Magnetoelectric Polymer-Based Composites E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
The first book on this topic provides a comprehensive and well-structured overview of the fundamentals, synthesis and emerging applications of magnetoelectric polymer materials. Following an introduction to the basic aspects of polymer based magnetoelectric materials and recent developments, subsequent chapters discuss the various types as well as their synthesis and characterization. There then follows a review of the latest applications, such as memories, sensors and actuators. The book concludes with a look at future technological advances. An essential reference for entrants to the field as well as for experienced researchers.
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Seitenzahl: 524
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface and Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: Magnetoelectric Effect of Functional Materials: Theoretical Analysis, Modeling, and Experiment
1.1 Introduction of Magnetoelectric Effect
1.2 Applications of Magnetoelectric Effect
1.3 Magnetoelectric Effect of Piezoelectric Ceramic
1.4 Magnetoelectric Effect in Insulating Polymers
1.5 Conclusion
1.6 Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 2: Materials Selection, Processing, and Characterization Technologies
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Materials Selection and Processing
2.3 Characterization Technologies
2.4 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 3: Types of Polymer-Based Magnetoelectric Materials
3a: Laminates
3a.1 Introduction
3a.2 Laminated Magnetoelectric Composites
3a.3 Piezoelectric Phase for Magnetoelectric Laminates
3.4a Magnetostrictive Phase for Magnetoelectric Laminates
3.5a Bonding Agent for Magnetoelectric Laminates
3a.6 Structures for Magnetoelectric Laminates
3a.7 Limitations and Remaining Challenges
Acknowledgments
References
3b: Polymer-Based Magnetoelectric Composites: Polymer as a Binder
3b.1 Introduction
3b.2 Polymer-Based Tb
1−
x
Dy
x
Fe
2−
y
by Magnetic Warm Compaction
3b.3 Multifaceted Magnetoelectric Composites
3b.4 Bonded Cylindrical Composites
3b.5 Multi-electrode Cylinder Composites
3b.6 Polymer Content and Particle Size Effects
Acknowledgments
References
3c: Poly(vinylidene fluoride)-Based Magnetoelectric Polymer Nanocomposite Films
3c.1 Introduction
3c.2 Ferroelectric Polymers
3c.3 The Selection of Magnetic Nanofillers
3c.4 Experimental Methods
3c.5 Characterization
3c.6 Summary
3c.7 Future Directions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4: Low-Dimensional Polymer-Based Magnetoelectric Structures
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Magnetoelectric Spheres
4.3 Magnetoelectric Fibers
4.4 Magnetoelectric Membranes
4.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 5: Design of Magnetostrictive Nanoparticles for Magnetoelectric Composites
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Synthesis Approaches to Produce Magnetostrictive Nanoparticles for Magnetoelectric Composites
5.3 Summary and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 6: Applications of Polymer-Based Magnetoelectric Materials
6a: Sensors, Actuators, Antennas, and Memories
6a.1 Introduction
6a.2 Polymer-Based Magnetoelectric Sensors
6a.3 Polymer-Based Magnetoelectric Actuators
6a.4 Polymer-Based Magnetoelectric Antennas
6a.5 Polymer-Based Magnetoelectric Memories
6a.6 Opportunities, Limitations, and Remaining Challenges
Acknowledgments
References
6b: Magnetoelectric Composites for Bionics Applications
6b.1 Introduction
6b.2 Bionics
6b.3 Cell Interactions and Electrical Stimulation
6b.4 Future Biomaterials for ME Composites
6b.5 Characterization Tools for Nanoscale ME
Acknowledgments
References
6c: Energy Harvesting
6c.1 Introduction
6c.2 Magnetoelectric Composites for Energy Harvesting
6c.3 Energy-Harvesting Devices Based on Magnetoelectric Composites
6c.4 Conclusion
References
6d: High-Temperature Polymers for Magnetoelectric Applications
6d.1 Introduction
6d.2 Types of Piezoelectric Polymers
6d.3 ME Effect Using Piezoelectric Polyimides
6d.4 Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: Open Questions, Challenges, and Perspectives
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Table of Contents
Preface
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: Magnetoelectric Effect of Functional Materials: Theoretical Analysis, Modeling, and Experiment
Figure 1.1 Schematic of proposed laminated composites configuration of magnetostrictive and piezoelectric materials [6].
Figure 1.2 Schematic diagrams of (a) the proposed ME/EM composite VEH and (b) the ME/EM composite transducer [10].
Figure 1.3 Design of microstrip ME attenuator and ME resonator [13].
Figure 1.4 Schematic drawing of the experimental system of ME actuator and its torsion velocity measurement [14].
Figure 1.5 Torsion velocity of PZT beam versus the same dc magnetic field.
Figure 1.6 Torsion velocity of PZT beam versus the same dc magnetic field.
Figure 1.7 Schematic diagram of the rectangular shape piezoelectric beam subjected to ac and dc magnetic fields.
Figure 1.8 Torsion velocity of PZT beam versus ac current in conducting wire.
Figure 1.9 ME voltage of PZT beam versus ac current in conducting wire.
Figure 1.10 ME measurement system [16].
Figure 1.11 Comparison of ME current between discharged and nondischarged porous PP.
Figure 1.12 Schematic of equivalent circuit.
Figure 1.13 Comparison of ME effect between charged and noncharged cellular PP and PVC (@Bac = 0.1 mT,
f
= 1 kHz).
Chapter 2: Materials Selection, Processing, and Characterization Technologies
Figure 2.1 (a) Schematic of the measurement and the ME cantilever consisting of PVDF deposition on Metglas substrate. (b) Frequency dependence of the ME coefficient for an optimum dc field of 6 Oe and an ac field of 0.001 Oe.
Figure 2.2 Illustration of the operation principle of the shear–shear mode ME sensor. The directions of dc and ac magnetic fields in the magnetostrictive layers and the poling direction of PVDF are indicated.
Figure 2.3 Possible movements of the cantilever due to forces acting on the tip. (a) leading to deflection, leading to buckling, and leading to torsion of the cantilever. (b) Side and top views of the cantilever movement. (c) Possible movements of the laser spot on the segmented photodetector.
Figure 2.4 Domain imaging in 12 monolayers P(VDF-TrFE) film after annealing: (a) topography; (b) PFM amplitude; and (c) PFM phase.
Figure 2.5 (a) Topography, (b) PFM amplitude, and (c) PFM phase images of three different regions (virgin state, poling of , and poling of ) in the P(VDF-TrFE) thin films on Au/Si substrates.
Figure 2.6 Working principles of MFM, an optical fiber is used in close vicinity (distance ) to the magnetic cantilever to detect its deflection caused by the magnetic stray field of the specimen.
