

8.5 Economic Feasibility

8.6 Comparison to Other Remediation Technologies

8.7 Conclusions

References

9 Application of E-beam Irradiation to Enhance Class B Disinfection Biosolids Processes to Class A Disinfection Treatment to Produce Value-Added Products

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Enhanced Anaerobic Digestion

9.3 Application of eBeam to Enhance Anaerobic Digestion

9.4 Rationale for Upgrading Class B Plants to Class A

9.5 Value-Added Products

9.6 Value-Added Product Examples

9.7 Conclusions

References

10 Textile Wastewater Management by Ionizing Technology

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Characteristics of Textile Wastewater

10.3 Mechanisms and Influencing Factors of Treating Textile Wastewater by Ionizing Radiation

10.4 Ionizing Radiation Applied on Textile Wastewater Management

10.5 Conclusions

References

11 Using Ionizing Technologies on Natural Compounds and Wastes for the Development of Advanced Polymers and Active Packaging Materials

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Combination of Active Packaging with Gamma Irradiation

11.3 Development of Active Packaging Using Gamma Irradiation

11.4 Conclusions

References

12 Treatment of Emerging Organic Pollutants Using Ionizing Technology—A State of the Art Discussion

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Methodology

12.3 Main Factors Influencing Degradation of EOP

12.4 By-products of Selected Aromatic EOP Degradation under Ionizing Radiation

12.5 Toxicity of the Solution Containing Selected Aromatic EOPS Before and After Ionizing Radiation

12.6 Computer Simulation of Emerging Persistent Pollutant Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) Degradation under Electron Beam and Gamma Ray Radiation

12.7 Conclusions

References

13 Remediation of Poly- and Perfluorinated Chemical Substances (PFAS) in the Environment by Ionizing Technology

References

14 Pharmaceutical Waste Management by Ionizing Technology

14.1 Pharmaceuticals in the Environment

14.2 Common Practices of Pharmaceutical Wastewater Management

14.3 Disposal of Model Wastewater with Ionizing Radiation

14.4 Irradiation of Actual Wastewater Samples

14.5 Economic Considerations, Practical Applications

References

15 Future Needs and Trends in Waste Management by Ionizing Technologies

15.1 The Future of Ionizing Technology Platforms

15.2 Ionizing Technology for Animal Waste Rendering

15.3 Ionizing Technology for Generating Energy from Waste Streams

15.4 Ionizing Technology for Development of High-Value Phytochemicals and Plant Growth Promoters

15.5 Suggested Roadmap for the Future

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Figures

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Cobalt-60 radiation source...

Figure 2.2 Cobalt-60 source rack...

Figure 2.3 Tote box irradiator...

Figure 2.4 Research irradiation...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Energy deposition...

Figure 4.2 150 keV electrons...

Figure 4.3 100–300 kV...

Figure 4.4 Isodose curves...

Figure 4.5 Model example...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 The evolution...

Figure 5.2 Mevex Linac...

Figure 5.3 (a) The inside view of...

Figure 5.4. A modified version...

Figure 5.5 From [1], modified...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Typical schematic diagram...

Figure 6.2 Schematic representation...

Figure 6.3 Electron beam pretreatment...

Figure 6.4 Metabolic pathway of...

Figure 6.5 Biomethane production...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Experimental apparatus...

Figure 8.2 TPH measured for...

Figure 8.3 GC results for...

Figure 8.4 GC Chromatograms...

Figure 8.5 Dose rate dependence...

Figure 8.6 Dose rate profile...

Figure 8.7 GC-FID chromatograms...

Figure 8.8 GC-FID chromatograms...

Figure 8.9 TPH reduction...

Figure 8.10 Dependence of peak...

Figure 8.11 Gas chromatography...

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Plot Schematic...

Figure 9.2 Schematic diagram...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 G values of the...

Figure 10.2 Chemical structures...

Figure 10.3 Possible pathways...

Figure 10.4 Postulated degradation...

Figure 10.5 Proposed degradation...

Figure 10.6 Unit cell structure...

Figure 10.7 A proposed pathway...

Figure 10.8 SOUR curve...

Figure 10.9 Variation of the...

