Magnesium Technology 2000 E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 922

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

These proceedings provide an overview of magnesium productiontechnology, mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and alloydevelopment. Co-sponsored with TMS by the Magnesium Association,the symposium was divided into several sessions: Electrolytictechnology, thermal reduction/environmental, automotive issues andrecycling, alloy development/corrosion, solidification, creepproperties/heat treating effects, physical/mechanical properties,wrought alloys/thixmolding. A collection of papers from the 2000 TMS Annual Meeting &Exhibition, held in Nashville, Tennessee, March 12-March 15,2000.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Acknowledgements

Session One: Electrolytic Technology

Magnesium Industry growth in the 1990 Period

Abstract

Electrolytic Magnesium History

New Magnesium Projects Being Discussed

North America

Australia

Republic of Congo (Brazzaville)

Netherlands

Norway

Former Soviet Union (FSU)

Iceland

Israel

Jordan

Albania

United Arab Emirates

China

Peru

Columbia

Brazil

General Discussion

New Technology

Magnesium Electrolysis - A Monopolar Viewpoint

Abstract

History

The Norsk Hydro monopolar cell

Performance features

Amperage, current efficiency and cell capacity

Specific energy consumption

Cell life and rebuilding costs

Chlorine quality

Working environment and emissions

Sludge formation

Manpower productivity

Conclusion

Reference

Investigation on Electrocatalysis for Energy Saving in Magnesium Electrolysis

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental

Results and Discussion

Conclusion

Reference

An Inert Metal Anode for Magnesium Electrowinning

Abstract

Introduction

Results

Discussion

Future work

Conclusion

Acknowledgement

References

The Magnola Demonstration Plant: A Valuable Investment in Technology Development and Improvement

Abstract

The History of Magnola

The Magnola Process Demonstration Plant

The Magnola Commercial Plant

References

Magnesium Electrolytic Production Process

Abstract

1. Preparation of raw material for electrolysis

2. Magnesium production by electrolysis

3. Conclusions:

Solid-Oxide Oxygen-Ion-Conducting Membrane (SOM) Technology for Production of Magnesium Metal by Direct Reduction of Magnesium Oxide

Extended Abstract

Comparison of Fused Cast Alumina Products for Magnesium Chloride Cells

Session Two: Thermal Reduction and Environmental Issues

Fundamentals of Serpentine Leaching in Hydrochloric Acid Media

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental

Results and Discussion

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

Reduction of Molten MgO – Bearing Slags with Ferro Aluminium

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental

Results and Discussion

Conclusions

References

Acknowledgements

Magnesium Metal by the Heggie – Iolaire Process

Abstract

Introduction

Process Development Issues

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Protective Atmospheres for the Heat Treatment of Magnesium Alloys

Abstract

Introduction

Environmental impact

Experimental

Hot isostatic pressing

Discussion

Recommendations

Conclusions

References

The Use of SO2 as a Cover Gas for Molten Magnesium

Abstract

Introduction

Ingot Casting

The Sulphur Dome effect

Discussion

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Epa’s Voluntary Partnership with the Magnesium Industry for Climate Protection

Abstract

Introduction

Scientific Assessment of the Climate

International Response

Voluntary’ Partnerships Prevent Pollution

SF6 Use in the Magnesium Industry

SF6 Presents an Environmental Concern

EPA Invites U.S. Magnesium Companies to Join the Partnership

Becoming a Partner

First Steps

References

Session Three: Automotive Issues and Recycling

Materials Comparison and Potential Applications of Magnesium in Automobiles

Abstract

Introduction

Magnesium vs. Competing Materials

Current And Potential Applications In Automobiles

Alloy Development for Powertrain Applications

Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Magnesium Melting / Casting and Remelting in Foundries

Abstract

General

Casting methods

Furnace principles:

Furnace design

Crucibles

Protective gas mixing system

Casting

Practical casting operation

Remelting plants

Summary

Conductivity Measurements on Ingots of Magnesium Die-Casting Alloys

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental Details

Results and Discussion

Summary and Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Observations of Intermetallic Particle and Inclusion Distributions in Magnesium Alloys

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental Procedures

Results and Discussion

Oxide Defects

Image Analysis

Summary

References

Acknowledgements

Filling and Solidification Modeling of Noranda’s Magnesium Wheel Casting Process

Abstract

Introduction

Modeling

Results and Discussion

Mold Filling

Solidification Pattern of the Wheel

Discussion

Summary

Acknowledgement

References

Utilization of Centrifugal Casting in Recycling of Magnesium Alloy Scraps

Session Four: Alloy Development and Corrosion

Corrosion and Galvanic Corrosion of Die Casted Magnesium Alloys

Laboratory Evaluation of Corrosion Resistance of Anodized Film on Magnesium

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental

Results and Discussions

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Characterisation of Manganese-Containing Intermetallic Particles and Corrosion Behaviour of Die Cast Mg-Al-Based Alloys

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental

Results

Concluding remarks

Acknowledgements

References

Characteristics and Perspectives of New Magnesium-Lithium-Alloys - an Approach towards LAE

Abstract

Introduction

The influence of lithium on A-alloys: c.p.h. LA

Transferring lithium into AE-alloys: LAE

Conclusions

Acknowledgement

References

Microstructure Property Studies of In Situ Mechanically Worked PVD Mg-Ti Alloys

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental Procedures

Results

Discussion

Conclusions

References

Studies of Mg-V and Mg-Zr Alloys

Abstract

Introduction

The Microstructures of PVP Mg-V and Mg-Zr alloys

Conclusions

Acknowledgement

References

Solubility of Nickel in Molten Magnesium-Aluminium Alloys Above 650°C

Abstract

Introduction

Apparatus

Experimental procedure

Sampling

Thermodynamic model

Discussion

Conclusions

References

Design Magnesium Alloys: How Computational Thermodynamics Can Help

Abstract

Introduction

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics

System Materials Design

Computational Thermodynamics

Calculations for the Mg-Al-Zn Ternary Alloys

Summary

Acknowledgement

Reference

Session Five: Solidification

Solidification Induced Inhomogenittes in Magnesium – Aluminium Alloy AZ91 Ingots

Abstract

Introduction

Theory

Experimental

Results

Discussions

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

Grain Refinement of Magnesium

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Experimental

3 Results and Discussion

Conclusions

Acknowledgment

References

Stress Induced Defect Formation in Horizontal Direct Chill Cast Magnesium Alloys

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Investigation

3. Solidification Behaviour

4 Liquid Pool Profiles

5 Casting Defects

6 Understanding and Predicting Hot Tearing

7 Tensile Behaviour of Partially Solidified Material

8. Summary and Future Directions

References

Casting of Granulated Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys by Centrifugal Spraying of Liquid Metal: Advantages and Limitations

Abstract

Introduction

References

Eutectic Growth Morphologies in Magnesium-Aluminium Alloys

Abstract

Introduction

Procedure

Results and Discussion

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

The Role of Zinc in the Eutectic Solidification of Magnesium-Aluminium-Zinc Alloys