Figure 2.7 Schematic diagram of MOKE magnetometer apparatus. Abbreviations used are as follows: ND, neutral density filters and half-wave plate/polarizer for laser beam attenuation; BE, beam expander; Pol, polarizer; BS, beam splitter; L, lens; , quarter-wave plate; Var ND, variable neutral density filter; PD1 and PD2, photodiodes for MOKE and reference signals, respectively.
Figure 2.8 (a) Schematic demonstration of magnetocapacitance (or magnetodielectric effect): the change in the frequency-dependent capacitance (or dielectric constant) under an applied magnetic field, which could be contributed only from the magnetoresistance and interfacial capacitive effect in the magnetic–dielectric composite systems without piezo/ferroelectric components. The waveform of (b) the ME voltage and (c) the Faraday-induced electromotive force in real time. The has the same phase as , while the phase of is behind or ahead of 90°. The thin blue lines correspond to , while the thick red dot curves correspond to or .
Figure 2.9 In-plane magnetization ( at 0.01 T and 330 K) of LSMO film grown on single-crystal PMN–PT (001) measured using VSM with external electric field applied across the PMN–PT substrate. The arrows show the direction of the electric field sequence.
Figure 2.10 hysteresis curve showing the magnetic response of the PZT/LSMO heterostructure at 100 K as a function of the applied electric field, measured by a MOKE magnetometer. Insets represent the magnetic and electric states in the thin LSMO layer (blue) and PZT layer (red).
Figure 2.11 MFM images of the BaTiO
3
(BTO)–CFO heterostructure before (a) and after (b) electric poling with 10 V.
Figure 2.12 Images of Ni/BaTiO
3
heterostructure obtained at room temperature for (a) 0 V, (b) 300 V, and (c) 0 V following an initial electrical cycle. These images were spliced together on either side of a zigzag edge in the film, thus combining a PEEM image of the Ni film obtained with XMCD contrast, and a PEEM image of the exposed substrate obtained with XLD contrast.
Figure 2.13 (a) Schematic of CoFe (2.5 nm)/ (200 nm) multiferroic heterostructure for FMR measurements at varying angles α between the magnetic field and the easy axis and (b) relative FMR field dependence after applied voltage pulses along different orientations of the magnetic field.
3a: Laminates
Figure 3a.1 Configuration of magnetoelectric laminates.
Figure 3a.2 (a) Image of a flexible PVDF/Metglas unimorph laminate; (b) unimorph configuration; and (c) the three-layer laminate.
Figure 3a.3 Synthesis of the cross-linked ferroelectric P(VDF-TrFE)s.
Figure 3a.4 (a) ME voltage coefficient of the composites as a function of dc magnetic field. (b) ME voltage coefficients of the P3-Metglas composite as a function of frequency.
Figure 3a.5 Conversion of α-crystalline conformation into the β-crystalline conformation.
Figure 3a.6 (a) Magnetostriction and piezomagnetic properties of the Metglas; (b) magnetoelectric voltage coefficient and phase of Metglas/PVDF LT mode laminates; and (c) photograph of the Metglas/PVDF laminates.
3b: Polymer-Based Magnetoelectric Composites: Polymer as a Binder
Figure 3b.1 Illustration of the preparation process and ME measurement of the bonded Terfenol-D/PZT bilayered ME composites: (a) warm compaction process; (b) Terfenol-D polymer compacted sample; (c) PZT plate; and (d) ME composite.
Figure 3b.2 Frequency dependence of α
E,31
with
H
dc
= 1100 Oe.
Figure 3b.3 The ME voltage coefficient dependence on the applied magnetic field
H
dc
ranging from 0 to 5 kOe.
Figure 3b.4 Magnetostrictive coefficient dependence on the applied magnetic field
H
dc
of the bonded Terfenol-D composites.
Figure 3b.5 XRD patterns of the bonded Terfenol-D composites.
Figure 3b.6 Schematics of bonded Terfenol-D/Pb(Zr, Ti)O
3
ME composites.
Figure 3b.7 Frequency dependence of α
E,31
in parallel mode with
H
dc
= 700 Oe: (a) one PZT plate; (b) two PZT plates; (c) three PZT plates; and (d) four PZT plates.
Figure 3b.8 Frequency dependence of α
E,31
in serial mode with
H
dc
= 700 Oe: (a) one PZT plate; (b) two PZT plates; (c) three PZT plates; and (d) four PZT plates.
Figure 3b.9 The sketch map of (a) parallel mode and (b) serial mode.
Figure 3b.10 (a) Schematic illustration of the TDE/PZT cylindrical composites. Vectors identify the direction of the applied magnetic field, and the corresponding ME voltage coefficients and (b) picture of the actual sample. The scale is in centimeters.
Figure 3b.11 (a) α
E,A
dependence on the ac magnetic field frequency (
f
) at the optimal magnetic field (
H
m
), corresponding to the maximum ME coupling and (b) α
E,A
dependence on
H
dc
at the resonant frequency.
Figure 3b.12 Schematic illustration of the TDE/PZT planar laminated composites for the differential coefficient calculation.
Figure 3b.13 (a) α
E,32
dependence on the ac magnetic field frequency (
f
) at the optimal magnetic field (
H
m
), corresponding to the maximum ME coupling and (b) α
E,32
dependence on
H
dc
of at the resonant frequency.
Figure 3b.14 Schematics illustrating the geometrical arrangement of Terfenol-D/PZT cylindrical ME composites: (a) P-T-P; (b) T-P; and (c) T-P-T-P.
Figure 3b.15 (a) Schematic of the composite mode (the directions of applied magnetic field and polarization) (showing P-T-P as an example); (b) the α
E,V
dependence on the ac magnetic field frequency (
f
) at the optimal magnetic field (
H
m
) of the three samples, corresponding to the maximum ME coupling; and (c) the
H
dc
dependence of
a
E,A
at the resonance frequency.
Figure 3b.16 Schematics illustrating the contact surfaces and the free surfaces of the composites (without PZT): (a) P-T-P; (b) T-P; and (c) T-P-T-P.
Figure 3b.17 (a) XRD pattern of the crushed Terfenol-D particles and (b) Terfenol-D particles with the 150–180 µm size, observed by SEM.
Figure 3b.18 The ME voltage coefficient, α
E,A
, dependence on the volume ratio of epoxy content. The results are for the sample with the particle size of 150–180 µm.
Figure 3b.19 The ME voltage coefficient, α
E,A
, dependence on the Terfenol-D particle size. The results are for the samples fabricated with the epoxy content of 0.14 wt%.
3c: Poly(vinylidene fluoride)-Based Magnetoelectric Polymer Nanocomposite Films
Figure 3c.1 Number of publications based on the keyword “Magnetoelectric polymer nanocomposites” as per record available in the website.
Figure 3c.2 Schematic representation of MPNCs from ferroelectric polymer matrix and nanofillers and mutual control of polarization (
P
) and magnetization (
M
) by electric (
E
) and magnetic fields (
H
).