Figure 10.10 Electron beam...

Figure 10.11 EB-MBR treatment...

Figure 10.12 COD elimination...

Figure 10.13 UV254 elimination...

Figure 10.14 Color elimination...

Figure 10.15 Test schematic of...

Figure 10.16 Comparison of IR,...

Figure 10.17 Ionizing radiation...

Figure 10.18 Operation of industrial...

Figure 10.19 Treatment process...

Figure 10.20 (a) The electron accelerator...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Concept of active...

Figure 11.2 Radiosensitization...

Figure 11.3 Radiosensitization...

Figure 11.4 Schematic illustration...

Figure 11.5 Schematic illustration...

Figure 11.6 Mechanism, synthesis...

Figure 11.7 Schematic illustration...

Figure 11.8 Typical changes...

Figure 11.9 Chemical pathway...

Figure 11.10 TEM micrographs...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 The CFV and its ...

Figure 12.2 The 4-chloro-2-methylphenoxyacetic...

Figure 12.3 Carbendazim and...

Figure 12.4 Diclofenac and...

Figure 12.5 Reaction pathway...

Figure 12.6 PFOA decomposition...

Figure 12.7 PFOA decomposition...

Figure 12.8 PFOA decomposition...

Figure 12.9 PFOA decomposition...

Figure 12.10 PFOA decomposition...

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Possible degradation...

Figure 14.2 Changes of the BOD5...

Figure 14.3 Dose dependence...

Figure 14.4 Inhibition of Staphylococcus...

List of Tables

Chapter 03

Table 3.1 Comparison between electron...

Table 3.2 Key parameters...

Chapter 06

Table 6.1 Chemical composition...

Table 6.2 Different methods...

Table 6.3 Enzymatic hydrolysis...

Table 6.4 Bioethanol yield...

Chapter 07

Table 7.1 Effects of application...

Table 7.2 Effect of gamma...

Table 7.3 Effect of E-beam ...

Chapter 08

Table 8.1 Boiling points and...

Table 8.3 Summary of e-beam batch...

Table 8.4 Economic analysis of treatment of impacted soil.

Table 8.5 Specific energy inputs...

Chapter 09

Table 9.1 Examples of unit...

Table 9.2 Compost Stability...

Table 9.4 Comparison of average...

Table 9.5 The cost of the...

Table 9.6 Fundamental biosolids...

Table 9.7 Organic Ammonium Sulfate...

Table 9.8 Economics of existing...

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Main species contributing...

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Summary listing...

Table 13.2 PFOA defluorination efficiency...

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Reactions of ∙OH...

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Commercially available...

Guide

Cover

Serious page

Title page

Copyright

Titles in the IFT Press series

Table of Contents

List of Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgments

Begin Reading

Index

End User License Agreement

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List of Contributors

Leila BagheriINRS Armand-Frappier HealthBiotechnology Research Centre,Research Laboratories in Sciences,Applied to Food (RESALA),Canadian Irradiation Centre (CIC),Institute of Nutrition and FunctionalFoods (INAF),Laval, Canada

Kenneth BriggsDepartment of Mechanical Engineering,Texas A&M University,College Station,Texas, USA

Jeremy BrisonIBA Industrial, International Headquarters,Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium

David BrownMevex Corporation,Ontario, Canada

P. I. Campa-SiqueirosCTAOV. Centro de Investigación enAlimentación y Desarrollo,A.C. Carr. Gustavo Enrique Astiazarán Rosas,Hermosillo,Sonora, México

Andrzej G. ChmielewskiInstitute of Nuclear Chemistry andTechnology,Warsaw, Poland

Kari B. Fitzmorris-BrisolaraLouisiana State School of Public Health,New Orleans,Louisiana, USA

P. Michael FletcherEbeam Consulting, LLC,Chelmsford,Massachusetts, USA

Rick GallowayIBA Industrial,Edgewood,New York, USA

Kevin O’HaraDirector of Radiation Physics,Sterigenics, LLC,Illinois, USA

Mohd Asyraf KassimBioprocess Technology Programme,School of Industrial Technology,Universiti Sains Malaysia,Penang, Malaysia