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental Procedure

Results

Discussion

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Session Six: Creep Properties and Heat Treating Effects

Preparation and Solidification Features of as Series Magnesium Alloys

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental

Results and Discussion

Conclusions

References

Development of high creep-resistant magnesium alloy strengthened by Ca addition

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Experimental Procedure

3. Experimental Results and Discussion

4. Summary

Reference

The Effect of Calcium on Creep and Bolt Load Retention Behavior of Die-Cast AM50 Alloy

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental Procedure

Results

Discussion

Conclusions

Acknowledgement

References

Creep Resistance in Mg-Al-Ca Casting Alloys

Abstract

Introduction

Creep Behavior of Automotive Magnesium Alloys

Experimental Method

Results and Discussion

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Tensile and Compressive Creep Behavior of Die Cast Magnesium Alloy AM60B

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental Details

Results

Discussion

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

On the Relation Between Hardness and Yield Strength in a Sand Cast AZ91 Alloy

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental methods

Results

Discussion

Summary

References

The Effect of Low-Temperature Ageing on the Tensile Properties of High-Pressure Die-Cast Mg-Al Alloys

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental Procedure

Results

Discussion

Conclusions

References

Microstructural Study and Mechanical Properties of A Thixoformed AZ91

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental procedures

Results and Discussion

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

Session Seven: Physical and Mechanical Properties

Wear Resistance Property and Microstructure of Magnesium AZ91 Composite

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Experimental Procedure

3. Results And Discussion

4. Conclusions

References

Acknowledgements

Elements of the Fatigue Process in Magnesium Die Casting Alloys

Abstract

Introduction

Fatigue Research Program

Materials

Experimental and Analysis

Test Results

Design

Conclusions

References

Fracture Toughness of Magnesium Alloy AM60B

Abstract

Introduction

Materials

Results of Fracture Toughness Testing

Results of Charpy Impact Testing

Metallography and Scanning Electron Microscopy Results

Observations and Conclusions

Recommendations for Future Work

Acknowledgments

References

Using Deformation-Induced Texture as an Alloy/Process Optimization Tool

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental Details

Results

Discussion

References

Superplasticity of Magnesium-Based Alloys

Abstract

Introduction

Superplasticity

Experimental Procedure

Results

Literature

Fatigue Behaviour of AZ91D Magnesium Alloy and its Composite Reinforced with SiC

Introduction

Experimental Procedure

Results and Discussion

Conclusions

References

Session Eight: Wrought Alloys and Thixomolding

Alternative Ways to Fabricate Magnesium Products

Abstract

Magnesium-Based Structural Parts

Magnesium Extrusion

Advantages and Disadvantages of Extruded Magnesium Parts

What is Needed in Future to Succeed

Processes

Materials

Flow Stress Mtcrostructures and Modeling in Hot Extrusion of Magnesium Alloys

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental Techniques

Mechanical Results

Observation By Optical Means

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)

Magnesium Extrusion

Conclusions

References

Deformation Characteristics of Wrought Magnesium Alloys AZ31, ZK60.

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental techniques

Results and discussions

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

Environmental Effects on the HCF Behavior of the Magnesium Alloys AZ31 and AZ80

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental

Results and Discussion

Summary

References

Structure and Mechanical Properties of Friction Stir Weld Joints of Magnesium Alloy AZ31

Abstract

Introduction

Procedure

Results and Discussion

Conclusions

Acknowledegments

References

New Developments in Magnesium Production Technology

Introduction

Summary

Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of Heat-Resistant Mg-Al-Ca Alloys Formed by Thixomolding

Abstract

Introduction

Materials and Methods

Results

Discussion

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Development of Semi-Solid Molded Magnesium Components from Alloys with Improved High Temperature Creep Properities

Abstract

Introduction

Experimental Procedures

Discussion of Experimental Results

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Author Index

Magnesium Technology 2000

A Publication of The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 184 Thorn Hill Road Warrendale, Pennsylvania 15086-7528 [phone]

Visit the TMS web site athttp://www.tms.org

The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society is not responsible for statements or opinions and is absolved of liability due to misuse of information contained in this publication.

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© 2000

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PREFACE

Magnesium is a light metal, 30% less dense than aluminum, yet it has the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any structural material. Driven by the rapid increase in applications for lightweight materials in the automotive industry, demand for magnesium is expected to grow dramatically in the coming years. This trend originated in North America, but its impact on the industry, as demonstrated by the interest in new primary magnesium production plants, recycling of scrap, new diecasting facilities, new parts production technologies, and magnesium technology in general, has spread worldwide. It is only fitting that we begin the new millennium with this very significant collection of papers from the largest magnesium-related symposium held in North America.

This book encompasses the papers presented at the Magnesium Technology 2000 symposium, held at the 2000 TMS Annual Meeting in Nashville, Tennessee (U.S.A.), March 12-16, 2000. The Reactive Metals Committee of the Light Metals Division of TMS and the International Magnesium Association jointly sponsored the symposium. The book’s eight chapters correspond to the symposium sessions, addressing all the important areas of magnesium technology today:

Electrolytic Technology Thermal Reduction and Environmental Issues Automotive Issues and Recycling Alloy Development and Corrosion Solidification Creep Properties and Heat Treating Effects Physical and Mechanical Properties Wrought Alloys and Thixomolding

This volume is being published in honor of those many people who have contributed their efforts during the twentieth century to position magnesium to achieve in future years a new and more important role in the world. In particular, we honor the memories of Jim Davis, Dwain Magers, and Lloyd Pidgeon – our friends, colleagues, and mentors.

The editors

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We offer our thanks and appreciation to our organizations for their support of this effort: Magnesium Corporation of America (MagCorp), Argonne National Laboratory, and The International Magnesium Association. We are grateful to MagCorp colleague Ms. Lisa Hartman for her assistance in helping to compile this volume, and also to Mr. Richard Nagy and the staff at TMS for their assistance in publishing this book. Finally, we would like to dedicate this volume to our families, who make it all worthwhile.

Dr. Howard I. Kaplan Magnesium Corporation of America Salt Lake City, Utah, U.S.A.

Dr. John N. Hryn Argonne National Laboratory Argonne, Illinois, U.S.A.

Mr. Byron B. Clow The International Magnesium Association McLean, Virginia, U.S.A.

Session One: Electrolytic Technology

Session Chair:R. Neelameggham, Magnesium Corporation of America

MAGNESIUM INDUSTRY GROWTH IN THE 1990 PERIOD

Robert E. Brown

Magnesium Monthly Review 226 Deer Trace Prattville, Alabama 36067

Abstract

Electrolytic magnesium production has been the mainstay of the world’s magnesium industry since magnesium was first discovered by Davy in 1808. Many of the early workers developed small advances until the electrolysis of anhydrous magnesium chloride became the standard method of production. From the very first days, the importance of anhydrous magnesium chloride has been recognized. It remains the major problem area of economic and efficient electrolytic magnesium production.

