Mechanics of Fluid Flow E-Book

Kaplan S. Basniev

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 687

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

The mechanics of fluid flow is a fundamental engineering discipline explaining both natural phenomena and human-induced processes, and a thorough understanding of it is central to the operations of the oil and gas industry. This book, written by some of the world's best-known and respected petroleum engineers, covers the concepts, theories, and applications of the mechanics of fluid flow for the veteran engineer working in the field and the student, alike. It is a must-have for any engineer working in the oil and gas industry.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Preface

Part I: Fundamentals of the Mechanics of Continua

Chapter I: Basic Concepts of the Mechanics of Continua

Introduction

1. Continuity hypothesis

2. Movement of continuous medium: description techniques

3. Local and substantive derivative

4. Scalar and vector fields

5. Forces and stresses in the continuous medium. Stress tensor

Chapter II: Conservation Laws. Integral and Differential Equations of Continuous Medium

1. Integral parameters of a continuous medium and the conservation laws

2. Time differentiation of the integral taken over a movable volume

3. Continuity equation (law of mass conservation)

4. Motion equation under stress

5. Law of variation of kinetic momentum. Law of pairing of tangential stresses

6. The law of conservation of energy

7. Teorem of variation of kinetic energy

8. Heat flow equation

9. Continuous medium motion equations

Chapter III: Continuous Medium Deformation Rate

1. Small particle deformation rate. Helmholtz theorem

2. Tensor of the deformation velocity

3. Physical meaning of the deformation velocity tensor components

4. Tensor surface of a symmetric second rank tensor

5. Velocity circulation. Potential motion of the liquid

Chapter IV: Liquids

1. Mathematical model of ideal fluid

2. Mathematical model of ideal incompressible fluid

3. Viscous fluid. Stress tensor in viscous fluid

4. Motion equations of viscous fluids

5. Mathematical model of a viscous incompressible fluid

6. The work of internal forces. Equation of the heat inflow

Chapter V: Basics of the Dimensionality and Conformity Theory

1. Systems of units. Dimensionality

2. Dimensionality formula

3. Values with independent dimensionalities

4. II-theorem

5. Conformity of physical phenomena, modeling

6. Parameters determining the class of phenomena

7. Examples of application of the Π-theorem

8. Contraction of equations to dimensionless format

Part II: Hydromechanics

Chapter VI: Hydrostatics

1. Liquids and gas equilibrium equations

2. Equilibrium of a liquid in the gravitational field

3. Relative quiescence of fluid

4. Static pressure of liquid on firm surfaces

5. Elements of buoyancy theory

Chapter VII: Flow of Ideal Fluid

1. Euler’s equations in the Gromeko-Lamb format

2. Bernoulli integral

3. Particular forms of Bernoulli’s integral

4. Simple applications of Bernoulli’s integral

5. Cauchy-Lagrange’s integral

6. Thomson’s theorem

7. Helmholtz equation

8. Potential flow of a incompressible fluid

9. Flow around the sphere

10. Applications of the of momentum law

Chapter VIII: Parallel-Plane Flows of Ideal Incompressible Fluid

1. Complex-valued potential of flow

2. Examples of parallel-plane potential flows

3. Conformous reflection of flows

4. Zhukovsky’s transform

5. Flow-around of an arbitrary profile

6. Forces acting on a profile under the stationary flow-around

Chapter IX: Flow of Viscous Incompressible Fluid in Prismatic Tubes

1. Equations descring straight-line motion of a viscous incompressible fluid in prismatic tubes

2. Straight-line flow between two parallel walls

3. Straight-line flow within axisymmetric tubes

4. Equation of transient-free circular motion of a viscous fluid

5. Flow between two revolving cylinders

Chapter X: Turbulent Flow of Fluids in Pipes

1. Reynolds’ experiments

2. Averaging the parameters of turbulent flow

3. Reynolds’ equations

4. Semi-empiric turbulency theory by L. Prandtl

5. Application of the dimensionality theory to the construction of semi-empirical turbulence theories