Figure 3c.3 Molecular structure of (a) α phase and (b) β phase of PVDF.
Figure 3c.4 Orientations of dipoles with and without poling.
Figure 3c.5 XRD patterns of CoFe
2
O
4
, NiFe
2
O
4
, and ZnFe
2
O
4
nanoparticles.
Figure 3c.6 Photographs of flexible PVDF/ferrite films.
Figure 3c.7 IR spectra of (a) PVDF/CFO, (b) PVDF/NFO. Prabhakaran and Hemalatha 2016 [34]. Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry, (c) PVDF/ZFO MPNC films Prabhakaran and Hemalatha 2014 [35]. Reproduced with permission of American Scientific Publishers, and (d)
F
(β) versus filler concentration.
Figure 3c.8 SEM images of PVDF/CFO, PVDF/NFO, and PVDF/ZFO MPNC films.
Figure 3c.9
M–H
loops of (a) CFO, (c) NFO, (e) ZFO particles and (b) PVDF/CFO, (d) PVDF/NFO, (f) PVDF/ZFO films.
Figure 3c.10 Variation of β fraction and ferroelectric parameters of PVDF with respect to (a) NiFe
2
O
4
, (b) CoFe
2
O
4
concentration, and (c) ZnFe
2
O
4
.
Figure 3c.11 ME response of (a) PVDF/CFO, (b) PVDF/NFO, and (c) PVDF/ZFO films.
Chapter 4: Low-Dimensional Polymer-Based Magnetoelectric Structures
Figure 4.1 (a) The fabrication process flow of the nanocomposites. (b) Optical image of a fabricated ME nanocomposite. (c) Focused ion beam tomography of the 3D distribution of magnetic nanowires aligned inside of the ferroelectric polymer matrix, cross-sectional plane is perpendicular to the plane of the nanocomposite film.
Figure 4.2 Scheme of a basic laboratory colloid-electrospinning setup.
Figure 4.3 SS-PFM mapping and analysis of ME materials.
Chapter 5: Design of Magnetostrictive Nanoparticles for Magnetoelectric Composites
Figure 5.1 (a) Multiferroic material, coupling of a ferroelectric (piezoelectric) and a ferromagnetic (magnetostrictive) to provide additional functionalities (magnetoelectric). (b) Illustration of preparation of a magnetoelectric particle composed of a ferrite core and piezoelectric shell. AB
2
O
4
stands for the chemical structure of spinel ferrites with magnetostrictive properties. ABO
3
stands for the chemical structure of perovskite with piezoelectric properties. (c) Coupling mechanism in a magnetoelectric material when a magnetic or electric field is applied to the multiferroic ME nanomaterial.
Figure 5.2 (a) Schematic of the elongation of a ferromagnetic material in the direction of an applied magnetic field: transverse and longitudinal magnetostriction. (b) Schematic showing that the rotation of magnetic domains under applied magnetic field causes internal strain and the stretching of the material in the direction of the applied magnetic field. (c) Magnetostriction measured at room temperature versus the external magnetic field.
Figure 5.3 (a) Classification of ferrites according to their crystal structure, crystal chemistry, and magnetic behavior. (b) The spinel structure of ferrites is shown indicating the tetrahedral and octahedral sites. Reproduced with permission of Issa
et al
. 2013 [13].
Figure 5.4 (a) Perovskite structure. (b) Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) images, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of barium titanate (BaTiO
3
) (BTO) NPs. Kim
et al
. 2014 [18]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society. (c) Some perovskites and their properties as ferroelectric materials.
Figure 5.5 Schematic representation of top-down and bottom-up approaches to produce nanomaterials. Classification of synthesis approaches to produce magnetoelectric nanomaterials.
Figure 5.6 Production of ME nanomaterials by solid-state reaction route. Scanning electron microscopy images of (a, b) pure MZF nanoparticles, (c, d) BTO1–MZF2 nanoparticles, (e, f) BTO2–MZF1 nanorods, and (g, h) pure BTO nanorods. BTO, BaTiO
3
; MZT, Mn
0.5
Zn
0.5
Fe
2
O
4
. Yang
et al
. 2009 [40]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley.
Figure 5.7 Hydrothermal method. (a–d) TEM image, energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectra, XRD pattern of nanocrystals reacted for 10 and 20 h, and HRTEM of CoFe
2
O
4
nanocrystals. Inset: its corresponding fast Fourier transform indicating that the particle is oriented along the zone axis [100]. Liu 2013. http://nanoscalereslett.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/1556-276X-8-374. Used under CC BY 2.1 license. Sol–gel method. (e) TEM image of ZnFe
2
O
4
nanoparticles, (f) TEM images of NiFe
2
O
4
nanoparticles, (g) particle size distribution of ZnFe
2
O
4
nanoparticles, and (h) particle size distribution of NiFe
2
O
4
nanoparticles. Atif and Nadeem 2014 [66]. Reproduced with permission of Springer. (i–k) Solvothermal method. TEM images of the NFO nanoparticles with varying particle size after varying the solvents, amount of surfactants, and heating rates. Bedekar
et al
. 2009 [25]. Reproduced with permission of Springer.
6a: Sensors, Actuators, Antennas, and Memories
Figure 6a.1 (a) Schematic representation of an ME sensor in a 2-2 geometry that is oscillating due to an external applied magnetic field. (b) Digital image of the ME sensor with two Schottky contacts. (c) Schematic representation of the ME sensor design. (d) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a ZnO microneedle with a length of several millimeters. The SEM image (d) of the ZnO microneedle clearly features the hexagonal base plane of the wurtzite structure. (Gröttrup
et al.
2016 [4]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley.)
Figure 6a.2 Representation of the ME magnetic field sensing mechanism. (Martins and Lanceros-Méndez 2013 [5]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley.)
Figure 6a.3 Representation of the ME magnetic field sensing mechanism. (Jahns
et al.
2013 [22]. Reproduced with permission of The American Ceramic Society.)
Figure 6a.4 (a) “Cell clinic” for single-cell studies. (b) Functionalizing the lid and cavity floor with electrical, chemical, and optical stimulation. (Smela 2003 [37]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley.)
Figure 6a.5 Geometry of the proposed antenna. (a)
x
-Axis side view; (b)
y
-axis side view; (c) structure of elliptical ring; and (d) part of transition balloon at the bottom layer. (Wang
et al
. 2015 [41]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley.)
Figure 6a.6 Representation of a four-state memory based on ME materials. (Martins and Lanceros-Méndez 2013 [5]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley.)
6b: Magnetoelectric Composites for Bionics Applications
Figure 6b.1 ME composite particles, consisting of ferroelectric and ferromagnetic phases, in the form of dispersible, injectable electrodes for targeting electrical stimulation at the level of single cells and cell surface molecules.