There has been a dramatically increased usage of magnesium in the past ten years by the automotive industry. This usage is projected to continue a large growth as automakers continue to strive for better fuel economy with reduced emission. The use in die casting alone has been projected to increase at 10-15% per year for the next 10 years.

Cost of magnesium and its alloys is constantly compared to aluminum and its alloys by the automakers on all continents. Magnesium usually loses this battle, in spite of the different densities. Aluminum is 50% heavier than magnesium, hence for the same casting shape a pound of magnesium would make three castings while a pound of aluminum would make only two. Automakers feel that to be fully competitive, magnesium should be priced at 1.5 times the price of aluminum. This only takes into account the densities and not the other advantages offered by magnesium such as damping capacity and strength and rigidity.

In recent years, the interest in magnesium has grown dramtically and there is a great deal of basic research and pilot plant work going on to identify better and more economic ways to produce electrolytic magnesium metal. There is more technical brainpower being applied to magnesium than ever before at anytime in history. The work has no boundries or restrictions and can be found on all the major continents (except maybe Antartica).

ELECTROLYTIC MAGNESIUM HISTORY

Magnesium as an element was discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1808. There is no record showing that Davy ever isolated magnesium as a metal. The first actual production of pure magnesium metal in the metallic form has been credited to the French scientist Bussy, who fused anhydrous magnesium chloride with metallic potassium. The German scientists Liebig and Bunsen and the French scientists St. Claire Deville and Caron all worked on methods of producing magnesium from anhydrous magnesium chloride. Michael Faraday is credited with producing the first magnesium by electrolysis of molten magnesium chloride salt. A major step toward the mass production of magnesium was made by Robert Bunsen, the German scientist, who made a small laboratory cell for the electrolysis of fused magnesium chloride in 1852. Graetzel and Fischer, also German scientists, started investigating the use of earnallite from Stassfurt as the raw material for electrolytic production of magnesium.

The original electrolytic cells that were developed by Chemische Fabrik Griesheim-Elektron used a cell feed of molten earnallite (MgCl2·KCl·6H2O). The dehydration of earnallite is much easier than the dehydration of pure magnesium chloride solution (MgCl2·6H2O). Most of the electrolytic magnesium production cells operating today are derivatives of the original Chemische Fabrik which became part of I. G. Farben in 1927.

Up until 1915, Germany was the only magnesium producer. When WWI started in 1914, there was a shortage of magnesium for pyrotechnics in military ordnance. Magnesium had long been used for flares and for tracer bullets The price of magnesium was $5.00 to $6.00 per pound. Eight companies in North America went into the production of magnesium metal. As soon as the war ended, the number of companies dropped off to two, Dow in Midland, Michigan and American Magnesium Corporation (Alcoa) at Niagara Falls, NY.

Dow Chemical had gotten into the production of magnesium from underground brines at the Midland, Michigan plant. Dow could not solve the anhydrous problem and developed a special process that fed “wet” feed (MgCl2·1.5H2O) to the Dow-designed electrolytic cell. American Magnesium Corporation used the oxide fluoride process developed by Harvey. This process was similar to the aluminum production process in that it was electrolysis of magnesium oxide in fluoride melts. However, the slight solubility of magnesium in the fluoride created many problems, including high operating temperatures, and high specific gravity of the eutectic mixtures (largely barium chloride) which caused the liberated magnesium to immediately rise to the top of the bath and oxidize.

The Dow process was cheaper and gave more pure magnesium, so American Magnesium Corporation ceased production in 1927. AMC costs of production were 43 cents per pound in 1927 while Dow’s were 22.5 cents per pound. AMC negotiated a purchase agreement with Dow to purchase all their magnesium requirements from Dow and ceased production. It was an 18 month contract and a new five year contract was signed in 1928. The prices paid by AMC were below the market and decreased even more as the Dow total sales increased.

For most of the 1930 period, Dow Chemical in the US and MEL in England and two companies in France continued to produce and market magnesium metal in small quantities.

It took the start of hostilities in Europe for the US to become aware of the need for strategic materials. To assist in a build up, the US created the Defense Plant Corporation. This group had the job of building plants for production and fabrication of strategic materials. Magnesium was a strategic material. The US increased their magnesium production rapidly by building 6 new electrolytic plants and 7 silicothermic plants

Most of these plants were shut down after the war and eventually Dow found itself in the US as the sole producer. The electrolytic plant in Michigan was closed and all of the magnesium metal production concentrated in Texas.

Magnesium production appears to be quite simple. This is merely a deceptive appearance that has trapped many of the world’s foremost metals companies and several junior companies. A normal question would be, “If it is simple why aren’t more people doing it?” For some reason that idea has not seemed to cause second thoughts among too many experts, who usually feel that they can solve the problem of profitable magnesium production that few people have ever been able to solve.

It is the “profitable” part that has given the most problems. There have been many plants and many processes that have produced magnesium, but not very many that have produced profits.

Since 1950, there have been many projects attempted as is shown in Table 1. See Appendix attached.

Table 1. MAJOR MAGNESIUM PROJECTS SINCE 1950

NEW MAGNESIUM PROJECTS BEING DISCUSSED

There are 18 new magnesium projects under consideration somewhere in the world. They range from new smelters to expansions to feasibility studies. Surprisingly, in the USA, there are no new magnesium projects being discussed. The largest and oldest US producer, Dow Chemical, shutdown their total magnesium operations in 1998, removing 65,000 tons per year of magnesium production from the market. This metal supply has been picked up by many of the other magnesium production sources.

NORTH AMERICA

The leading new project is the Magnola project of Noranda Magnesium being constructed at Asbestos, Quebec, (see LMA Feb 1998). The C$733 million project includes a total facility to produce anhydrous magnesium chloride cell feed from asbestos tailings (serpentine) using a proprietary process. Alcan electrolytic cells (24) will be used to convert the magnesium chloride to 63,000 metric tons per year of magnesium metal. Design and engineering is approximately 98% complete with construction about 70% complete. The plant is presently on schedule to start producing magnesium metal by mid- 2000 with commercial production by March 2001. Hatch Engineers did the process work on the project and plant design and engineering and construction is by SNC-Lavalin of Montreal.

Norsk Hydro Canada Inc has plans to expand its primary magnesium plant at Becancour, Quebec. Plans are to take the 45,000 metric ton per year plant to 85,000 metric tons per year in two phases. The decision to start construction has on the first phase has been postponed because of economic problems at the parent company. It had been expected to produce metal by 2001. The plant uses imported magnesite from the Pacific Rim for its feed and converts it to anhydrous magnesium chloride by a proprietary process. Norsk Hydro also has a proprietary electrolytic cell design which operates at over 400 kA.

The plant expansion will make use of much of the infrastructure already in place. The existing dehydration units will be modified to accommodate the first phase. The project includes new electrolytic capacity and technological improvements leading to higher productivity per cell. Other changes, recently identified will lead to reduced energy consumption and increased throughput in various units in the plant.