6. Logarithmic law of velocity distribution

7. Experimental studies of hydraulic resistivity

Chapter XI: Hydraulic Calculation for Pipelines

1. Bernoulli’s equation for a viscous fluid flow

2. Types of head loss

3. Designing simple pipelines

4. Designing complex pipelines

5. Pipelines performing under vacuum

Chapter XII: Fluid’s Outflow From Orifices and Nozzles

1. Outflow from a small orifice

2. Outflow through nozzles

3. Outflow of fluid at variable level

Chapter XIII: Non-Stationary Flow of Viscous Fluid in Pipes

1. Equations of the non-stationary fluid’s flow in pipes

2. Equation of non-stationary flow for slightly-compressible fluid in pipes

3. Equations of non-stationary gas flow in pipes at low subsonic velocities

4. Integrating equations of non-stationary fluids and gas flow using the characteristics technique

5. Integrating linearized equations of non-stationary flow using Laplace transform

6. Examples of computing non-stationary flow in pipelines

7. Hydraulic shock

8. Effect of flow instability on force of friction

Chapter XIV: Laminar Boundary Layer

1. Equations of the boundary layer

2. Blasius problem

3. Detachment of the boundary layer

Chapter XV: Unidimensional Gas Flow

1. Sound velocity

2. Energy conservation law

3. Mach number. Velocity factor

4. Linkage between the flow tube’s cross-sectional area and flow velocity

5. Gas outflow through a convergent nozzle

6. De Laval’s nozzle

7. Gas-dynamic functions

8. Shock waves

9. Computation of gas ejector

10. Transient-free gas flow in tubes

11. Shukhov’s equation

Chapter XVI: Laminar Flow of Non-Newtonian Fluids

1. Simple shear

2. Classification of non-Newtonian fluids

3. Viscosimetry

4. Fluid flow in an infinitely-long round tube

5. Rotational fluid flow within an annulus

6. Integral technique in viscosimetry

7. Hydraulic resistance factor

8. Additional remarks to the calculation of non-Newtonian fluids flow in pipes

Chapter XVII: Two-Phase Flow in Pipes

1. Equations of the conservation laws

2. Equations of two-phase mixture flow in pipes

3. Transformation of equations of two-phase flow in pipes

4. Flow regimes

5. Absolute open flow of a gas-condensate well

Part III: Oil and Gas Subsurface Hydromechanics

Chapter XVIII: Main Definitions and Concepts of Fluid and Gas Flow. Darcy’s Law and Experiment

1. Specifics of fluid flow in natural reservoirs

2. Basic model concepts of the subsurface liquid and gas hydrodynamics

3. Reservoir properties of porous rocks. Porosity and clearance specific surface area.

4. Darcy’s experiment and Darcy’s law. Permeability. The concept of “true” average flow velocity and flow velocity

5. Applicability limits of Darcy’s law. Analysis and interpretation of experimental data

6. Nonlinear laws of filtration

7. Structural model of porous media

8. Darcy’s law for anisotropic media

Chapter XIX: Mathematical Models of Uniphase Filtration

1. Introductory notes. The concept of the mathematical model of a physical process

2. Mass conservation laws in a porous medium

3. Differential equation of fluid flow

4. Closing equations. Mathematical models of isothermal filtration

5. Filtration model of incompressible viscous fluid under Darcy’s law in a non-deformable reservoir

6. Gas filtration model under Darcy’s law. Leibensohn’s function

7. Uniphase filtration models in non-deformable reservoir under nonlinear filtration laws

8. Correlation between fluid parameters and porous medium parameters with pressure

Chapter XX: Unidimensional Transient-Free Filtration of Incompressible Fluid and Gas in an Uniform Porous Medium.

1. Schematics of unidimensional filtration

2. Rectiliner-parallel filtration of incompressible fluid

3. Radial-plane filtration of incompressible fluid

4. Radial-spherical filtration of incompressible fluid

5. Filtration similarity between incompressible liquid and gas

6. Unidimensional filtration flow of ideal gas

7. Parallel-plane filtration of real gas under Darcy’s law

8. Radial-plane filtration of incompressible liquid and gas under binomial filtration law

9. Radial-plane filtration of incompressible liquid and gas under the exponential filtration law

Chapter XXI: Unidimensional Filtration of Incompressible Liquid and Gas in A Nonuniform Reservoirs Under Darcy’s Law