Corinne KowaldNational Center for Electron Beam Research,College Station,Texas, USA

Monique LacroixINRS Armand-Frappier HealthBiotechnology Research Centre,Research Laboratories in Sciences,Applied to Food (RESALA),Canadian Irradiation Centre (CIC),Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods(INAF),Laval, Canada

John LassalleDepartment of Mechanical Engineering,Texas A&M University,College Station,Texas, USA

T. J. Madera-SantanaCTAOV. Centro de Investigación enAlimentación y Desarrollo,Hermosillo,Sonora, México

Christophe MaliceIBA Industrial,Edgewood,New York, USA

Marco MartinezDepartment of Mechanical Engineering,Texas A&M University,College Station,Texas, USA

Tan Kean MengBioprocess Technology Programme,School of Industrial Technology,Universiti Sains Malaysia,Penang, Malaysia

Josef MittendorferIBA Industrial,Edgewood,New York, USA

Henrietta NichiporIRPCP, Academy of Sciences Republic ofBelarus,Minsk-Sosny, Belarus

Suresh D. PillaiNational Center for Electron Beam Research,College of Agriculture and Life Sciences,Texas A&M University,College Station, Texas, USA

Robert S. ReimersEmeritus, Tulane School of Public Healthand Tropical Medicine,New Orleans,Louisiana, USA

A. Rodríguez-FélixCTAOV, Centro de Investigación enAlimentación y Desarrollo,Hermosillo,Sonora, México

J. R. Rodríguez-NúñezPrograma de Biotecnología,Universidad de Guanajuato,Guanajuato, México

Gyuri SágiInstitute for Energy Security andEnvironmental Safety,Centre for Energy Research,Hungarian Academy of Sciences,Budapest, Hungary

S. SalmieriINRS Armand-Frappier HealthBiotechnology Research Centre, Research Laboratories in Sciences,Applied to Food (RESALA),Canadian Irradiation Centre (CIC),Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods(INAF),Laval, Canada

Shima ShayanfarHerbalife Nutrition U.S.,Torrance,California, USA

David StaackDepartment of Mechanical Engineering,Texas A&M University,College Station,Texas, USA

Andrea StrzelecCollege of Engineering,University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison,WI, USA

Weihua SunDepartment of Environmental Engineering,Shanghai Normal University,Shanghai, P. R. ChinaCGN Dasheng Electron AcceleratorTechnology Co., Ltd.Suzhou,Jiangsu, P. R. China

Yongxia SunInstitute of Nuclear Chemistry andTechnology,Warsaw, Poland

Erzsébet TakácsInstitute for Energy Security andEnvironmental Safety,Centre for Energy Research,Hungarian Academy of Sciences,Budapest, Hungary

Thomas ThompsonDepartment of Mechanical Engineering,Texas A&M University,College Station,Texas, USA

L. Val-FélixCTAOV. Centro de Investigación enAlimentación y Desarrollo,Hermosillo,Sonora, México

Wenyi WangDepartment of Environmental Engineering,Shanghai Normal University,Shanghai, P. R. ChinaCGN Dasheng Electron AcceleratorTechnology Co., Ltd.Suzhou,Jiangsu, P.R. China

László WojnárovitsInstitute for Energy Security andEnvironmental Safety,Centre for Energy Research,Hungarian Academy of Sciences,Budapest, Hungary

Yue XuParadigm International, Inc.,Metairie,Louisiana, USA

Youxue ZhangCGN Dasheng Electron AcceleratorTechnology Co., Ltd.Suzhou,Jiangsu, P. R. China

Preface

The global population is set to reach approximately 10.9 billion by the end of the century in 2100. However, even by 2050, domestic wastes, industrial wastes, and agricultural wastes around the world will accumulate to around 3.40 billion tons. Food and green wastes, paper and cardboard, and plastic wastes will accumulate primarily. There is no doubt that our quality of life will be dramatically affected if we do not address waste generation, accumulation, and disposal. We cannot kill our oceans by dumping our wastes in them. Nor can we find enough landfill space to accumulate all of the wastes. The only strategy, therefore, is to develop new technologies and adapt existing technologies to help recycle or upcycle wastes. It is incumbent that the technologies we adopt are sustainable in terms of these technologies themselves do not add to waste. These technologies for the most part should be chemical-free and with reduced carbon footprint.