Gossan Resources continues to work on their high purity dolomite property at Inwood, Manitoba, 50 miles north of the city of Winnepeg. Metallurgical testing was carried out by Hazen Research of Golden, Colorado in mid 1997. Hatch and Associates of Montreal were engaged to carry out a prefeasibility study on the Inwood magnesium project. The report indicated that a 50,000 metric ton per year magnesium metal production plant using off-the-shelf technology of a silicothermic plant would be about US$0.89 per pound and US$1.13 per pound after financing. Gossan is working on a market study for magnesium metal that would be produced from this project.

Minroc Mines Inc. has started shipment of high-grade Chrysotile product from the Cassiar operation in British Columbia, Canada, utilizing the company’s own proprietary wet process technology. Minroc has recently announced that it will proceed with investigations and work on a project at the Cassiar Mine for the production of magnesium metal from the existing tailings source at the mine. The high purity of the chrysotile at Cassiar, with its low iron content, they feel is a prime requirement for economic and competitive production. The Cassiar chrysotile feed is 23% magnesium and 5.5% iron. This compares with the Noranda Chrysotile project in Quebec which is announced at 21%-23% magnesium and 4%-8% iron. The Minroc Cassiar Magnesium project is being evaluated at production rates of 30,000 and 60,000 mtpy. The project has been assured of competitive rates for power, which is the key factor in costs and economics of any magnesium project.

Minroc also signed a memorandum of understanding with a division of the Korean automaker, Hyundai. The latest plans say that the magnesium plant will produce 90,000 mtpy of magnesium and the Aluminum Company of Korea (a Hyundai company) will be entitled to as much of the product as it may require with the remainder to be made available for sale to the international markets. Aluminum of Korea may acquire a 35% interest in the project in conjunction with an initial $25 million financing under the agreements, and could acquire a 65% interest in the project by providing additional project funding.

A preliminary assessment report by Kilborn/SNC Lavalin suggests that the mine’s reclamation pile contains enough magnesium for 100 years of production. SNC Lavalin is assisting the company in securing financing. Detailed tests for producing magnesium metal will take place simultaneously with the reclamation activities.

A great new future for Newfoundland-Labrador was discussed at the 11th Annual Mining Conference in Baie Verte, Newfoundland. The Minister of Mines, Chuck Furey said, “A new industry is being investigated for the old asbestos mine site. Geotech Survey Ltd was given permission by the government a few months ago to determine if it’s feasible to produce magnesium from the old asbestos ore tailings.

The Northwest Alloys (Alcoa) plant continues to operate the modified Magnetherm process at Addy, Washington. The plant is is rated at 41,000 mtpy. Production is of high purity magnesium used for alloying in Alcoa aluminum plants. In recent years, there has been an interest in the production of diecasting alloy at this plant. The plant has been upgraded over its entire life and further work to improve the process has been announced. NWA will work with Mintek of South Africa at developing a modified reduction reactor at Addy. The original plant had nine furnaces rated at 4,000 mtpy each. In later years, the plant has increased its rated capacity while reducing the number of furnaces in service.

Magnesium Corporation of America at Rowley, Utah is investing $46 million to evaluate new electrolytic magnesium cell technology and to install a new magnesium DC caster. The new cells when installed will have the potential to provide manufacturing efficiencies and reduce costs of magnesium production. With improved efficiencies, the production of the plant at Rowley could increase its capacity from the present announced rating of 41,000 mtpy. The new caster enables MagCorp to produce various sizes, shapes and weights of magnesium ingots and billets at lower cost. It can also produce T-Bar ingot which is used for aluminum alloying and offers a void-free, large shape.

AUSTRALIA

Australia has a number of magnesium projects being actively discussed and studies for magnesium metal plants are being conducted in all of the 6 major states. Tasmania and Western Australia have two each. The first large magnesium metal production project and the one that is furthest along is the project in Queensland which was originally developed by Queensland Metals as one of the end uses of its large high-purity magnesite deposit at Kunwarara, north of Rockhampton. It has been incorporated as Australian Magnesium Corporation. (AMC).

Australian Magnesium Corporation is a company that is owned by Queensland Metals (50%) and Normandy Mining (50%) subject to financial support and a 5% interest held by Fluor Daniel for engineering services. Normandy also holds a 36.85% interest in QMC. AMC is the most advanced of the potential new producers in Australia and has a partner (Normandy) which is financially sound. Ford invested A$40 million to assist the project into a pilot plant stage. Ford has also signed a long term off-take agreement for one-half of the planned production of 90,000 metric tons per year. AMC is operating a 1500 tpy demonstration plant to prove the process and gather operational data to complete the feasibility study. The construction of the commercial plant slated for completion by mid 2002 with commissioning and commercial operations by the end of 2002. The plant uses a process patented by CSIRO, an Australian Government Research arm, for production of anhydrous magnesium chloride from magnesite. Alcan electrolytic cells will be used in the commercial plant. The plant is expected to cost A$780 million including working capital.

The demonstration plant consisting of the CSIRO feed process and one full-scale Alcan Multipolar cell has been run since August 1999. The cash cost of producing magnesium is estimated to be A$0.65.

The electrical contract was signed at 20 mils which is somewhat less than the original number that was used in their feasibility calculations. The new plant site at Stanwell is near the power station, near a major gas pipeline and only a short distance from a major ocean port.

Crest Magnesium was one of the leading projects, but recently seems to be struggling to keep all of the partners working to get a plant built. Located on a very good deposit of magnesite in NW Tasmania, the project seemed to be going quite well until late in 1999. Discussions with a potential JV partner, Xstrata of Switzerland, were broken off.

The project as originally planned had Crest with the exclusive rights for Australia and New Zealand to use technology developed by the Ukrainian National Research and Design Titanium Institute and VAMI JSC over 20 years. There was talk of doubling the plant capacity in three stages over an 11 year period - taking production to 190,000 mtpy. The large Australian engineering and construction firm, Multiplex and Hatch Associates Limited of Canada were reviewing the technology in conjunction with Hatch or other approved consultants, and would provide a performance guarantee as to the nameplate operation of the plant (95,000 metric tons per year). The Tasmanian government will act as an intermediary for the supply of all energy: gas, electricity and commercial steam at a price that meets the indicative price already supplied by Duke Energy. Electrical costs are estimated to be 40% of the total cash production costs and Crest estimates an electrical cost of US$0.28 to produce each pound of magnesium.

Crest and Multiplex agreed to dissolve their JV partnership in October 1999.

Golden Triangle Resources NL which was orgiinally investigating the possibility of another magnesium project based on another section of the Main Creek Magnesite Deposit (adjacent to the Crest/Multiplex section), six to seven kilometers south of the Savage River Iron Ore Mine. The projects lie southwest of Burnie in northwest Tasmania. Golden Triangle exercised an option to acquire this portion of the Main Creek Magnesite Resource (47 million tonnes) from Savage Resources Limited in September 1998. First stage bench scale hydrometallurgical test work by Oretest Pt’y Ltd in Perth has now been augmented by Lakefield Research Limited of Canada who have begun work on the second phase of laboratory test work that will lead to a pilot plant program. This project has been deferred in favor of the Woodsreef project.