Figure 6b.2 (a–d) LIVE/DEAD staining of MC3T3-E1 preosteoblasts cultured on (a) nonpoled PVDF and (b) nonpoled PVDF with titanium; (c) poled PVDF or (d) poled PVDF with titanium after cell culture for 3 days. The scale bar is 50 mm for all the images. Ribeiro
et al
. 2012 [28]. Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry. (e) MC3T3-E1 osteoblast cell density (cell mm
−2
) on the nonpoled P(VDF-TrFE) (blue, A), nonpoled P(VDF-TrFE)/TD (red, B), or poled P(VDF-TrFE)/TD (green, C) under static and dynamic conditions for 72 h.
Figure 6b.3 Three types of nanostructured ME materials: (a) spherical core–shell nanoparticles with magnetostrictive core encapsulated in piezoelectric shell, (b) core–shell nanofiber with magnetostrictive core and piezoelectric coating, and (c) a composite superparticle with magnetic nanoparticles embedded into piezoelectric polymer [49].
Figure 6b.4 Morphology of (a and b) PVDF polymer and the multiferroic CFO/PVDF microspheres with (c) 5 wt%, (d) 21 wt%, and (e) 27 wt% CFO nanoparticles.
Figure 6b.5 Illustration of a field-controlled targeted drug (PTX) delivery by MENs through a capillary. (a) Applying a local magnetic field,
H
, enhances the targeted delivery efficacy by localizing MENs into the tumor region. (b) Schematic of controlled release of PTX by the application of magnetic field.
Figure 6b.6 (a) Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image of core–shell MENs. (b) EEG waveforms from the two EEG channels with MENs in the brain under exposure to an external 100-Oe ac magnetic field at a frequency of 10 Hz. The vertical scale bar for the waveform signal is 5 mV. (c) Schematic illustration of the novel concept to use MENs for “mapping” the brain for noninvasive electric field stimulation of selected regions deep in the brain. (i) MENs are forced into the brain across BBB via application of a dc magnetic field gradient. (ii) When in the brain, MENs are distributed over the entire brain or in selected regions by applying spatially varying dc magnetic field gradients. The presence of MENs effectively creates a “new brain microenvironment,” in which the intrinsic electric signals due to the neural activity are strongly coupled at the subneuronal level to the external magnetic fields generated by remote sources. (iii) Such coupling can be used for noninvasive high-efficacy stimulation of selected regions deep in the brain by applying focused and relatively low (∼100 Oe) near-dc (<1000 Hz) magnetic field.
Figure 6b.7 Illustration of uniaxially oriented dipole moments in piezoelectric biopolymers. (a) Collagen and (b) DNA. The red arrows indicate the dipole direction of each moment.
Figure 6b.8 (a) Schematic view of atomic force microscopy system used to measure the piezorsponse and (b) vertical displacement of CNC. (Csoka
et al
. 2012 [74]. Reproduced with the permission of American Chemical Society.) (c) Schematic view of atomic force microscopy system to measure the piezoelectricity and vertical displacement of M13 Phage films.
Figure 6b.9 (a) Schematic view of cellulose-based ME laminate. The ordered sections of cellulose (b) provides crystalline structure in which the aligned dipoles of saccharide (c) give rise to piezoelectric properties. (d) Frequency-dependent trace of the ME voltage coefficient of hot-press cellulose/Metglas laminate under
H
dc
= 10.8 Oe and
H
ac
= 0.5 Oe.
Figure 6b.10 (a) Schematic diagrams of the experimental setup. (b) Principle of the dual-frequency excitation-based resonant-amplitude tracking.
Figure 6b.11 Amplitude PFM curves of the piezoresponse of the PTO–NFO bilayered structure collected in DART mode under different magnetic fields. The plots have been translated vertically to increase their visibility.
Figure 6b.12 Bio-atomic force microscopy approaches for measuring biomolecular interactions at magnetoelectric composite surfaces. (a) Single-molecule force spectroscopy for measuring binding forces of single proteins.
6c: Energy Harvesting
Figure 6c.1 Interactions involved in magnetoelectric energy harvesting. When a magnetoelectric composite device is placed in the vicinity of an ac magnetic field, such as near by electronic devices transmitting electromagnetic signals or current-carrying wires in electricity pylons, the magnetostrictive component of the device will lengthen or shorten. This results in strain, which is coupled to the piezoelectric component, therefore, inducing the direct piezoelectric effect, and thus a voltage is generated across an external electrical load. An electronic device can then be powered directly or the energy can be stored.
Figure 6c.2 In the presence of an externally applied magnetic field, ferromagnetic materials experience magnetostriction. Within the ferromagnetic material, there are many magnetic domains, which are regions of aligned magnetic dipole moments. Within each domain, there can be multiple crystallites. The material deforms due to the realignment of the magnetic domains (a). This is from either domain growth or rotation and hence deformation of the domains (b).
Figure 6c.3 polyvinylidene fluoride in α and β crystalline phases. Only the β phase is piezoelectric because of its all-trans conformation.
Figure 6c.4 Composite structures: (a) (0–3), (b) (1–3), (c) (2–2), (d) (1–1), and (e) (0–1). Green represents the magnetostrictive component and beige represents the piezoelectric component.
Figure 6c.5 (a) A cross-sectional schematic of the magnetoelectric multilayered capacitor used by Israel
et al
., where
E
z
is the
z
-component of the electric field, which is generated by a voltage applied between the terminals in the BaTiO
3
dielectric layers. (b) The easy-axis magnetization
M
versus applied magnetic field μ
0
H
for
E
= 0 (black) and
E
= 306 kV cm
−1
(red). The ME coefficient taken as here (dashed) and the hard-axis magnetization (dotted) are also included. The magnetoelectric responses (
M
vs
E
) for (c) a saturating applied and (d) μ
0
H
= 45 mT, where shows a peak value. Red dotted lines are the corresponding
y
-component of strain of the device.
Figure 6c.6 (a) ME coupling coefficient, versus dc magnetic field for three ME devices of different lengths. (b) The normalized power densities of the same three devices versus the length of each.
6d: High-Temperature Polymers for Magnetoelectric Applications
Figure 6d.1 Scheme of a ferroelectret with metal electrodes on both sides showing the flow of charges resulting from a thickness variation.
Figure 6d.2 Molecular structures of some ferroelectret polymers. (a) PP, (b) PET, (c) COC, (d) PEN, (e) FEP, and (f) CYTOP.
Figure 6d.3 Molecular structures of some bulk semicrystalline piezoelectric polymers. (a) Nylon-11, (b) polyurea-9, (c) PLLA, (d) polypropylene oxide, (e) poly(β-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB), and (f) Parylene-C.
Figure 6d.4 All-trans conformation of polyamides: (a) odd-numbered nylon and (b) even-numbered nylon. The dipole directions are indicated by arrows.