Ionizing technologies such as electron beam, X-ray, and gamma irradiation are key technologies that are already making a substantial positive change in the lives of people around the world. These technologies are used in food processing, environmental remediation, and sterilization of medical devices and single-use medical disposables used in surgical care and hospitals. There is a growing body of literature on the use of these technologies for the recycling or upcycling of municipal, industrial, and agricultural wastes. Though there are several reference books on waste valorization, a reference book that compiles some of the current thinking on the use of ionizing technologies for waste remediation and valorization is lacking. Our original goal for this reference book was to compile all the different applications of ionizing technologies in the waste industry. We soon realized that it would be impossible to develop such a book given the sheer magnitude of the scope. We, therefore, focused our attempts in this book to contemporary topics that will be of value in the near to short term. We invited thought leaders to contribute to this chapter. Our request of these authors was rather challenging. We wanted them to not only refer to published information but also provide their perspectives of how ionizing technologies can be used in the future for the valorization of wastes. We acknowledge that this book may be missing some key topics. However, these topics may be part of future books by us or by others. We feel that this book will serve as a reference for professionals in the waste industry who are looking for new technologies to deal with contemporary challenges. This book is also targeted to academics who are keen on training the next generation of environmental engineering and science professionals. Students who are embarking on their advanced studies may find this book to be a valuable resource in developing and framing their research projects.

We want to thank the authors for their extreme patience as we developed this textbook. We had to deal with authors who had to take time out of their full schedules to prepare these chapters. We also had to deal with a pandemic as well. In spite of all this, we think we have produced a book that will be a valuable resource to many. Finally, we give a big thank you to the publishers for their patience and diligence.

Acknowledgments

We are extremely thankful to the authors who have been patient with the publication of this book. Major sections of this book were finalized during the throes of the pandemic—a time in our lives that we never thought we would experience. The pandemic and everything else it brought along made it an extremely challenging time to work on completing this book. A heartfelt thanks to the authors who submitted their chapters much ahead of schedule; our sincere apologies to those chapter authors that we had to continually remind and cajole. We felt so bad that we had to do this amid all what you must have been going through with the pandemic. Thank you for your understanding. Thank you to Durgadevi Shanmugasundaram at Wiley for her patience in making sure this book made it to the shelves. We dedicate this book to those who use electrons to clean, heal, feed, and shape this world, and beyond….

I would like to thank my mom and dad for their unconditional love. Special thanks go to my sources of inspiration Vineeta Singh, Mathias Sucan, Candi Rathjen-Nowak, and Shawn Lalehzarian for their guidance and support throughout my career…Shima

I want to thank my wife Melinda for her patience, her sense of humor, and care …Suresh

1 Introduction

Shima Shayanfar and Suresh D. Pillai

Managing industrial, agricultural, and municipal wastes is a challenge that countries around the world must grapple with. Rapid urbanization coupled with the increasing demands that the growing population creates requires that technologies need to be harnessed to provide a sustainable approach toward managing wastes. According to 2018 US EPA data, an average American generates approximately 5 pounds of municipal solid waste each day, which ultimately results in a total of approximately 292.4 million tons of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated each year (EPA, 2018). Municipal waste refers to waste that consumers discard, which includes bottles, corrugated boxes, food, grass clippings, sofas, computers, tires, and refrigerators. This MSW does not include construction and demolition debris, municipal wastewater sludge, and non-hazardous industrial wastes. Local and state governments must deal with growing urbanization and shrinking land-filling or other disposal options, and therefore reduction of MSW wastes and recycling of wastes are of high priority. Only 69 million tons of MSW (23.6%) of the total MSW were recycled, of which corrugated boxes were the primary waste. In 2018, 34.6 million tons of MSW (12%) were combusted with energy recovery. Food made up the largest component of MSW that was combusted. Approximately 50% of MSW was landfilled, out of which food was the largest component. Historically, the per capita generation of MSW increased from 2.7 pounds per person to approximately 5 pounds in 2018. There are, however, positive trends in terms of volume of MSW that is landfilled, which has decreased from 94% in 1960 to 50% in 2018, and the volume of MSW that is converted into energy, which has increased from 0% in 1960 to 12% in 2018. In the US, more than 16,000 wastewater treatment plants are in operation today, treating around 150 billion liters of wastewater per day. In total, these treatment plants generate approximately 13.8 million tons of treated sludge annually (Seiple et al., 2017). Approximately 54% of these treated sludges (biosolids) are beneficially reused, mostly on agricultural soils and smaller amounts for re-forestry programs and urban areas (US EPA, 2003). Wastewater reuse using either direct or indirect potable reuse is in operation in many parts of the arid Southwest and in California. The European Union and its member states have also adopted proposals to create an economic incentive for the upcycling of wastes. It is projected that by 2025 there will be a complete ban on the landfilling of recyclable wastes in the EU and by 2030 almost 70% of waste packaging will be recycled.