Bass Resources, a Tasmanian mining company has announced that it has identified the site for a new magnesium production plant at Bell Bay. Bass Resources is planning to develop an arrangement with Pasminco which will provide access to a mineral resource based on the Main Creek magnesite deposit. If that proceeds, Bass Resources would be in a position to obtain access to Golden Triangle Resources’ exploration results and process technology.

Golden Triangle now intends to make the development of the magnesium project, the “Woodsreef” project in New South Wales, its main focus. Drill testing of the 24 million tonne Woodsreef asbestos tailings dump, located in Northern New South Wales has been completed. This is similar to the resource being developed in Canada by Noranda Magnesium.

In January 1999 Golden Triangle announced that it had awarded a contract to carry out “Comparative Magnesium Production Scoping Study” between the Tasmanian and New South Wales magnesium projects to South African engineering group, Bateman Brown and Root. The Bateman Group has some recent magnesium experience, having worked with the Israeli Chemical Industries in the development of the Dead Sea Magnesium Project. Golden Triangle has engaged the services of Mintek, South Africa’s national minerals-research organization, which is separately involved with the development of Plasma magnesium processing technology.

Pima Mining N.L. is a mineral exploration company. In September of 1998, Pima’s 80% owned subsidiary, South Australian Magnesium Corporation (SAMAG) acquired a 100% interest in a number of magnesite deposits in the Leigh Creek area of Australia, and plans to establish a magnesium metal production plant at Port Augusta, South Australia. Magnesite has been mined intermittently in South Australia’s Flinders Ranges since 1919. Currently, SAMAG is proceeding towards the development of a proposed magnesite mine in the Willouran Ranges, North West of Leigh Creek. Their estimated mineral resources total 205 million tonnes of magnesite, with 16 million tonnes being in the “measured” category.

SAMAG has recently announced that they purchased Dow magnesium process and plant design. Plus they purchased the research records from Dow and hired several top Dow technical employees from Texas Division. The key component is electrical energy at a competitive price. This power situation has become a problem and recent statements from South Australian power officials indicate that project power costs of about 2 cents per Kwh may not be obtained.

Hatch Associates have completed a pre-feasibility study of the Port Augusta magnesium metal project, based on Dow electrolytic cell technology. SAMAG indicates that the study confirms that there is significant potential to produce magnesium metal at a cash operating cost of less than the US$0.61 per pound originally stated. Pima recently stated that, “The SAMAG project should produce 52,500 tpa of magnesium or magnesium alloys.” A detailed study on this project by Hatch has confirmed the low projected costs of production. First commercial production is scheduled for the first half of 2003.

In the Northern Territory, Mt. Grace Gold Mining NL acquired a 100% interest in the Batchelor Magnesite Deposit in late 1998. The Company has reported extensive occurences of magnesite in their tenement near Batchelor, some 85 kilometers south of Darwin. The Company has now initiated a metallurgical testing program to demonstrate that Bachelor magnesite is amenable to beneficiation by flotation and is suitable for the production of magnesium metal. The stated aim is to construct a 50,000 tpa magnesium metal smelter with commissioning by July 2002. Energy may be available from a proposed development of Timor Sea natural gas together with the existing natural gas pipeline infrastructure crossing Mt. Grace’s reserve.

Mt. Grace had retained DevMin Consultants to do a pre-feasibility study which will lead to a six to 12 month bankable feasibility study to prove the project’s viability.

Mt. Grace has signed an agreement with Magnesium Developments International to use the Heggie process for their magnesium production plant. The Heggie process is a thermal process.

Pilbara Magnesium Metal Associates (PMMA) is a joint venture based on Onslow Salt deposits in Western Australia. It was reported that HCC Pty Ltd and Multiplex Construction were part of this project. The plant would use bitterns from existing salt operations for the source of magnesium credits. This would require technology somewhat similar to that used in Israel or at the Great Salt Lake. It has been reported that Uri Ben Noon, the former CEO of Dead Sea Magnesium, is a consultant to this project. An Israeli engineering company is providing a preliminary feasibility study. It is also reported that test work is being conducted in Russia and Israel. The venture proposes a 50,000 metric ton per year magnesium plant.

CRA in conjunction with Fluor Daniel Australia and St. Joe Minerals conducted testing and pre-feasibility work in this same area in 1985-86 with the intention of using by- product magnesium-rich liquor from the CRA gypsum operations. At that time, the anhydrous magnesium chloride feed production process investigated was the Nalco process. There was an earlier 1970’s feasibility study for a magnesium metal production plant done by CRA and Ube Industries Ltd of Japan.

Electrolytic magnesium production plants produce more pounds of chlorine than they do magnesium. Shell and Dow are considering an integrated chemical plant in the same region and could possibly use the chlorine by-product stream for chemical production. With good sound basic technology for magnesium chloride production and an efficient electrolytic cell, the metal cost could be competitive with the other Australian projects.

It has been rumored that PMMA is in discussions with the Solikamsk magnesium production facility in Russia to obtain the latest electrolytic magnesium production technology.

Hazelwood Power is again investigating the possibility of recovering magnesium metal from fly ash. Hazelwood Power is a 1600 MW brown coal fired electricity generator located in the LaTrobe Valley of Victoria. The Victoria state power commission looked at recovering magnesium from fly ash in 1970’s. The private company (Hazelwood) is working with HRL Technology Ltd to conduct pre-feasibility studies into the possibility of using a magnesium chloride feed liquor produced from flyash for magnesium metal production. It has been reported that there is sufficient fly ash available to supply a 30,000 metric ton per year smelter for 30/40 years. The big advantage would be transmission-free energy contracts, excellent water resources, and waste disposal potential. The study was based on the Alcan process for the production of anhydrous magnesium chloride and Alcan electrolytic cells.

Anaconda Nickel has announced an A$1 billion magnesium smelter will be built near a magnesite deposit they discovered when looking for nickel. The project development plans have not been clearly established at the present time. Shortly after the announcement of the magnesium project, Anglo American bought 23% of Anaconda Nickel and are said to be very interested in magnesium.

A summary of some of the planned magnesium projects was presented by Chris Laughton of Golden Triangle at a magnesium meeting in Sydney, Australia in June 1999. See Table 2.

Table 2. Electrolytic Magnesium Producers – Current and Proposed

REPUBLIC OF CONGO (Brazzaville)

Magnesium Alloy Corporation (MAC) commissioned SNC-Lavalin in Montreal to perform a feasibility study for the Kouilou hydroelectric site conditional upon certain financing arrangements by SNC-Lavalin. Upon completion of the study SNC-Lavalin may assist MAC in the financing and/or construction of the Kouilou hydroelectric site in Congo. SNC-Lavalin with its engineering expertise in hydroelectric facilities as well as its extensive construction experience in Africa, makes an important addition to MAC’s technical team. MAC has an option to develop the Kouilou hydroelectric site as a potential low-cost energy source for this extraction plant. The Kouilou River site lies 50 km north of Pointe Noire.