1. Major types of reservoir nonuniformities

2. Rectilinear-parallel flow within nonuniformly-stratified reservoir

3. Rectilinear-parallel flow in zonally-nonuniform bed

4. Calculation of continuously-nonuniform reservoirs

5. Radial-plane flow in a nonuniformly stratified reservoir

6. Rectilineal-parallel flow in a nonuniformly stratified reservoir

Chapter XXII: Flat Transient-Free Filtration

1. Major definitions and concepts

2. Potential of a point source and sink on an isotropic plane. Superposition method

3. Liquid flow to a group of wells with the remote charge contour

4. Liquid inflow to a well in the reservoir with a rectilinear charge contour

5. Liquid inflow to a well in the reservoir near the impermeable boundary

6. Liquid inflow to a well positioned eccentrically in a round reservoir

7. On the use of the superposition technique at the gas filtration

8. Fluids inflow to infinite well lines and ring well rows

Chapter XXIII: Non-Stationary Flow of An Elastic Fluid in An Elastic Reservoir

1. Elastic reservoir drive

2. Calculation of elastic fluid reserves of a reservoir

3. Mathematical model of the elastic fluid non-stationary filtration in an elastic porous medium

4. Derivation of the differential equation of the elastic fluid filtration in an elastic porous medium under Darcy’s law

5. Unidimensional filtration of an elastic fluid. Point-solutions of the piezo-conductivity equation. Main equation of the elastic drive theory

6. Approximate solution techniques of the elastic drive problems

7. Elastic fluid flow to an aggregate well

CHAPTER XXIV: Non-Stationary Flow of Gas in A Porous Medium

1. Mathematical model of non-stationary gas filtration

2. Linearization of Leibensohn’s equation and the main solution of linearized equation

3. Point solution of an automodel problem on axisymmetric gas flow to a well with a constant flow-rate

4. Solution of the problem of gas flow to a well using sequential change of stationary states technique

5. Solution of the gas flow to well problem using averaging technique

6. Application of superposition principle to problems of non-stationary gas filtration

7. Approximate solution of gas production from closed reservoir problems using the material balance equation

Chapter XXV: Filtration of Non-Newtonian Liquid

1. Viscoplastic liquid: filtration law and mathematical model

2. Rectilinear-parallel filtration flow for the viscoplastic liquid

3. Rectilinear-parallel filtration flow of viscoplastic liquid in a nonuniformly-stratified reservoir

4. Radial-plane filtration of viscoplastic liquid

5. Non-stationary filtration of viscoplastic liquid

7. Formation of bypass zones in the process of oil-by-water displacement

8. Specifics of viscoplastic liquid filtration in anisotropic porous media

Chapter XXVI: Liquid and Gas Flow in Fractured and Fractured-Porous Media

1. Specifics of filtration in fractured and fractured-porous media

2. Filtration laws in fractured media

3. Permeability vs. pressure in fractured and fractured-porous media

4. Fluid crossflow in fractured-porous media

5. Derivation of differential equations for liquids and gas flow within the fractured and fractured-porous media

6. Stationary unidimensional liquids and gas filtration in a fractured and fractured-porous reservoir

7. Non-stationary liquid and gas flow in fractured and fractured-porous reservoirs

Appendix A

References

Subject Index

Mechanics of Fluid Flow

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-1-118-38506-7

DEDICATED TO

Dr. Henry Chuang, Chairmanand Director of “Willie InternationalHoldings Limited” (Hong Kong, China)for his outstanding contributionsto the World Petroleum Industry

and

Dr. John Mork, President of“The Energy Corporation of America” (USA)for his outstanding contributionsto the Petroleum Industry and educationof petroleum and engineering students

PREFACE

The mechanics of fluid (gas, oil, water) flow is a fundamental engineering discipline explaining various natural phenomena and human-induced processes. It is of utmost importance in aviation, shipbuilding, petroleum industries, thermodynamics, meteorology, and chemical engineering.

This basic applied scientific discipline enables one to understand and describe mathematically the movement of fluids (gas, oil, water) in various media: channels, subsurface formations, pipelines, etc. to describe various phenomena and applications associated with fluid dynamics, the writers used the unified systematic approach based on the continuity and conservation laws of continuum mechanics. Mathematical description of specific applied problems and their solutions are presented in the book.