The recycling of wastes opens the door to extract “value” from wastes. Waste valorization refers to any process that converts waste materials into higher value products by either recycling them or converting them into energy feed stocks. The end-products of waste valorization could include quality chemicals, fertilizers, fuel, and energy as well as products that benefit the local economy. The concept of waste valorization is not new. The goal of waste valorization is to derive value from waste rather than just considering it as waste. The term “waste valorization” is now part of the lexicon of those involved in managing and waste recycling and very much part of the discussion of sustainable urban development. Even though the concept of waste valorization is not new, the growing need for cost effective and sustainable management of wastes, the rapid depletion of natural resources, the challenges facing the fossil fuel industry, as well as the rapid advancement of technologies for extracting value from wastes have spurred a wider interest in waste valorization. The concept of wastes as a “resource” can also create a positive public image that is critically necessary for societal buy-in for investing of resources into waste valorization programs. For example, the wastewater industry refers to municipal wastewater treatment plants as resource recovery facilities (rather than the traditional wastewater treatment plants) highlighting the significant value of municipal wastewater as pools of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Agricultural wastes from farm operations and animal husbandry also generate significant volumes of wastes that are also rich sources of essential nutrients as well as high-value pharmaceuticals. Even though many if not most of the current valorization technologies in use today involve a significant input of energy and chemicals, these technologies have resulted in a spectacular diversity of options for extracting value from waste.

Ionizing technologies, which include gamma irradiation, X-ray irradiation, and electron beam (eBeam) irradiation, are a suite of technologies that can have a major impact on making current waste valorization economically and environmentally more sustainable. Ionizing radiation is a non-thermal technology that has found a variety of applications in modern society including sterile insect technology, phytosanitary treatments, food pasteurization, medical device sterilization, and wastewater treatment and recycling of municipal sewage sludges. A major value proposition of this suite of technologies is that these are non-thermal technologies and there is no requirement for the input of chemicals into the process. These features make these technologies ideally applicable to the discussion of green, environmentally, and economically sustainable technologies. There are significant research advances to the use of ionizing technologies in the recycling and reuse of industrial, agricultural, and municipal wastes. The Vienna-based International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as part of its “Atoms for Peace and Development” has convened several collaborative research groups to advance research and development in this area. The advances from these projects have been compiled into a TECDOC (technical document) that the IAEA has published (IAEA, 2014).

To the best of our knowledge, there is no reference book on the market that attempts to compile all the different applications of this technology for the different waste streams and possible applications. This book, Ionizing Radiation Technologies, was motivated by the interest in spurring research, development, and commercialization of these technologies in the waste valorization industry. It is meant to highlight the major advances taking place in how ionizing technology is being harnessed and could be further harnessed to derive high-value end-products from agricultural, municipal, and industrial wastes. The book provides the reader with a broad overview of the value trapped in waste streams and how a strategic application of ionizing technologies can be valuable from both the environmental perspective as well as the economic perspective. This book will be a valuable addition to the other books in the market that deal with sustainability and green technologies.