The lead contractor for the feasibility study is Salzgitter Anlagenbau GmbH (SAB), an engineering and general contracting division of Preussag AG of Germany. Kavernen Bau-und Betriebs (KBB), another member of the Preussag Group, has extensive experience in all phases of solution mining including modeling of reserves, solution mining simulation, drilling production wells together with brine extraction and transport.

VAMI, SAB and KBB, the principal contractors along with several sub-contractors have done detailed studies. VAMI and Ukrainian State Titanium Institute have been performing evaluation of advanced and improved modifications to proven magnesium extraction technologies. VAMI and the Titanium Institute took part in the design and implementation of the magnesium extraction technology for the Dead Sea Works Magnesium facility. They also took part in the technical design for the proposed magnesium facility in Iceland in conjunction with Salzgitter. VAMI developed the technology and took part in the design and construction of all the magnesium plants in the former Soviet Union (Berezniki, Solikamsk, Kalush, Zaporozhe, Ust-Kamenogorsk).

Preliminary reviews of the MAC project, subject to low energy costs as currently indicated, indicate very low cost magnesium production. MAC anticipates a first phase annual production rate of 58,000 metric tons with a second phase of 16,000 tons. Production decision due in 1999 with production possible by 2001.

NETHERLANDS

The Dutch development of the magnesium project for the Northern Netherlands is proceeding at this time. The project is part of the Antheus public-private project organization charged with developing the metal business climate in Northern Netherlands. The Magnesium Development Project Delfzijl (MDPD) project team is led by Reinder Rentema as chairman. A plan for a magnesium metal production plant of 40-60,000 metric tons per year has been presented to interested magnesium producers and magnesium users and the investment community.

It has an estimated installed cost of US$400 million. A study run by Hatch Associates of Quebec, Canada recently evaluated and compared the “Antheus” option with existing magnesium-producing technologies. That study shows that thanks to the high purity brine and other favorable production factors the planned region can offer a proposition that will feature one of the lowest cost structures of all existing and planned magnesium producing plants worldwide.

The exact technology to be used has not been chosen, but the planned project location has operating magnesium chloride solution mines that are presently being mined at a rate of 200,000 tons of magnesium chloride per year. Hydro Terra of Canada is working on a feasibility study for this project. Ample electrical energy is available and power deregulation in Europe in 2002 will help keep costs competitive. The brine is reported to be very pure. Long term plans call for a combined plant that will use the chlorine by-product of the magnesium operations to combine with ethylene to make ethylene dichloride. One of the partners is Nedmag, a former Billiton Company.

NORWAY

The original Norsk Hydro magnesium production plant in Norway was built at Porsgrunn during World War II using I.G.Farben technology. This plant has been upgraded and modified to reach the present capacity of 40,000 mtpy. Presently, this plant uses seawater and dolomite to produce its anhydrous magnesium chloride cell feed. The plant has been upgraded to take care of environmental concerns and additional 10,000 tons of recycling capacity has been added in recent years. Further details will be available from a more detailed presentation by Norsk Hydro.

FORMER SOVIET UNION (FSU)

Now the oldest magnesium production operation in the world is the Solikamsk facility in Russia. It has been in operation since 1934. Solikamsk has installed a magnesium powder production plant and has a contract with GM for magnesium alloy. Solikamsk produces about 10,000 tpy of primary metal and 10,000 tons of alloy. The new magnesium granule plant is rated at 2,000 tpy with potential to expand to 8,000 tpy. Solikamsk also produces recycled magnesium. There have been plans and discussions to double the size of the primary magnesium plant. It was reported in 1998 that Solikamsk would participate in a project to use asbestos tailings from Uralbest. The plans were to double the Solikamsk production of primary metal and alloy. Estimated project costs were reported at US$300-500 million.

Avisma which is the magnesium plant at Berezniki produces an estimated 15,000 mtpy and no immediate plans were known about expansion.

In Kazakstan, the magnesium plant at Ust-Kamenogorsk produced an estimated 10,000 tons in 1998 with no announced plans of expansion.

In the Ukraine, there are two magnesium plants: Zaporozhe which did not operate in 1998 and Kalush produced an estimated 10,000 tons of primary magnesium in 1998. No plans for expansion have been seen although there have been several announcements made about start-up plans.

ICELAND

The Iceland Magnesium Project has been around in various forms since 1971. Promoted by the Sudenes Heating Corporation a producer of heat and electricity from geothermal steam, the project has had new life. A consortium of Salzgitter, Magniy (VAMI and UTI), and Amalgamet did a feasibility study for a 50,000 metric ton primary magnesium metal production plant. The proposed plant used an electrolytic process with cell feed produced using VAMI technology. The study confirmed the technical viability of such a project. Both seawater and imported magnesite were reviewed. Again, the potential supply of low cost electricity made the production costs attractive.

In 1998, Australian Magnesium Investments, purchased a 40% share m the Icelandic Magnesium Project. No decision has been made at this time as to when the design and construction will start. AMI is part of the Australian Magnesium Corporation and the acquisition presumably gives them the access to the Russian-Ukrainian technology or they could possibly use the technology that is being developed in Queensland. No immediate decision to proceed is expected until AMC gets the final results of the feasibility study based on demonstration plant operation.

ISRAEL

Dead Sea Magnesium has struggled to get into full production. In 1998, they produced 25,000 mt. Israeli Chemical Limited, the parent of DSM, will put up $50 million more for debottlenecking work. It was reported that this money will be used to improve equipment serving the DSM electrolytic reduction plant. It was said that the present auxiliary equipment can only process 27,000 tpy, but DSM hopes to develop a capacity of 35,000 tons The latest $50 million is in addition to the $460 million already spent.

The board 0f directors of Israel Chemicals (ICL) and its subsidiary Dead Sea Works Ltd have authorized the deal (on October 18, 1999) in which the magnesium unit which was a subsidiary of Dead Sea Works will be transferred to Israel Chemicals,” ICL Joseph Rosen reported recently. Dead Sea Works hold a 65% stake in the unit, while Volkswagen AG holds 35% of the joint venture. After the deal, ICL will hold 65% of the Magnesium unit.

ICL, a chemical holding company, will inject $65 million into the magnesium unit to promote growth and sales. Officials from Volkswagen and ICL have agreed on a joint business plan to invest $100 million into the magnesium unit to promote growth and profitability. According to the plan, Volkswagen will invest $35 million into the unit.

JORDAN

The Jordan Magnesia Company has built a US$70 million magnesium oxide plant. The project has a planned production of 50,000 metric tons per year of high quality magnesium oxide and 10,000 tons of specialty products from Dead Sea brine. The plant will be near the potash project. The Jordan Magnesia Company is owned by Arab Potash and JODICA.

