Mantle Convection and Surface Expressions E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Geophysical Monograph Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1814

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021

Beschreibung

A multidisciplinary perspective on the dynamic processes occurring in Earth's mantle The convective motion of material in Earth's mantle, powered by heat from the deep interior of our planet, drives plate tectonics at the surface, generating earthquakes and volcanic activity. It shapes our familiar surface landscapes, and also stabilizes the oceans and atmosphere on geologic timescales. Mantle Convection and Surface Expressions brings together perspectives from observational geophysics, numerical modelling, geochemistry, and mineral physics to build a holistic picture of the deep Earth. It explores the dynamic processes occurring in the mantle as well as the associated heat and material cycles. Volume highlights include: * Perspectives from different scientific disciplines with an emphasis on exploring synergies * Current state of the mantle, its physical properties, compositional structure, and dynamic evolution * Transport of heat and material through the mantle as constrained by geophysical observations, geochemical data and geodynamic model predictions * Surface expressions of mantle dynamics and its control on planetary evolution and habitability The American Geophysical Union promotes discovery in Earth and space science for the benefit of humanity. Its publications disseminate scientific knowledge and provide resources for researchers, students, and professionals. Find out more about this book from this Q&A with the Author.

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Mantle Convection and Surface Expressions

Hauke MarquardtMaxim BallmerSanne CottaarJasper Konter

Editors

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Marquardt, Hauke, editor. | Ballmer, Maxim D., editor. | Cottaar, Sanne, editor. | Konter, Jasper, editor.Title: Mantle convection and surface expressions / Hauke Marquardt, Maxim Ballmer, Sanne Cottaar, Jasper Konter, editors.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, [2021] | Includes index.Identifiers: LCCN 2021001626 (print) | LCCN 2021001627 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119528616 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119528586 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119528593 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Heat—Convection, Natural. | Mantle plumes. | Surface fault ruptures. | Geodynamics. | Earth (Planet)—Mantle. | Earth (Planet)—Crust.Classification: LCC QE509.4 .M358 2021 (print) | LCC QE509.4 (ebook) | DDC 511.1/16—dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021001626LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021001627

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: Synchrotron X‐ray diffraction image collected in a high‐pressure/‐temperature diamond‐anvil cell experiment to determine the deformation behavior of (Mg,Fe)O ferropericlase; © Courtesy of Hauke Marquardt

Dedication

We would like to dedicate this book to Louise Kellogg(1959–2019).

We truly hope the multidisciplinary research in this bookrepresents the philosophy and spiritof her science, and believe that the research compiled herebuilds on her broad contributionsto the understanding of mantle convection over the lastdecades.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Jacqueline AustermannLamont‐Doherty Earth ObservatoryColumbia UniversityNew York, NY, USA

Thorsten W. BeckerInstitute for GeophysicsJackson School of GeosciencesThe University of Texas at AustinAustin, TX, USA;andDepartment of Geological SciencesJackson School of GeosciencesThe University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX, USA

Tobias BigalkeDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesLudwig‐Maximilians‐Universität MünchenMunich, Germany

Johannes BuchenSeismological LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA, USA

Li‐Hui ChenDepartment of GeologyNorthwest UniversityXian, China

Emily J. ChinScripps Institution of OceanographyUniversity of California San DiegoLa Jolla, CA, USA

Laura CobdenDepartment of Earth SciencesUtrecht UniversityUtrecht, The Netherlands

Sanne CottaarDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridge, UK

Mathew DomeierCentre for Earth Evolution and DynamicsUniversity of OsloOslo, Norway

Saskia GoesDepartment of Earth Science and EngineeringImperial College LondonLondon, UK

Takeshi HanyuResearch Institute for Marine GeodynamicsJapan Agency for Marine‐Earth Science and TechnologyYokosuka, Japan

Mark HoggardDepartment of Earth & Planetary SciencesHarvard UniversityCambridge, MA, USA;andLamont‐Doherty Earth ObservatoryColumbia UniversityNew York, NY, USA

Zhouchuan HuangSchool of Earth Sciences and EngineeringNanjing UniversityNanjing, China

Jennifer M. JacksonSeismological LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA, USA

Dougal A. JerramCentre for Earth Evolution and DynamicsUniversity of OsloOslo, Norway;andDougalEARTH Ltd.Solihull, UK;andEarth, Environmental and Biological SciencesQueensland University of TechnologyBrisbane, Queensland, Australia

Morgan T. JonesCentre for Earth Evolution and DynamicsUniversity of OsloOslo, Norway