Figure 6d.5 Scheme of polyaddition reaction for the synthesis of polyureas with some of the diamine and diisocyanate molecules used.
Figure 6d.6 Molecular structures of some bulk amorphous piezoelectric polymers. (a) PDVC, (b) PVAc, (c) PAN, (d) PPEN, (e) poly(1-bicyclobutanecarbonitrile), (f)
p
-(2,2,3,3-tetracyanocyclopropyl)phenoxyethyl acrylate (g) P(VDCN-VAc), and (h) 2,6(β-CN)APB/ODPA.
Figure 6d.7 Scheme of the two repetitive units of the copolyimides with the polar groups. Maceiras
et al
. 2014 [171]. Reproduced with permission of Institute of Physics.
Figure 6d.8 Schematic of a three-layer sandwich laminate formed by a poled polyimide among two ribbons of magnetostrictive Vitrovac 4040® (a) and a CoFe
2
O
4
nanoparticles/copolyimide 0CN–2CN nanocomposite (b).
List of Tables
3b: Polymer-Based Magnetoelectric Composites: Polymer as a Binder
Table 3b.1 Typical characteristics of some representative ME composites
Table 3b.2 ME voltage coefficients (α
E,V
), ME efficiency factor (ME-EF), and effective working surface specific value (
A
eff
) of the three samples
3c: Poly(vinylidene fluoride)-Based Magnetoelectric Polymer Nanocomposite Films
Table 3c.1 PVDF films poled at different experimental conditions
Table 3c.2 The list of few magnetic nanoparticles with noticeable magnetostriction coefficients
Table 3c.3 Saturation magnetization of PVDF/ferrite films
Table 3c.4 Percentage enhancement in polarization of PVDF/CFO
Table 3c.6 Percentage enhancement in polarization of PVDF/ZFO
Table 3c.5 Percentage enhancement in polarization of PVDF/NFO
Table 3c.7 Comparison of present work with the reported ME coefficient values
Chapter 5: Design of Magnetostrictive Nanoparticles for Magnetoelectric Composites
Table 5.1 Room-temperature saturation magnetostrictive coefficient of some materials
6c: Energy Harvesting
Table 6c.1 Magnetic material properties of some magnetostrictive materials
Table 6c.2 Piezoelectric material properties for ceramic, single-crystal, and polymer materials
Table 6c.3 Magnetoelectric coupling coefficient, α comparison for various magnetoelectric composite devices, both polymer-based and others
Table 6c.4 Power outputs of the same devices from Table 6c.3 where energy is harvested from the magnetic field, vibrations, and both
6d: High-Temperature Polymers for Magnetoelectric Applications
Table 6c.1 Summary of the most promising piezoelectric polymers for applications at temperatures higher than 100 °C
Magnetoelectric Polymer-Based Composites
Fundamentals and Applications
Edited by Senentxu Lanceros-Méndez and Pedro Martins
Editors
Prof. Senentxu Lanceros-Méndez
Universidade do Minho
Centro de Física
Campus de Gualtar
Braga 4710-057
Portugal
Prof. Pedro Martins
Universidade do Minho
Centro de Física
Campus de Gualtar
Braga 4710-057
Portugal
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List of Contributors
Chess Boughey
University of Cambridge
Department of Materials Science & Metallurgy
27 Charles Babbage Road
Cambridge CB3 0FS
UK
Xiao Chen
Northeast Electric Power University
School of Electrical Engineering
169 Changchun Road
Jilin 132013
China
Renato Gonçalves
Universidade do Minho
Departamento de Física
4710-057 Braga
Portugal
Hong-Yan Guo
Northeast Electric Power University
School of Electrical Engineering
169 Changchun Road
Jilin 132013
China
Jawaharlal Hemalatha
National Institute of Technology
Advanced Materials Lab
Department of Physics
Tiruchirappalli
Tamilnadu 620015
India
Michael J. Higgins
University of Wollongong
ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science
Intelligent Polymer Research Institute/AIIM Faculty
Innovation Campus
Squires Way
NSW 2522
Australia
Sohini Kar-Narayan
University of Cambridge
Department of Materials Science & Metallurgy
27 Charles Babbage Road
Cambridge CB3 0FS
UK
Senentxu Lanceros-Mendez
Universidade do Minho
Centro de Física
Campus de Gualtar
Braga 4710-057
Portugal
and
BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials
Applications and Nanostructures
Parque Científico y Tecnológico de Bizkaia
Bld 500, 48160 Derio
Spain
and
IKERBASQUE
Basque Foundation for Science
Maria Diaz de Haro 3
48013 Bilbao
Spain
Luis Manuel León
University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU)
Macromolecular Chemistry Research Group (LABQUIMAC)
Department of Physical Chemistry
Faculty of Science and Technology
Spain
and
BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures
Parque Científico y Tecnológico de Bizkaia
Bld 500, 48160 Derio
Spain
Chen Liu
Tsinghua University
School of Materials Science and Engineering, and State Key Lab of New Ceramics and Fine Processing
Beijing 100084
China
Jing Ma
Tsinghua University
School of Materials Science and Engineering, and State Key Lab of New Ceramics and Fine Processing
Beijing 100084
China
Alberto Maceiras
University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU)
Macromolecular Chemistry Research Group (LABQUIMAC)
Department of Physical Chemistry
Faculty of Science and Technology
Spain
Pedro Martins
Universidade do Minho
Centro de Física
Campus de Gualtar
Braga 4710-057
Portugal
De'an Pan
Beijing University of Technology
Institute of Circular Economy
100 Ping Le Yuan
Beijing 100124
China
Thandapani Prabhakaran
National Institute of Technology
Advanced Materials Lab
Department of Physics
Tiruchirappalli
Tamilnadu 620015
India
Sílvia Reis
Universidade do Minho
Departamento de Física
Braga 4710-057
Portugal
Victor Sebastian
University of Zaragoza
Institute of Nanoscience of Aragon
R+D Building
C/Mariano Esquillor, s/n
Zaragoza 50018
Spain
and
Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine
CIBER-BBN
Madrid 28029
Spain
and
University of Zaragoza
Department of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technology
Zaragoza
Spain
Marco Silva
Universidade do Minho
Centro de Física
Campus de Gualtar
Braga 4710-057
Portugal
Lu Song
Tsinghua University
School of Materials Science and Engineering, and State Key Lab of New Ceramics and Fine Processing
Beijing 100084
China
Yang Song
University of Science and Technology Beijing
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Institute for Advanced Materials and Technology
30 Xueyuan Road
Beijing 100083
China
and
University of South Florida
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
4202 E Fowler Ave
Tampa, FL 33620
USA
José Luis Vilas
University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU)
Macromolecular Chemistry Research Group (LABQUIMAC)
Department of Physical Chemistry
Faculty of Science and Technology
Spain
and
BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures
Parque Científico y Tecnológico de Bizkaia
Bld 500, 48160 Derio
Spain
Alex Alexei Volinsky
University of South Florid
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Tampa, FL 33620
USA
Gordon G. Wallace
University of Wollongong
ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science
Intelligent Polymer Research Institute/AIIM Faculty
Innovation Campus, Squires Way
NSW 2522
Australia
Chengzhou Xin
Tsinghua University
School of Materials Science and Engineering, and State Key Lab of New Ceramics and Fine Processing
Beijing 100084
China
Zhilian Yue
University of Wollongong
ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science
Intelligent Polymer Research Institute/AIIM Faculty
Innovation Campus, Squires Way
NSW 2522
Australia
Jia-Wei Zhang
Northeast Electric Power University
School of Electrical Engineering
169 Changchun Road
Jilin 132013
China
and
Harbin University of Science and Technology Key Laboratory of Engineering Dielectric and its Application of Ministry of Education
Harbin
China
Tian Zheng
University of Wollongong
ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science
Intelligent Polymer Research Institute/AIIM Faculty
Innovation Campus, Squires Way
NSW 2522
Australia
Yan Zong
University of Wollongong
ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science
Intelligent Polymer Research Institute/AIIM Faculty
Innovation Campus, Squires Way
NSW 2522
Australia
Zhijun Zuo
Functional Materials Research Institute
Central Iron and Steel Research Institute
No. 76 Xueyuan South Road
Beijing 100081
China
Preface and Acknowledgments
In every branch of knowledge the progress is proportional to the amount of facts on which to build, and therefore to the facility of obtaining data.
