Kinetics in Nanoscale Materials E-Book

King-Ning Tu

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 503

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

As the ability to produce nanomaterials advances, it becomes more important to understand how the energy of the atoms in these materials is affected by their reduced dimensions. Written by an acclaimed author team, Kinetics in Nanoscale Materials is the first book to discuss simple but effective models of the systems and processes that have recently been discovered. The text, for researchers and graduate students, combines the novelty of nanoscale processes and systems with the transparency of mathematical models and generality of basic ideas relating to nanoscience and nanotechnology.

Leseprobe

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Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Preface

Chapter 1: Introduction to Kinetics in Nanoscale Materials

List of Illustrations

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2

Figure 1.3

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.6

Figure 1.7

Figure 1.8

Figure 1.9

Figure 1.10

Figure 1.11

Figure 1.12

Figure 1.13

Figure 1.14

Figure 1.15

Figure 1.16

Figure 1.17

Figure 1.18

Figure 1.19

Figure 1.20

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4

Figure 2.5

Figure 2.6

Figure 2.7

Figure 2.8

Figure 2.9

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.3

Figure 3.4

Figure 3.5

Figure 3.6

Figure 3.7

Figure 3.8

Figure 3.9

Figure 3.10

Figure 3.11

Figure 3.12

Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

Figure 4.4

Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

Figure 5.3

Figure 5.4

Figure 5.5

Figure 5.6

Figure 5.7

Figure 6.1

Figure 6.2

Figure 6.3

Figure 6.4

Figure 6.5

Figure 6.6

Figure 6.7

Figure 6.8

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Figure 6.12

Figure 6.13

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Figure 6.15

Figure 6.16

Figure 7.1

Figure 7.2

Figure 7.3

Figure 7.4

Figure 7.5

Figure 7.6

Figure 7.7

Figure 7.8

Figure 7.9

Figure 7.10

Figure 7.11

Figure 7.12

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Figure 7.15

Figure 7.16

Figure 7.17

Figure 7.18

Figure 7.19

Figure 7.20

Figure 7.21

Figure 7.22

Figure 7.23

Figure 7.24

Figure 8.1

Figure 8.2

Figure 8.3

Figure 8.4

Figure 8.5

Figure 8.6

Figure 8.7

Figure 8.8

Figure 9.1

Figure 9.2

Figure 9.3

Figure 9.4

Figure 9.5

Figure 9.6

Figure 9.7

Figure 9.8

Figure 9.9

Figure 10.1

Figure 10.2

Figure 10.3

Figure 10.4

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Figure 10.14

List of Tables

Table 2.1

Table 6.1

Table 7.1

Table 7.2

Kinetics in Nanoscale Materials

King-Ning Tu

Andriy M. Gusak

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: Courtesy of the authors

Copyright © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Tu, K. N. (King-Ning), 1937-

Kinetics in nanoscale materials / by King-Ning Tu, Andriy Gusak.

pages cm

Summary: ``As the ability to produce nanomaterials advances, it becomes more important to understand how the energy of the atoms in these materials is affected by their reduced dimensions. Written by an acclaimed author team, Kinetics in Nanoscale Materials is the first book to discuss simple but effective models of the systems and processes that have recently been discovered. The text, for researchers and~graduate students, combines the novelty of nanoscale processes and systems with the transparency of~mathematical models and generality of basic ideas relating to nanoscience and nanotechnology''– Provided by publisher.

``Published simultaneously in Canada''–Title page verso.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-88140-8 (hardback)

1. Nanostructured materials. 2. Chemical kinetics. 3. Nanostructured materials–Analysis. 4. Nanostructured materials–Computer simulation. I. Gusak, Andriy M. II. Title.