The Near East Group is currently involved with the Arab Potash Company and is working to develop a magnesium production project using Dead Sea brine as a raw material, The plant will be a 25,000 ton per year facility. The Arab Potash group had signed an agreement to use Russian and Ukrainian Technology for the magnesium production facility, A major sponsor or partner is being sought by NEEC.

ALBANIA

Albania has a found a magnesium hydrosilicate deposit of Crysotil – Antigorite type, formed by tectonic myllonitization of ultarmafic rocks and their hydrothermal elaboration. The deposit has enormous reserves (over 100 million tones). There is strong interest in building a magnesium metal plant near the deposit.

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Construction of a Dh734 million magnesium alloy plant is being planned for Sharjah’s Hmriyah Free Zone. The smelter project is being promoted by the Sahari Group of Abu Dhabi and Normans of Albania. “This project is currently owned 50:50 by the two partners. The group is seeking European and Gulf partnership and funding. The ownership profile will be changed then according to spokesmen. The plant will have an initial capacity to produce 20,000 tons per year of magnesium products, to be increased to a 60,000 ton plant upon completion in the next 24 months. For the Sharjah project, raw material will come from Albanian mines which are estimated to have reserves of over 400 million tons. Magnesium products made at the plant will be sold to buyers in Japan, the United States and Europe.

CHINA

China has more installed magnesium production capacity than any country in the world. The exact capacity and how much is actually producing at any one time is unknown, because the bulk of the production is from small and widely scattered silicothermic Pidgeon process plants (i.e. small, horizonal steel retorts charged with briquettes of calcined dolomite and ground 75% ferrosilicon as a reductant). There are 24 magnesium production plants with larger than 3000 tons per year production (three are electrolytic, the others thermal).

Fifty plants have capacities of 1,000 to 2,000 mt. There are announced plans for expansion by several of the larger thermal plants. One of the large electrolytic smelters, Minhe, has also made announcements about expansion, but there has been no confirmation that this move is happening. The continued internal competition to sell magnesium has caused the Chinese to lower the selling price CIF their ports to very low numbers. In 1999, pure magnesium was available in port of Tanjain for US$1650 per metric ton. An internal group has attempted to establish a minimum export price of $2150 per metric ton. These efforts have not been completely successful.

The small plants can be shut down and started up relatively quickly. So as the price goes up, the country’s production will increase. It has been speculated that the very small plants need a price of US$1800 to break even, but based on the transaction prices the break even must be be closer to $1400. It is very subjective and varies widely according to plant and location.

PERU

One company in Peru has been reported to have a pilot plant running using Epsomite/Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (Epsom Salt). A company called TRC Technologies was looking for someone to proved a lump sum, turnkey plant in 1998. There has been no further announcements from this area.

COLUMBIA

Over the past several years, there have been reports that Columbia was investigating magnesium containing ore bodies with the idea of producing magnesium metal. This has not been updated in the last two years.

BRAZIL

Brasmag has operated a modified Ravelli silicothermic process in Minas Gervais for a number of years. On and off there have been announcements for expansions. At this time, nothing has been actually done to increase the 7,000 metric ton capacity.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

During project evaluation and feasibility studies, there are several key items that must be in place. Power costs must be competitive. The source of magnesium feed for any process must be readily available and free of any of the contaminating elements that could adversely affect the production process. There must be a sufficient differential between the production costs and the selling price to produce profit.

Australia and Quebec have power prices that are among the lowest in the world. The prefeasibility studies on new plants in these areas are indicating production costs that are lower than the estimated production costs of the present magnesium producers. The selling prices that have been used in the studies have been adjusted downward to reflect the impact of increased production. It appears from this quick summary that all is rosy.

Unfortunately there are a few areas that are not being addressed or referred to very often. The newest operating magnesium project, the Dead Sea Magnesium plant, had trouble getting production up to the design production levels. Costs for the facility tended to overrun the original budget. Final product quality was reported to be substandard for almost a year, The costs of production are not available, but are known to be higher than originally budgeted. This plant uses the Russian/Ukrainian magnesium production process, which has been proven to successfully produce magnesium using carnallite as a feed stock, but is still fairly complicated.

The Noranda Magnola project has had their design, build, construct costs increase to C$733 million while planned production went from 58,000 mtpy to 63,000 mtpy. Design engineering is complete and construction is about 50% complete. This plant is using proprietary technology to produce anhydrous magnesium chloride from asbestos tailings. Alcan electrolytic cells will be used to produce the magnesium metal. The process was proven in a pilot plant operation, but the design scale-up is very large.

The Australian project that is furthest along is the Australian Magnesium Corporation work in Queensland. A modified Nalco process was developed (AM process) by the Australian Magnesium Research and Development project and Australian patents obtained. AMC has built a 1500 mtpy demonstration plant at Gladstone, in Queensland. This plant uses the AM process to produce anhydrous magnesium chloride from Queensland magnesite from Kunwarara. A single full scale Alcan electrolytic cell is installed to produce magnesium metal and data for the feasibility study. There have been numerous problems in starting up and running the demonstration plant, including major electrolytic cell operating problems caused by initial introduction of iron contaminated feed. The cell has been cleaned, modified and is restarted and has now produced the first magnesium metal. Much of the feasibility study has been completed. The demonstration plant will supply operational data that are needed to verify the initial conclusions. The development work for this project will have taken 13 years and expended almost $100 million by the time sufficient data for a go or no-go decision is accumulated. It is hard to believe that there are many projects or many companies that would be willing to spend this amount of money on development.

The major stumbling block to magnesium production is the lack of a standard proven commercial technology. There is also a very limited experience base. For most processes, the experience lies in the hands of the present producers and most do not want to share or license their technology.

There are basically two processes, electrolytic and thermal. Each of these has many sub-groups or sub divisions. The electrolytic is based on converting magnesium credits to some form of magnesium chloride and breaking the bonds to create magnesium metal and chlorine gas. There are several versions of this technology, but the predominant is reduction of anhydrous magnesium chloride in a version of the I.G. Farben sealed cell which produces magnesium metal and chlorine gas.

The thermal process converts magnesium credits to magnesium oxide and removes the oxide by use of a reducing agent. There are many types of these processes being used. The most widely used is the silicothermic process, which utilizes ferrosilicon as the reducing agent.

The Australian projects are mainly looking at electrolytic reduction for their process. One project is looking at a thermal type plant. AMC uses the AM (Australian) process for production of anhydrous magnesium chloride and uses the Alcan cell for reduction. Crest has signed to use the VAMI/Ukrainian technology. SAMAG has signed to license Dow technology for the cell feed and the reduction areas. Golden Triangle has retained Bateman Brown and Root and is looking at some new technology for feed production, with an Alcan cell being mentioned for reduction. Hazelwood mentions Alcan technology for their process to convert flyash to magnesium metal. Batchelor has signed an agreement with Magnesium Developments International to license the Heggie thermal magnesium process. PMMA is reportedly working with some Israeli engineers with no specific mention of the process. It has been mentioned that Solikamsk technology is being discussed. No process was mentioned for Anaconda Nickel.