James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)
This book was motivated by the desire for providing a suitable and complete account of the evolution, state of the art, and main challenges of the interesting and growing field of polymer-based magnetoelectric (ME) materials. In this scope, an overview of the frontline research of this fascinating research field has been presented by selected authors with innovative and preponderant work.
The book provides an introduction to polymer-based ME materials and their physicochemical insights, design for technological applications, and implementation into devices.
Chapter 1 deals with the theoretical analysis and modeling of the ME effect of functional materials. The ME effect and its application in single crystal, multilayered composites, and piezoelectrics under the Lorentz force induced by eddy currents have been discussed.
Chapter 2 deals with materials selection, processing, and characterization technologies. Almost two decades of research, innovation, and development on different systems with various compositions and structures are summarized.
Chapter 3 comprises three contributions toward the different types of polymer-based ME materials that we can find in the literature: laminates, polymer “as a binder,” and nanocomposites. Many exciting results are presented, new concepts are addressed, and future studies are suggested to be carried out for further research on these scientifically interesting and industrially relevant materials.
In the same line, Chapter 4 focuses on the new opportunities and challenges that low dimensionality offers to the nanocomposite structure.
The subject of Chapter 5 is the design of magnetostrictive nanoparticles for ME composites. This chapter focuses on those nanomaterials that, after being coupled to a piezoelectric polymer matrix, can provide unique ME responses.
Chapter 6 presents three contributions concerning the applications of polymer-based ME materials: sensors and actuators, biomedical materials, energy harvesters, and high-temperature devices are presented and discussed. With this application-oriented chapter, it is intended to provide an overview of the ME effect-based devices, the figures of merit, and the problems concerning materials selection, applicability, and design considerations.
Finally, Chapter 7 indicates some of the open questions, challenges, and perspectives of this research field.
This book would have not been possible without the dedicated and insightful work of the authors of the different chapters. The editors truly thank the kindness, dedication, and excellence in providing the different high-quality chapters that show the strength, direction, dimension, and potential of the world of ME polymer-based materials. Truly thanks for sharing with us this important landmark in the area!
This book could have not also been possible without the continuous support, dedication, and understanding from our colleagues from the Electroactive Smart Materials Group of the Center of Physics, University of Minho, Portugal, and from the research group at the BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications, and Nanostructures, Leioa, Spain. Thank you all for working together, sharing knowledge together, growing together, and living together as a Group!
Last but not least, we truly thank the team from Wiley for their excellent support: from the first contacts with Jolke Perelaer to the last with Samanaa Srinivas and Sujisha Kunchi Parambathu, passing through the different colleagues who supported this work; their kindness, patience, technical expertise, ideas, perspectives, and insights were essential to make this book come true. We are deeply grateful to them for their generous assistance.
Let us hope this book fulfills its purpose of bringing together the best and most relevant issues on polymer-based ME materials, allowing for a deeper understanding, and pointing out the main challenges and directions for the near future so that we together contribute to a bright future of innovation and implementation in this relevant field!
Braga, Portugal
Pedro Martins and Senentxu Lanceros-Mendez
Chapter 1Magnetoelectric Effect of Functional Materials: Theoretical Analysis, Modeling, and Experiment
Jia-Wei Zhang1, 2, Hong-Yan Guo1, Xiao Chen1 and Rui-Tong Liu3
1Northeast Electric Power University, School of Electrical Engineering, 169 Changchun Road, Jilin, 132013, China
2Harbin University of Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Engineering Dielectric and its Application of Ministry of Education, Harbin, China
3State Grid Liaoning Province Power Company Limited Power Research Institute, Shenyang 110181, China
1.1 Introduction of Magnetoelectric Effect
Magnetoelectric (ME) effect is defined as an induced dielectric polarization under an applied magnetic field and/or an induced magnetization under an external electric field [1]. Materials with ME properties are called magnetoelectric materials (MMs). There are single- and multiphase MMs. Single-phase MMs contain only one type of structure. Little research has been done on single-phase MMs because the intrinsic ME coupling in single-phase compounds is generally quite weak, especially at room temperature. The ME effect in multiphase composite materials is the product of ferromagnetic magnetostriction and ferroelectric piezoelectricity [2].
1.1.1 Single-Phase Magnetoelectric Materials
Single-phase materials possessing both antiferromagnetic and ferroelectric constituents in the same phase are the first discovered ME materials. In 1894, Pierre Curie predicted the possibility of an intrinsic ME effect in some single-phase materials. Although the terminology “magnetoelectric effect” was defined by Debye in 1926, it remained a speculation until 1960 when the first real MM Cr2O3 was discovered [3]. In 1969, Homreich discovered some candidates of MMs based on the magnetic point group, including Fe2TeO6, Cr2TeO6, FeCrWO6, Cr2WO6, Ca2FeAlO5, and FeNaO2. In 1970, BiFeO3 was found to be unique among various ME multiferroics because of its exceptionally high antiferromagnetic and ferroelectric transition temperatures well above room temperature [4]. An important breakthrough in 2003 was the discovery of large room-temperature ferroelectric polarization in coexistence with magnetization in BiFeO3 thin films, which presents a theoretical investigation on BiFeO3 bulks, films, and heterostructures.