The present book is an outgrowth of copious firsthand experience of the writers in the fields of hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, heat transfer, and reservoir engineering, and teaching various university courses in fluid mechanics and reservoir characterization. The continuity principle, the equations of fluid motion, momentum theorem (Newton’s second law), and steady-flow energy equation (first law of thermodynamics) are emphasized and used for development of engineering solutions of applied problems in this book. The similarities and differences between the steady-flow energy equations and integrated forms of differential equations of motion for nonviscous fluids (Bernoulli Equation) are pointed out.

Differential equations describing the flow of gas and liquid in fractures and fractured-porous reservoir rocks are presented. The two-phase fluid flow is discussed in detail. By applying the unified approach of continuum mechanics, the writers achieved better understanding of fluid properties (density, viscosity, surface tension, vapor pressure, etc) and basic laws of mechanics and thermodynamics. Some chapters of the book are devoted exclusively to incompressible and others to compressible fluid flow, with comparison of the flow of gas and flow of water in the open channels.

This book can be used both as a textbook and a handbook by undergraduate and graduate students, practicing engineers and researchers working in the field of fluid dynamics and related fields.

Authors are very grateful to the Academician of Russian Academy of Sciences S. S. Grigoryan who attentively read through the manuscript and has made a number of valuable remarks.

K. S. Basniev, N. M. Dmitriev, G. V. Chilingar

PART I

FUNDAMENTALS OF THE MECHANICS OF CONTINUA

CHAPTER I

BASIC CONCEPTS OF THE MECHANICS OF CONTINUA

Introduction

The theoretical mechanics is a scientific discipline dealing with general laws of equilibrium, movement and interaction between the material bodies. Systems to be analyzed are not real physical bodies but the models: material points, material point systems, rigid (non-deformable) bodies. Using model makes the description of processes simpler with the preservation of major specifics of the phenomena.

Frequently, not only the movements of the bodies but their deformations are important. In such cases the models of theoretical mechanics are inapplicable.

An extensive scientific discipline dealing with the theoretical mechanics is the mechanics of continua. It views physical bodies as continuous deformable media. Thus, likewise the theoretical mechanics, it operates with models.

In many situations (for instance in gas movements) the processes in deformable media are closely interrelated with thermodynamic phenomena in these media. That is why both the laws of the theoretical mechanics and thermodynamics are in the base of the mechanics of continua.

The mechanics of continua is the theoretical basis for disciplines such as hydromechanics of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids, gas dynamics, subsurface hydromechanics, elasticity theory and plasticity theory.

1. Continuity hypothesis

The phenomena analyzed in the mechanics of continua (particularly in liquids and gas mechanics) are of macroscopic nature. This fact allows for abstracting from the molecular structure of the matter and considers physical bodies as continuous media.

Continuous medium is a material continuum. What it means is that it is a continuous multitude of material points over which the kinematic, dynamic, thermodynamic and other physicochemical parameters of the reviewed medium are continuously (in the general case, piecewise-continuously) distributed.

Physically, the acceptance of the continuous medium model signifies that when macroscopically described, any “infinitely small” volume contains sufficiently great number of molecules. For instance, a 10−9-mm cube of air contains 27*106 molecules suggesting that the idealization will not apply in the case of very high vacuum.

The concept of the “continuous medium” is a model of real medium. The application of such model in the fluid mechanics and other disciplines is based on the experimental results and comprehensive practical confirmation. The examples would be the flow computation in pipelines of diverse purposes, gas and liquid outflow through nozzles, filtration through porous media, etc.

2. Movement of continuous medium: description techniques

When movement is quantitatively studied, it is assumed that some coordinate system is locked relative to which this movement is analyzed. Let us assume that an Ox1x2x3 coordinate system with the orthonormal basis11, 2, 3 is locked in space (Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1

The movement of an individual material point is determined by a time function of its coordinates:

(1.1)

or in vector format:2

(1.2)

xi values are in the space coordinates.