A summary table of projected costs and returns is shown in Table 3 (attached.)

Table 3. Proposed Magnesium Projects with Estimated Costs

This summary shows that there is profit in magnesium projects. These figures are basically taken from preliminary company announcements. As the projects develop further, the costs will be more accurately presented. However, it can be quickly seen that the rate of return is good if the projects are built and operated for the budget numbers. It can also be seen that there is some advantage in larger scale plants, IF they run according to plan. There are a lot of IF’s in all the Australian Projects (perhaps Dreams would be a better choice of word) and, for that matter, in all the new proposed magnesium developments around the World.

No one has ever designed or built a 90,000 metric ton per year plant. A plant that size will require a large amount of special design engineering and special construction. It will require special crew training and a long start up period. Unfortunately, the magnesium cells run in series and when you start one line, you must run them all. The cost of designing a plant where each cell could be electrically isolated by switching would be cost prohibitive. The cells must be charged with molten magnesium chloride, which must come from a special melter or from cells already on line.

The estimated rate of return on the thermal process that is planned for Mt. Graces’ Batchelor Project is surprising. Of course, that is the main great attribute of the thermal process. Low construction costs and the fact that small plants can be built and justified. Modular construction can be used to expand the plants in a fairly simple fashion, compared to an electrolytic plant.

Future Needs

For magnesium to be highly successful, especially in the automotive area, the price must be lower than the published prices of today. The ideal price ratio discussed is a magnesium price that equals the price of aluminum x 1.6. As mentioned in other places, this is only to take into account the density differences. There are some additional value-added properties of magnesium other than weight savings. These include machinability, die casting speeds, rigidity, and damping capacity, die wear. It has been mentioned by Ford that 1.8 x the price of aluminum would be acceptable while GM, Fiat, VW, Toyota and others suggest a much lower ratio. Accepting that price is the most critical factor there is also the absolute need for long term price stability, long term alloy development efforts, physical and chemical data on the alloy performances and a marketing effort that would provide assistance in the design and development of magnesium parts for specific vehicle platforms.

NEW TECHNOLOGY

The search for new and better efficient magnesium production is being carried on by major companies and small private research firms. Government sponsored programs can be found in most of the industrialized countries. Any researchers with a sound idea and the ability to present this idea will find funding easier now than ever before. There is great need for a simpler and more efficient electrolytic process and there are a large number of very talented technicians and scientists working on the problems. A major breakthrough could come most any day.

MAGNESIUM ELECTROLYSIS - A MONOPOLAR VIEWPOINT

Oddmund Wallevik1, Ketil Amundsen2, André Faucher3, Thorvald Mellerud4

1Norsk Hydro ASA, Research Centre, N-3901 Porsgrunn, Norway

2Hydro Magnesium, N-0246 Oslo, Norway

3Norsk Hydro Canada Inc., 7000 Raoul-Duchesne, Bécancour (Québec), Canada G0X 1B0

4Hydro Magnesium, Ave. Marcel Thiry 83, B-1200 Brussels, Belgium

Abstract

Norsk Hydro has been continuously engaged in development of magnesium electrolysis all since the start of production in Porsgrunn, Norway, in 1951. The first technology was inherited from IG Farben. Later, Norsk Hydro has developed its own diaphragmless electrolyser, now being used for a number of years in the Norsk Hydro’s plants in Porsgrunn as well as in Bécancour (Québec), Canada.

A presentation is made of the Norsk Hydro high-amperage monopolar electrolysis cell. Its performance is described, as basis for the conclusion that this type of cell presently is very competitive compared to other cell technologies, although it has a higher electrical energy consumption than bipolar cells.

Publications of performance data from magnesium plants in operation are scarce. Norsk Hydro hopes by presenting this paper to invite other producers to release comparable data.

History

Norsk Hydro has produced magnesium in Porsgrunn, Norway since 1951. The technology including the electrolysis was inherited from the German IG Farbenindustrie. Norsk Hydro has since then continuously developed the electrolysis, first by improving the IG technology, and then by developing its own diaphragmless electrolyser (DLE).

The first IG cells were operated at a current of 32 kA. In a new cell room built in the early 1960ies the cells were made for 62 kA, and an improved version were brought up to 80 kA. The last IG cell in Porsgrunn was stopped in 1989.

The Norsk Hydro development of a DLE cell was started in the late 1960ies, and two high-amperage prototypes were installed in Porsgrunn in 1974/75. The first high-amperage line was started in 1978 at a current of 260 kA, and the first full cell room brought on stream in Porsgrunn in 1983. Further developments have resulted in a current load well above 300 kA. A still higher amperage stage of more than 400 kA has been realised in the Norsk Hydro Canada plant in Bécancour, started up in 1989. Figure 1 shows a photo from the Bécancour cell room.

Figure 1. The Bécancour cell room

Presently, the annual production in Norsk Hydro high-amperage DLE cells amounts to some 85,000 tonnes of magnesium per year. About 50 % hereof is produced in Porsgrunn, based on liquid (molten) anhydrous magnesium chloride produced from dolomite and seawater, and the other 50 % in Bécancour based on solid (cold) anhydrous magnesium chloride produced from magnesite by the dehydration process developed by Norsk Hydro.

The Norsk Hydro monopolar cell

The main features of the Norsk Hydro cell are known from the description in the patent, ref. (1). Figure 2 shows the cell schematically.

Figure 2. The Norsk Hydro diaphragmless electrolyser. 1) Refractory material. 2) Graphite anodes. 3) Steel cathodes. 4) Refractory cover. 5) Metal outlet. 6) Metal. 7) Partition wall. 8) Electrolyte flow. 9) Electrolyte level. 10) Chlorine outlet.

The cell has a steel casing, lined with refractory materials. It is divided into two compartments, an electrolysis compartment and a metal separating compartment, separated by a partition wall. In the electrolysis compartment, densely packed graphite anode plates are installed from the top and double acting steel plate cathodes through the back wall.

The circulation of the electrolyte is parallel to the electrodes, bringing the metal to the separating compartment, from where it is extracted by vacuum operated vehicles and transported to the foundry. Chlorine gas is collected from one central pipe connection on top of the electrolysis compartment.

The anode tops are water cooled for longer life and higher cell productivity. The cell is equipped with special electrodes for adding AC electrical energy for temperature adjustment, or to keep the cell warm when the DC supply is off.

When liquid magnesium chloride feed is used, it is added to the metal separating compartment. When solid feed is used, it is fed into the electrolysis compartment countercurrent to the chlorine gas flowing out of the cell, to reduce the amount of air being brought into the cell with the feed.

Performance features

To assess the performance of alternative electrolysis cell technologies the following criteria are proposed:

- Amperage, current efficiency and cell capacity

- Specific energy consumption

- Cell life and rebuilding costs

- Chlorine quality

- Working environment and emissions

- Sludge formation

- Manpower productivity