1.1.2 Multiphase Materials
In the past century, to overcome the drawbacks of weak ME effect in single-phase materials, ME materials have evolved from single-phase compounds to multiphase materials. Multiphase materials are usually prepared by combining ferromagnetic and ferroelectric phases in the bulk and laminated forms.
In 1948, Tellegen failed to synthesize bulk composites with extrinsic ME effect by combining two different types of macroscopic particle composites with magnetic and electric dipole moments as the beginning of the investigation. In the early 1990s, bulk composites of ferrites and BaTiO3 or Pb(Zr, Ti)O3 (PZT) had been prepared by Newnham's group and Russian scientists through a conventional sintering process. In 2001, Patankar et al. performed extended experiments on several doped ferrite/titanate bulk composites such as CuFe1.8Cr0.2O4/Ba0.8Pb0.2TiO3. Recently, experiments on many doped titanate/ferrite composites were reported. The piezoelectric constituents include Bi4Ti3O12, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), PbMg1/3V2/3O3, and PbX1/3Nb2/3O3-PbTiO3 (X = Mg, Zn), and the alternative magnetostrictive constituents include LiFe5O8, yttrium iron garnet (YIG), and Permendur [5].
Laminated composites are typically made of magnetostrictive material layers bonded with piezoelectric material layers with different arrangements of the magnetization and polarization directions. Figure 1.1 shows an example of the epoxy-bonded-type three-phase laminated composites constructed by sandwiching a thickness-polarized PZT plate between two length-magnetized epoxy-bonded Terfenol-D particulate composite plates [7].
Figure 1.1 Schematic of proposed laminated composites configuration of magnetostrictive and piezoelectric materials [6].
Recently, the direct-coupling Lorentz force effect in the metallic phase with the piezoelectric effect in the piezoelectric phase induced by an extrinsic “dc” ME effect was observed in metallic/piezoelectric heterostructures. Guiffard et al. developed an ME current sensor with ME coupling in a simple piezoelectric unimorph bender induced by the eddy currents within the silver electrodes of the piezoelectric ceramic PZT subjected to ac magnetic flux [8]. Therefore, the MMs without the magnetic phase can be used in ME current sensors.
1.2 Applications of Magnetoelectric Effect
So far bulk composites, laminated composites, and metallic/piezoelectric heterostructures exhibit practically useful ME effect above room temperature. Nowadays, there are some main promising device applications, including ME sensors, ME transducers, ME microwave devices, and so on.
1.2.1 Magnetoelectric Sensors
In the work of Leung et al., a high-sensitive magnetoelectric sensor was obtained using ME composites by increasing the corresponding ME voltage coefficient of 27 mV Oe−1 during measurement [9].
The working principle of the sensor was as follows: when an ac vortex magnetic field was induced along the length of the electric cable by an ac electric current in the cable in accordance with Ampère's law, the sensor transduced the ac vortex magnetic field to an ac electric voltage based on the giant ME effect.
1.2.2 Magnetoelectric Transducer
Today, the magnetoelectric transducer has become a hot research topic, partly because the energy harvest from the environment has been considered to be a significant investigation by researchers. There are four main types of vibration energy harvesters (VEHs), namely electrostatic, piezoelectric, ME, and electromagnetic (EM) [10].
The VEH that consisted of a ME/EM composite transducer, a cantilever beam, and magnetic circuits was reported by Qiu and coworkers. The schematic diagram of the proposed ME/EM composite VEH is shown in Figure 1.2a. The ME/EM composite transducer was placed at the tip of the cantilever beam and could act as masses, which lowered the natural frequency of the cantilever beam and scavenged lower frequency vibration energy from environments more effectively. The schematic diagram of the ME/EM composite transducer is shown in Figure 1.2b. The transducer was made up of a coil and a three-phase laminate, which is composed of two Terfenol-D layers and a piezoelectric layer.
Figure 1.2 Schematic diagrams of (a) the proposed ME/EM composite VEH and (b) the ME/EM composite transducer [10].
The working principle of the ME/EM composite transducer is as follows: based on Faraday's law of electromagnet induction, when the composite transducers undergo alterations of magnetic flux gradient generated by a vibration source, the coil would induce an electromotive force due to the relative motion between the coil and the magnetic circuit. Meanwhile, based on the ME effect, the stresses induced by Terfenol-D layers would transmit to the piezoelectric layer, and finally the electrical power is generated.
1.2.3 Magnetoelectric Microwave Devices
Magnetoelectric microwave devices are the devices that can be tuned by magnetostatic field and electrostatic field when the devices are applied with composited MMs. Because of the advantages of low power consumption, low noise, and high-quality factor, the ME microwave devices have great potential in mobile communication system, electronic warfare systems, active phased-array radar under the national defense platform, and so on [11].
The attenuator with a microstrip transmission line on dielectric substrate and ME resonator was reported by Tatarenko et al. With the influence of an external electrical field, the ME effect shifted the line of FMR (ferromagnetic resonance), which is a powerful tool for the studies of microwave ME interaction in ferrite-piezoelectric structures [12].
As shown in Figure 1.3, the sample of layered structure consisted of the magnetic part with the YIG thin film placed on the GGG film and the piezoelectric part with the thin PMN–PT plate. Based on resonance ME effect phenomena, when applying the control voltage to electrodes of the ME resonator, a shift of FMR line would occur due to the resonance ME effect, and hence electrical tuning is realized.
Figure 1.3 Design of microstrip ME attenuator and ME resonator [13].
Tatarenko and Bichurin 2012 https://www.hindawi.com/journals/acmp/2012/286562/abs/. Used under CC BY 3.0 license.
1.3 Magnetoelectric Effect of Piezoelectric Ceramic
Previous reports of magnetoelectric materials with magnetostrictive/piezoelectric magnetoelectric laminates have been discussed by many researchers. However, it requires ac current supply on the electrically conductive Terfenol-D strips. Recently, the ME effect in the piezoelectric beam based on torque moment, which is generated from Lorentz force on the electrodes without magnetic phase in the sample and also without applying power source on the piezoelectric beam, has been reported by Zhang et al.
As shown in Figure 1.4, the measuring system was composed of a PZT beam and an electric wire, which induced the ac magnetic field that penetrated into the surface of the PZT beam. When the metal electrodes of the PZT beam were subjected to ac magnetic fields with suitable directions, frequency, and amplitude, the moment appearing in the sample surface would apply the Lorentz torque force, and thus the mangetoelectric voltage was generated. The lock-in amplifier was used for measuring the induced ME voltage at room temperature. The torsion velocity measurement was performed on the sample by using a laser vibrometer system composed of laser controller and a laser sensor head to prove that the apparent ME effect was a coupled magnetic and electrical phase through mechanical interaction. Figures 1.5 and 1.6 show a linear ME response that the voltage and torsion velocity of PZT beam are proportional to Hdc when 1 Oe ac magnetic field is applied with a constant frequency of 480 Hz (resonance frequency of piezoelectric beam).