The book initially discusses the ionizing radiation technologies such as gamma (Cobalt-60) irradiation and high- and low-energy electron beam (eBeam) technologies. The subsequent chapters focus on specific applications of these technologies to derive value (energy/nutrients/high-value chemicals) out of agricultural wastes (such as bagasse, lignin, animal wastes, animal feedlot wastes), municipal (domestic sewage sludge and effluent) and industrial waste streams. Each of the chapters under these main subject heading discuss the original research that has been published in the respective areas, including discussion of research data and possible future research directions. There is also a section on the economics of waste valorization with chapters on how to calculate the economics of deriving value from different waste streams and discussion of possible business models.

This book is targeted as a reference book aimed at both students, researchers, and practitioners. The primary audience is environmental consulting engineers and waste industry professionals tasked with waste management and valorization. The other intended audience includes researchers, graduate and undergraduate students, as well as the investment community and the technology developers. This book can serve as a resource for students majoring in food science and technology, animal industries, biological and agricultural engineering, ecosystem science and management, and environmental and sustainability engineering. A secondary audience is government agencies, international organizations such as the IAEA, UNDP, and the FAO, and non-governmental organizations that are focused on waste management, environmental sustainability, and urban planning.

References

EPA. (2018).

https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/national-overview-facts-and-figures-materials

(accessed 18 April 2021).

IAEA. (2014). Radiation Processed Materials in Products from Polymers for Agricultural Applications. IAEA-TECDOC-1745.

Seiple, T., et al. (2017). Municipal wastewater sludge as a sustainable bioresource in the United States.

Journal of Environmental Management

, 197, 673–680.

US EPA. (2003). Environmental Regulations and Technology: Control of Pathogens and Vector Attraction in Sewage Sludge.

3 X-ray Technology

Jeremy Brison, Rick Galloway, Christophe Malice, and Josef Mittendorfer

3.1 Introduction to X-ray Technology

3.1.1 What are X-rays?

X-rays are an essential high-energy form of electromagnetic waves and therefore part of the electromagnetic spectrum like radio signals or visible light. The only difference is the shorter wavelength of X-rays. While visible red light has a wavelength of 700 nanometers, X-rays start around 10 nanometers and go down below 1 picometer. The higher the energy, the lower the wavelength. Low-energy X-rays begin with an energy of around 100 electron volts—the energy unit used in atomic physics—going up to several million electron volts (MeV) for high-energy X-rays.

X-rays are a form of ionizing radiation interacting with matter they pass and transferring energy to the electrons of the atoms. Due to their energy X-rays are capable of knocking off electrons from atoms, leaving positive ions and free electrons.

3.1.2 A Brief History

The discovery of X-rays is a remarkable chapter in the history of science, involving several researchers over a period of time. In experiments with gas discharge tubes, involving so called cathode rays at that time, an unassigned glow outside the tube structure was observed. The discovery of X-rays is generally attributed to Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, who systematically studied the luminescence effect and published it in December 1895. Due to the unknown character of the new form of radiation he called it X-rays. Roentgen received a Nobel Prize in 1901, and was the first Nobel laureate in physics.

3.1.3 Comparison to Other Forms of Radiation

Ionizing radiation is named for its capability of producing ions from neutral atoms. It can be grouped into two categories: radiation from natural or artificially produced isotopes and from machine sources. The first category is historically divided into three groups, two of which (alpha and beta rays) involve charged particles. Gamma rays emitted in isotope decay are electromagnetic waves and therefore uncharged. Ionizing radiation from machine sources is primarily electrons produced in accelerators.

When accelerated electrons bombard metal targets, another electromagnetic radiation is produced—X-rays. The difference between X-rays and gamma rays is plainly a matter of nomenclature; both are uncharged electromagnetic waves. The generic term is photons, quantized electromagnetic radiation.

An industrially widely used species of gamma rays is photons emitted during the decay of the radioactive isotope Cobalt-60. In the decay sequence two photons are emitted with energies of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV.

3.1.4 How it Works—the Bremsstrahlung Mechanism

The origin of X-rays can be attributed to the interaction of electrons with atoms. When electrons interact with the orbital electrons, photons with particular energies are emitted. This is called “characteristic X-ray emission” and identifies itself as distinct lines in the energy spectrum.