TA418.9.N35T8 2014

620.1'1599–dc23

2013042096

Preface

In the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at UCLA, three courses on kinetic processes in materials are being taught at the moment. The first course is MSE 131 on “Diffusion and Diffusion Related Phase Transformations,” which is for upper undergraduate students. The textbook is “Phase Transformations in Metals and Alloys,” 2nd edition, by D. A. Porter and K. E. Easterling, published by Chapman and Hall, London, 1992. The second course is MSE 223 on “Thin Film Materials Science,” which is for first year graduate students. The textbooks are “Electronic Thin Film Science,” by K. N. Tu, J. W. Mayer, and L. C. Feldman, published by Macmillan, New York, 1993, and “Electronic Thin Film Reliability,” by K. N. Tu, published by Cambridge University Press, UK, 2011. The third course is MSE 201 on “Principle of Materials Science: Solid State Reactions,” which is a mandatory course for Ph.D. students. It had been taught by Prof. Alan Ardell until his retirement in 2008. There is no textbook for this course, except the lecture notes by Prof. Ardell. One of the reasons that this book is written is to serve as the textbook for this course in the future. This book can also be used as a textbook for a kinetics course in the Department of Physics at Cherkasy National University, Cherkasy, Ukraine. Roughly speaking, MSE 131 covers mainly kinetics in bulk materials, MSE 223 emphasizes kinetics in thin films, and MSE 201 will focus on kinetics in nanoscale materials. It is worthwhile mentioning that kinetics in nanoscale materials is not completely new or very different from those in bulk and thin films. Actually, a strong link among them can be found, which is shown in this book. An example is the lower melting point of nanosize particles. In morphological instability of the solidification of bulk melt, the lower melting point of the tip of dendrite has been analyzed in detail.

Chapter 1 explains why the subject of kinetic processes in nanoscale materials is of interest. It begins with a discussion that the surface energy of a nanosphere is equal to its Gibbs–Thomson potential energy. This is implicit in the classical theory of homogeneous nucleation in bulk materials. Then, it is followed by several sections on some general kinetic behaviors of nanosphere, nanopore, nanowire, nanothin films, and nanomicrostructure in bulk materials. Specific topics on kinetics in nanoscale materials are covered by Chapter 2 on linear and nonlinear diffusion; Chapter 3 on Kirkendall effect and inverse Kirkendall effect; Chapter 4 on ripening among nanoprecipitates; Chapter 5 on spinodal decomposition; Chapter 6 on nucleation events in bulk materials, thin films, and nanowires; Chapter 7 on contact reactions on Si: plane, line, and point contact reactions; Chapter 8 on grain growth in micro and nanoscales; Chapter 9 on self-sustained explosive reactions in nanoscale multilayered thin films; and Chapter 10 on formation and transformation of nanotwins in Cu. In the last two chapters, applications of nanoscale kinetics are emphasized by the explosive reactions for distance ignition or for local heating, and by nanotwinned Cu for interconnect and packaging technology for microelectronic devices.

In nanoscale materials, we encounter very high concentration gradient, very small curvature, very large nonequilibrium vacancies, very few dislocations, and yet very high density of grain boundaries and surfaces, and even nanotwins. They modify the driving force as well as the kinetic jump process. To model the nanoscale processes, our understanding of kinetic processes in bulk materials can serve as the stepping stone from where we enter into the nano region. On seeing the similarity between bulk and nanoscale materials, the readers can follow the link to obtain a better understanding of the kinetic processes in nanoscale materials. On seeing the difference, the readers will appreciate what modification is needed or what is new in the kinetic processes in nanoscale materials.

We would like to acknowledge that we have benefited greatly from the lecture notes by Prof. Alan Ardell on kinetics of homogeneous nucleation, spinodal decomposition, and ripening. We also would like to acknowledge that the second part of Chapter 2 on thermodynamic nonlinear effects on diffusion is taken from an unpublished 1986 IBM technical report written by Prof. Lydia Chiao in the Department of Physics at Georgetown University, Washington, DC. We apologize to the readers that because of our limited knowledge, we do not cover some of the very active and interesting topics of nanomaterials, such as the nucleation and growth of graphene on metal surfaces, VLS growth of nano Si wires, or interdiffusion in man-made superlattices. We hope that this book will help students and readers advance into these and other nanoscale kinetic topics in the future.