Paula KoelemeijerDepartment of Earth SciencesRoyal Holloway University of LondonEgham, UK;andDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity College LondonLondon, UK

Sarah LambartDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, UT, USA

Sergei LebedevDublin Institute for Advanced StudiesDublin, Ireland

Vedran LekićDepartment of GeologyUniversity of MarylandCollege Park, MD, USA

Mingming LiSchool of Earth and Space ExplorationArizona State UniversityTempe, AZ, USA

Diogo L. LourençoDepartment of Earth and Planetary SciencesUniversity of CaliforniaDavis, CA, USA

Ross MaguireDepartment of GeologyUniversity of MarylandCollege Park, MD, USA

Ananya MallikDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of ArizonaTucson, AZ, USA

Lowell MiyagiGeology and GeophysicsUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, UT, USA

Pritwiraj MoulikDepartment of GeologyUniversity of MarylandCollege Park, MD, USA

Fabrizio NestolaDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of PadovaPadua, Italy

Andy NowackiSchool of Earth and EnvironmentUniversity of LeedsLeeds, UK

Sebastiano PadovanDeutsches Zentrum für Luft‐ und RaumfahrtInstitute of Planetary ResearchBerlin, Germany;andWGS, Flight DynamicsEUMETSATDarmstadt, Germany

Cody RandelLamont‐Doherty Earth ObservatoryColumbia UniversityNew York, NY, USA

Jeroen RitsemaDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of MichiganAnn Arbor, MI, USA

Dana L. RoyerDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesWesleyan UniversityMiddletown, CT, USA

Maxwell L. RudolphDepartment of Earth and Planetary SciencesUniversity of California, DavisDavis, CA, USA

Bernhard S. A. SchuberthDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesLudwig‐Maximilians‐Universität MünchenMunich, Germany

Evan M. SmithGemological Institute of AmericaNew York, NY, USA

Bernhard SteinbergerHelmholtz Centre PotsdamGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesPotsdam, Germany;andCentre for Earth Evolution and DynamicsUniversity of OsloOslo, Norway

Simon StephensonDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of OxfordOxford, UK

Henrik H. SvensenCentre for Earth Evolution and DynamicsUniversity of OsloOslo, Norway

Christine ThomasInstitut für GeophysikWestfälische Wilhelms-UniversitätMünster, Germany

Trond H. TorsvikCentre for Earth Evolution and DynamicsUniversity of OsloOslo, Norway;andSchool of GeosciencesUniversity of WitwatersrandJohannesburg, South Africa

Nicola TosiDeutsches Zentrum für Luft‐ und RaumfahrtInstitute of Planetary ResearchBerlin, Germany

Dapeng ZhaoDepartment of GeophysicsTohoku UniversitySendai, Japan

PREFACE

Convection in Earth’s mantle is linked to plate tectonic processes and controls the fluxes of heat and material between deep mantle reservoirs, the surface, and the atmosphere over billions of years. A better understanding of these mantle material cycles and their impact on the long‐term evolution of our planet, as well as their potential role on other planetary bodies, requires integrated approaches that involve all disciplines studying the solid Earth.

Over the past decades, the rise in geophysical data has provided increasingly sharp images of the deep mantle, including direct images of sinking slabs and rising plumes. Increasingly accurate and novel types of geochemical data of hotspot lavas provide a detailed account of the spectrum and origin of mantle heterogeneity. Models of mantle convection make predictions on the distribution of this heterogeneity through time, and on the evolution of our planet from accretion to the present‐day. In turn, mineral physics provides increasingly realistic material properties needed to interpret the geophysical observables and constrain geodynamic models. This profound progress in the deep Earth Sciences has even advanced neighboring fields such as Planetary Sciences, Cosmochemistry, and Astrobiology, for example by providing insight into the conditions for habitability on the timescales of biological evolution, and thus, for the sustainability of higher life.

This AGU book unifies researchers with an expertise in different solid Earth disciplines, including observational geophysics, numerical modelling, geochemistry and mineral physics, to outline current concepts on dynamic processes occurring in the mantle and associated material cycles. Since each sub‐discipline is restricted by fundamental uncertainties, true progress is increasingly made at the intersection between different sub‐disciplines. The present book is hence devoted to synergetic multi‐disciplinary work, motivated by the vision of a holistic picture of the deep Earth.