In addition, electrons interact with the nuclei, producing photons with a range of energies and a continuous spectrum. Figure 3.1 shows the energy spectrum of high-energy photons generated from 5 and 7.5 MeV electrons. This effect is named after the German word “bremsstrahlung” (in English, braking radiation) and describes the fact that electrons are slowed down by positively charged nuclei and change velocity and energy. This energy loss is emitted in the form of X-rays. The individual energy loss may vary, resulting in the continuous X-ray energy spectrum. An electron may even lose all its energy, thus the endpoint of the energy spectrum is the energy of the incident electron.

Figure 3.1 Energy spectrum of X-rays generated by 5 and 7.5 MeV electrons.

3.1.5 Conversion Efficiency

Bremsstrahlung emission is only one mechanism in which electrons interact with matter. Most of the energy of the incident electrons is absorbed and materializes itself as heat.

The bremsstrahlung cross section is proportional to the square of the atomic number Z of the target material, so high-Z material should be used as target material. On the other hand, the target material should have a high melting point and a good thermal conductivity, to facilitate target cooling. Tungsten, gold, and tantalum are good choices for target materials; the latter is mostly used in industrial irradiation.

Bremsstrahlung yield scales linearly with the energy of the incident electrons, so the energy should be as high as possible, but there is a physical threshold: above a certain energy, X-ray radiation has the capability to induce radioactivity itself, rendering the target and product radioactive—a situation to be avoided by all means. For tantalum, which is the widely used target material, some activation thresholds exist close to 7.5 MeV.

This puts a limit on the energy of the primary electrons (as this is the endpoint of the X-ray spectrum), which is currently handled separately for different applications. For medical device sterilization the applying standard ISO 11137-1 currently demands an assessment of the potential for induced radioactivity for energies above 5 MeV. In the US, food irradiation using X-rays from tantalum X-ray converters is approved for use up to 7.5 MeV. A wealth of literature exists on dealing with induced radioactivity to help this assessment; an example is [1].

The conversion efficiency depends heavily on the design of the target. A general estimate of the conversion efficiency is 8% for 5 MeV, 12% for 7.0 MeV, and approximately 13% is expected for 7.5 MeV . Practical sterilization in X-ray is currently done at 7.0 MeV.

3.2 Physical Properties of X-rays

3.2.1 Specifics of the Radiation Field

X-rays emitted by the target constitute a certain spatial and energy-wise configuration called the radiation field, which will vary for different targets and facility designs (e.g., product handling and process design). The radiation field is generally characterized during operational qualification (OQ) of a facility, and its deep understanding is important for the application in use.

Characterization is typically performed in two ways: the free-field irradiation zone where the absorber is just air, and the product zone where the radiation field in homogeneous materials of a specific density is studied.

The radiation field is characterized using dosimeters, which are affixed at a spatial grid. Dosimeters are available as small films and pellets or in the form of dosimeter strips. Discrete dosimeters have the advantage of being very precise (the typical dose uncertainty of alanine dosimeters is around 2%). Dosimeter strips, on the other hand, allow a quasi-continuous assessment of the dose with a resolution less than one millimeter. Figure 3.2 shows an example of the radiation field in air.

Figure 3.2 X-ray field in air. (Source: Mediscan).

3.2.2 Distribution along the Target

The electron beam leaving the accelerator has a typical spot size less than 1 cm2. It is deflected under vacuum in the scan horn by magnets to cover a wider area where the electrons impinge on the target. This process is called x-y scanning; the long dimension (x) of the scan is around 100–250 cm depending on the facility design. The short dimension (y) is typically 3–5 cm. The purpose of scanning is to cover a wider processing area and dilute the heat stress at the target. Figure 3.3 shows a simplified layout of the constituents for X-ray processing: the electron beam accelerator feeding the beam line, the scan horn, the X-ray converter, and finally the irradiated product.

Figure 3.3 Basic components of X-ray processing and target with cooling pipe.

In most designs, electrons impinge the target as uniform beam, which means there are an equal number of electrons at each position in the scan. The bremsstrahlung mechanism, however, transforms this uniform electron density into an X-ray distribution that is peaked in the center of the scan horn. Figure 3.4