Figure 1.4 Schematic drawing of the experimental system of ME actuator and its torsion velocity measurement [14].
Figure 1.5 Torsion velocity of PZT beam versus the same dc magnetic field.
Figure 1.6 Torsion velocity of PZT beam versus the same dc magnetic field.
In this experiment, the result of the linear ME response can be explained as that the magnitude of dc magnetic field from 0 to ±2400 Oe was proportional to the magnitude of the moment on the metal layer due to enhanced eddy current. From the aforementioned phenomenon, the ME response would be enhanced by increasing the torsion deformation, which is induced by the moment. Therefore, the generalized ME response without magnetic phase and also without applying power source in the measuring system was observed.
In addition, in order to explore the ME effect in piezoelectric ceramic and the application of ME sensor, the investigation with magnetic actuator has also been developed by Zhang et al.
As shown in Figure 1.7, the measuring system for investigating the ME response and torsion deformation of the beam was composed of a piezoelectric beam, an electromagnet, and an ac conducting wire, which induced the ac magnetic flux that penetrated into the metal part of the sample to generate eddy current. Due to the coupling of the piezoelectric layer and Lorentz force from the eddy current, piezoelectric bender's torsion deformation could be induced by Lorentz force, and thus piezoelectric voltage appeared on the sample [15].
Figure 1.7 Schematic diagram of the rectangular shape piezoelectric beam subjected to ac and dc magnetic fields.
As shown in Figures 1.8 and 1.9, the experimental results of PZT bender's voltage and the velocity and an approximate linear relation of ME voltage and torsion velocity versus ac current amplitude were obtained. From the results, the conclusion that the ME response and torsion intensity could be controlled by adjusting the ac current in the conducting wire close to the beam was drawn. Therefore, the dc magnetic field actuating the beam with a linear response and high sensitivity would be achieved with the ac magnetic field applied perpendicularly to the plane of a piezoelectric beam.
Figure 1.8 Torsion velocity of PZT beam versus ac current in conducting wire.
Figure 1.9 ME voltage of PZT beam versus ac current in conducting wire.
The aforementioned experiments of the ME sensor and the magnetic actuator with piezoelectric ceramic have shown that the prototype of the ME sensor and the magnetic actuator without magnetic phase and also without applying power source was promising to be put into practical applications of magnetic field sensing and actuating technology.
1.4 Magnetoelectric Effect in Insulating Polymers
With the advent of science and technology, the performance of the insulating polymers attracted great attention from the researchers. However, little research work has been done on the comparison of the charge-storage ability among the different electrets by using the ME measuring system. In order to investigate the ME performances before and after high-voltage corona treatment of different electrets, the discharged porous polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) had been chosen in the experiment.
As shown in Figure 1.10, because the ME current was induced by the integrated magnetic field, the suspended piezoelectric samples would be considered as the micro-generator whose ME effect could be suitably amplified by the current amplifier and the current subsequently observed by the oscilloscope.
Figure 1.10 ME measurement system [16].
As shown in Figure 1.11, the ME current in the corona-charged porous PP and PVC is higher than the nondischarged porous PP and PVC. Under the same poling conditions, the corona-charged porous PP possesses a higher ME current compared with the corona-discharged porous PVC.
Figure 1.11 Comparison of ME current between discharged and nondischarged porous PP.
This phenomenon is observed because the corona poling of the specimen led to the charge injection in the sample surface and volume and then formed a space-charge layer, which augmented the capacitance of the charged films due to the interfacial polarization after corona poling. It is indicated that the porous PP, which possesses better charge-storage ability, can enhance ME effect response. And the charges injected in the polymers can have an effect on the ME effect responses.
The basic element model can be established as follows: the induced eddy currents originate from the applied magnetic field, which induces magnetic flux through the surface measurement of the electrodes S and can be expressed as [15]
where is ac magnetic induction vector. Consequently, electromotive forces (emfs: ) appearing around loops in the metal electrode can be expressed as [17]
The equivalent circuit of the proposed modeling is as shown in Figure 1.12. In the schematic, the circuit with a capacitance , a resistance , and series with voltage source is equivalent to the sample in the magnetic field. The series with voltage source includes and , which are from Faraday effect and ME effect, respectively. is the resistance measured with current amplifier.
Figure 1.12 Schematic of equivalent circuit.
Zhang et al. 2014 [17]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.
The magnetically induced current sources of the in the circuit can be expressed as [17]
Because , can be expressed as [17]
where Z is the electrical impedance of the film at the measurement frequency and can be expressed as [17]
Finally, resolving Eqs (1.2) (1.4), and (1.5) gives the calculated results of the Lenz current as follows [17]:
The ME current sources of the in the circuit can be expressed as [17]
where is the ME alternative voltage and can be expressed as [17]
where is the electric field, the thickness of the sample, the ME voltage linear coefficient, and is second-order ME voltage coefficient. Because the voltage is alternative root mean square (RMS) of the alternative value of ME voltage, . And the ME current is a function of , which is a constant (in Figure 1.13), so .
Figure 1.13 Comparison of ME effect between charged and noncharged cellular PP and PVC (@Bac = 0.1 mT, f = 1 kHz).
The total current comes from both the magnetically induced current and the ME current [17]:
Finally, resolving Eqs (1.5) (1.7), and (1.8) gives the calculated results of the Lenz current as follows [17]:
And the ME coefficient is [17]
The investigation of ME performances in comparing the charge-storage ability among different electrets establishes the fact that enhanced ME performance could be achieved by using effective corona poling method on insulator polymers and not just by adding micro- or nano-additives into the specimen.
1.5 Conclusion
In this chapter, the ME effect and its application in single crystal, multilayered composites, and piezoelectric under Lorentz force induced by eddy current were discussed. A generalized ME effect was caused by an ac conducting wire and a piezoelectric beam from which a higher ME voltage coefficient was obtained than previous related research. The ME effects of such a designed piezoelectric beam set a good example of new ME systems without magnetic phase in the sample and also without applying power source on the piezoelectric beam. Magnetoelectric response of the magnetic actuator and the ME sensor composed of different electrets without magnetic phase is promising to be put into practical applications of magnetic field sensing and actuating technology.
1.6 Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Science and Technology Project of State Grid Corporation of China, National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (Grant No. 51307016), the State Key Laboratory of Engineering Dielectrics and Its Application (Ministry of Education, China), Opening Fund of Key Laboratory of Silicon Device Technology (Chinese Academy of Sciences), and Excellent Young Teachers Program of Northeast Dianli University. The authors would like to extend their sincere gratitude to Ms Feng Yan for her assistance in improving the English text.
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