Despite the common call for trans‐disciplinary research, only limited work has been done that truly and quantitatively integrates different approaches. Sometimes, just the lack of a common language, with different jargon across discipline boundaries, prevents any directed and sustainable progress. It is our hope that this AGU book can help to bridge the gaps between different Earth Science communities, resolve some semantic issues, and foster future collaborations. We attempted to ensure that chapters are written in a style accessible for researchers from all sub‐disciplines. It is up to the reader to decide if we succeeded.

This book does not aim to provide a comprehensive overview of all relevant research strands. Instead, we aim to cover a wide range of relevant topics and emphasize the interdisciplinary connection between them. As the overarching idea of the book is to bridge between the disciplines, the subsections of the book are not sorted by discipline, but instead by guiding research questions.

The first part of the book summarizes the current state of the mantle, its properties and dynamic evolution. This is followed by part two, which discusses the transport of heat and material through the mantle, as constrained by geophysical observations and geodynamic model predictions. The final part of the book focuses on the surface expressions of mantle dynamics and its control on planetary evolution and habitability.

Part I: State of the Mantle: Properties and Dynamic Evolution

The viscosity of the mantle governs large‐scale material flow within our planet and ultimately dictates the interaction between Earth's deep interior and surface geology. The first chapter of this book, contributed by Maxwell Rudolph et al., focuses on the viscosity profile of the mid‐ and lower mantle and examines its connection to mantle dynamics. Based on analysis of the geoid and seismic tomographic models, the authors favor the presence of a low‐viscosity channel in the mid‐mantle.

Mantle dynamic processes and relevant properties, including mantle viscosity, are governed by the physical behavior of mantle minerals and rocks. Lowell Miyagi reviews the progress made in the experimental study of the plastic behavior of lower mantle materials at high pressures and temperatures. While the overwhelming amount of past experiments on lower‐mantle deformation has been performed on mono‐mineralic samples, he emphasizes the importance of understanding the effective rheology of rocks, which may behave dramatically different than the sum of their parts as a result of strain‐partitioning between the minerals.

The interpretation of seismic observations always critically relies on our knowledge about the elastic properties of Earth's mantle materials at the conditions expected at depth. This information is largely derived from high‐pressure/‐temperature experiments as well as computations. Johannes Buchen reviews the current state of high‐pressure/‐temperature elasticity measurements and outlines future directions. Exemplarily, he discusses the possible effect of the iron spin transition in ferropericlase, and evaluates the potential to resolve compositional variations in the mantle from seismic observations.

Geophysical observations, and their interpretation, can only provide a snapshot of the current state of Earth’s mantle, but do not directly constrain the causative history of mantle‐dynamic processes. Bernhard Schuberth and Tobias Bigalke review approaches to quantitatively link predictions from dynamic mantle evolution models to present‐day seismological observations. After providing a general overview of past works, they focus on the importance of better constraining anelastic effects and their uncertainties to interpret seismic observations, as may be constrained by future mineral physics work.

Complementary constraints on compositional heterogeneity within the Earth’s mantle, and thus on mantle convection and material cycles between the surface and the mantle, are provided through the analysis of trace elements and isotope ratios in various basaltic rocks exposed on Earth’s surface. Takeshi Hanyu and Li‐Hui Chen review our current understanding of chemical diversity in the mantle, as derived from the composition of surface basalts. They highlight some recent alternative models, and discuss implications for the deep cycling of volatile elements.

Part of the geochemical variation described in the chapter on isotopic data could result from selective sampling of the mantle through melting of different source lithologies as a function of pressure and temperature. Ananya Mallik et al. examine the role of melting a mantle assemblage of different lithologies, melt‐rock reaction, and magma differentiation for the genesis of mid‐ocean ridge basalts (MORB), ocean island basalts (OIB), and volcanic arcs.

Diamonds provide complementary information on the composition and mineralogy of the deep mantle. Tiny mineral and glass inclusions in diamonds directly sample the petrology of the deep Earth, providing constraints on its chemistry and mineralogy beyond those derived through the interpretation of geophysical observations and geochemical analyses of surface volcanic rocks. Evan Smith and Fabrizio Nestola summarize the progress in this field during the last decade, focusing on findings of major relevance to our understanding of deep Earth material and volatile cycles.

The D" layer in the lowermost mantle is characterized by several unique geophysical features that are distinct from the bulk of the lower mantle, including ultralow velocity zones, ULVZ. Jennifer Jackson and Christine Thomas contribute a review of seismic observables and their possible interpretations based on mineral‐physics data, and present a case study focusing on the deep mantle below the Bering Sea and Alaska.