King-Ning Tu and Andriy M. Gusak

April 2014

Chapter 1Introduction to Kinetics in Nanoscale Materials

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Nanosphere: Surface Energy is Equivalent to Gibbs–Thomson Potential

1.3 Nanosphere: Lower Melting Point

1.4 Nanosphere: Fewer Homogeneous Nucleation and its Effect on Phase Diagram

1.5 Nanosphere: Kirkendall Effect and Instability of Hollow Nanospheres

1.6 Nanosphere: Inverse Kirkendall Effect in Hollow Nano Alloy Spheres

1.7 Nanosphere: Combining Kirkendall Effect and Inverse Kirkendall Effect on Concentric Bilayer Hollow Nanosphere

1.8 Nano Hole: Instability of a Donut-Type Nano Hole in a Membrane

1.9 Nanowire: Point Contact Reactions Between Metal and Silicon Nanowires

1.10 Nanowire: Nanogap in Silicon Nanowires

1.11 Nanowire: Lithiation in Silicon Nanowires

1.12 Nanowire: Point Contact Reactions Between Metallic Nanowires

1.13 Nano Thin Film: Explosive Reaction in Periodic Multilayered Nano Thin Films

1.14 Nano Microstructure in Bulk Samples: Nanotwins

1.15 Nano Microstructure on the Surface of a Bulk Sample: Surface Mechanical Attrition Treatment (SMAT) of Steel

References

Problems

1.1 Introduction

In recent years, a new development in science and engineering is nanoscience and nanotechnology. It seems technology based on nanoscale devices is hopeful. Indeed, at the moment the research and development on nanoscale materials science for nanotechnology is ubiquitous. Much progress has been accomplished in the processing of nanoscale materials, such as the growth of silicon nanowires. Yet, we have not reached the stage where the nanotechnology is mature and mass production of nanodevices is carried out. One of the difficulties to be overcome, for example, is the large-scale integration of nanowires. We can handle a few pieces of nanowires easily, but it is not at all trivial when we have to handle a million of them. It is a goal to be accomplished. For comparison, the degree of success of nanoelectronics from a bottom-up approach is far from that of microelectronics from a top-down approach. In reality, the bottom-up approach of building nanoelectronic devices from the molecular level all the way up to circuit integration is very challenging. Perhaps, it is likely that a hybrid device will have a better chance of success by building nanoelectronic devices on the existing platform of microelectronic technology and by taking advantage of what has been developed and what is available in the industry.

The proved success of microelectronic technology in the past and now leads to expectations of both high yield in processing and reliability in the applications of the devices. These requirements extend to nanotechnology. No doubt, reliability becomes a concern only when the nanodevices are in mass production. We may have no concern about their reliability at the moment because they are not yet in mass production, but we cannot ignore it if we are serious about the success of nanotechnology.

On processing and reliability of microelectronic devices, kinetics of atomic diffusion and phase transformations is essential. For example, on processing, the diffusion and the activation of substitutional dopants in silicon to form shallow p–n junction devices require a very tight control of the temperature and time of fabrication. It is worth mentioning that Bardeen has made a significant contribution to the theory of atomic diffusion on our understanding of the “correlation factor” in atomic jumps. On reliability, the issue of electromigration-induced failures is a major concern in microelectronics, and the kinetic process of electromigration is a cross-effect of irreversible processes. Today, we can predict the lifetime of a microelectronic device or its mean-time-to-failure by conducting accelerated tests and by performing statistical analysis of failure. However, it is the early failure of a device that concerns the microelectronic industry the most. Thus, we expect that in the processing and reliability of nanoelectronic devices, we will have similar concerns of failure, especially the early failure, which tends to happen when the integration processes and the reliability issues are not under control. It is for this reason that the kinetics of nanoscale materials is of interest. If we assume that everything in nanoscale materials and devices is new, it implies that the yield and reliability of nanodevices is new too, which we hope is not completely true. In this book, we attempt to bridge the link between a kinetic process in bulk and the same process in nanoscale materials. The similarity and the difference between them is emphasized, so that we can have a better reference of the kinetic issues in nanodevices and nanotechnology.