Paula Koelemeijer discusses the challenges involved in determining the topography of the core–mantle boundary (CMB) from geodynamic and seismic constraints. She highlights the close correlation with the density structure in the lowermost mantle and its association with the observed large low shear velocity provinces (LLSVP) as are observed under Africa and the Pacific. She concludes that more work is needed to better constrain CMB topography, which would be a critical step toward understanding the nature of LLSVPs and their relationship to mantle dynamics.

Part II: Material Transport Across the Mantle: Geophysical Observations and Geodynamic Predictions

When combined with mineral physics constraints, observations of seismic anisotropy in Earth’s mantle can be used to infer mantle flow patterns and understand material transport through the mantle. Thorsten Becker and Sergei Lebedev summarize seismic anisotropy observations made in the upper mantle and discuss their relation to laboratory measurements. It is shown that regional convection patterns can be resolved using anisotropy observations, but uncertainties remain and systematic relationships need to be further refined and established.

An essential regional component of mantle convection is the subduction and deep cycling of oceanic lithosphere. Indeed, the sinking of subducted slabs through the mantle is a key driver of mantle circulation and plate tectonics. Zhouchuan Huang and Dapeng Zhao discuss the analysis of seismic anisotropy in subduction zone settings that is used to infer deformation and flow patterns around subducting slabs in the upper mantle.

Subducted oceanic crust often descends deep into the mantle, commonly reaching the core–mantle boundary. Understanding the fate of subducted material and its chemical interaction with the surrounding mantle is pivotal to our understanding of deep Earth material cycles, the interpretation of geophysical heterogeneity, and the diversity of geochemical signatures found in surface rocks. Mingming Li reviews our understanding of the distribution, physical behavior and chemical interaction of subducted oceanic crust in the deep mantle that emerges by integrating evidence from different disciplines.

In regions where subducting slabs reach the core‐mantle boundary, they may cause deformation strong enough to induce seismic anisotropy, in a similar way as discussed above for the upper mantle. Andy Nowacki and Sanne Cottaar explore the potential and limitations of multidisciplinary approaches to infer deep mantle flow from recent observations of lowermost mantle seismic anisotropy.

While the downwelling limbs of mantle convection are commonly observed in seismic images, at least in some cases from the surface to the core–mantle boundary (see above), the nature of upwellings remains more under‐resolved and uncertain. However, while their existence has been highly debated for a long time, researchers now converge towards a consensus in terms of the sheer existence and nature of plume‐like upwellings. Jeroen Ritsema et al. report on the challenges involved in imaging mantle plumes by seismic methods. They conclude that the deployment of seismic receivers on the ocean floors would lead to a significant advancement in our ability to image the interior of our planet in general, and mantle plumes in particular.

Part III: Surface Expressions: Mantle Controls on Planetary Evolution and Habitability

An important surface expression of mantle dynamics is dynamic topography. Dynamic topography arises directly from mantle flow and the related stresses at the base of the lithosphere. It thus contains information about the density structure of the mantle. The study of dynamic topography can potentially provide a picture of Earth’s mantle flow and structure through time, when coupled with geological constraints of subsidence and uplift. Mark Hoggard et al. review the progress made in quantifying dynamic topography, summarize the inherent limitations, and point out future research directions.

Trond Torsvik et al. bring together the main topics discussed in this book in a single chapter. They discuss the role of mantle upwellings (plumes) and downwellings (slabs) on atmospheric evolution and climate. Plume heads may rise from the margins of LLSVPs and sustain flood‐basalt volcanism, outgassing and silicate weathering at the surface. Slab subduction and related arc volcanism, in turn, control the ingassing of atmospheric species, including greenhouse gases. Together, these key ingredients of mantle convection stabilize Earth’s long‐term atmospheric conditions, climate, and habitability.

While Earth’s surface is currently reshaped by plate tectonic processes that are intimately linked to mantle convection, other terrestrial bodies in the solar system display a stagnant lid that does not participate in underlying mantle convection. In other words, the surfaces of these planets consist of just one single plate with very restricted surface deformation. Nicola Tosi and Sebastiano Padovan present key processes and observations to understand mantle convection in the stagnant‐lid regime, which is much more common in our solar system, and most probably throughout the universe, than the plate‐tectonic regime. The comparison of mantle convection styles in both these regimes leads to a more coherent picture of planetary interior dynamics and evolution.

Hauke MarquardtUniversity of Oxford, UKMaxim BallmerUniversity College London, UKSanne CottaarUniversity of Cambridge, UKJasper KonterUniversity of Hawaii at Mānoa, USA

Part IState of the Mantle: Properties and Dynamic Evolution