(1.3)

Or, in vector format:

(1.4)

A conclusion from the “marker” assigning rule is that the Eqs. (1.3) and (1.4) must satisfy equalities as:

The Xi coordinates are called the material coordinates.

Function (1.3) is considered to be continuous, having continuous partial derivatives for all of its arguments. Physical considerations say that one and only one point in the space corresponds at any moment in time to each material point of a continuous matter. The inverse is also true: only one material point corresponds to each point in space. Therefore, at t ≥ to function (1.3) assigns a mutually univalent correspondence between material coordinates Xi and spatial coordinates xi. The latter means that the Jacobian:

And Eq. (1.3) may be solved relative to the material coordinates:

(1.5)

Two different techniques can be used for describing movement of the continuous medium.

The first one is the Lagrange’s technique. The Lagrange’s variables Xi and time t are used as independent variables for the description of the movement. On assigning a physical value A (either a vector or scalar value) as a function of the Lagrange’s variables and time:

(1.6)

At fixed value of material coordinates Xj, the Eq. (1.6) describes the change in the value of A with time in a fixed material point of the continuous medium. At fixed value of material coordinates t, the Eq. (1.6) describes the distribution of value A within the material volume at a fixed moment in time. Therefore, the physical sense of the Lagrange’s technique is in the description of a continuous medium by way of describing the movement of individualized material points.

The second way is the Euler’s technique. The spatial coordinates xi (Euler’s variables) and time t are utilized for the description of the movement. In this case various parameters of the continuous medium (such as velocity, temperature, pressure, etc.) must be assigned as functions of the Euler’s variables. On assigning value A (either a vector or scalar value) as a function of the Euler’s variables:

(1.7)

At fixed spatial coordinates xj, Eq. (1.7) describes change in the value A in a given point in space with time. Therefore, the physical sense of the Euler’s technique is in the description of a continuous medium behavior at fixed points in space, and not at points in a moving continuous medium.

The application of either technique depends on the setting of the problem. When deriving the basic laws of motion, the Lagrange’s technique should be used as it is formulated for the fixed material objects. Likewise, in solving specific hydromechanical problems, the Euler’s technique is preferred as in this case, as a rule, it is important to know the medium parameters distribution in space.

The Lagrange’s and Euler’s techniques are equivalent in the sense that if a description of the movement is established under one of them, it is always possible to switch to the movement description under another one.

The transition from the Lagranges variables to the Euler’s variables in a case where the value A is assigned as a function of the Lagranges coordinates (i. e., the Eq. (1.6) is established and the motion law (1.3) is known) boils down to the solution of Eq. (1.3) relative to Xj values, i. e., to find Eq. (1.5) and replace with Xj by Xj(x,t). Then, from (1.5) and (1.6):

(1.8)

If the law of motion (1.3) is assigned and the A value is assigned as a function of the Euler’s coordinates, i. e., Eq. (1.7) is given, then by reversing the transformation in the Eq. (1.8), one obtains:

(1.9)

(1.10)

Thus, only technical difficulties may occur in solving Eq. (1.1) or integrating the Eq. (1.8) when switching from the Lagrange’s to the Euler’s technique and vice versa. as theoretically such transition is always possible.

3. Local and substantive derivative

The change of any property A, for instance velocity, density, temperature of a fixated material point in a moving continuous medium with respect to time is called a substantive (material, individual or total) time derivative and is denoted by .

(1.11)

Conversely, its spatial coordinates are a function of time:

(1.12)

or

(1.13)

(1.14)

(1.15)

If A is a scalar value:

(1.16)

the directional derivative s is equal to:

(1.17)

where is a singular vector, tangential to the trajectory; is the velocity vector.

Considering Eqs. (1.16) and (1.17), Eqs. (1.14) and (1.15) may be rewritten as:

(1.18)

If A is a vector (i. e., , then according to Eq. (1.14)

then:

and

(1.19)

where is a symbolic operator which is equal to:

The first term in Eqs. (1.12)–(1.15) and (1.18), (1.19) describes the change in velocity of the property A at the fixed point of space and is called a local derivative. The second term in these equations is called a convective derivative and describes the change in A due to displacement of the material point in space. The convective derivative value is determined by the motion of the material point as well as by non-uniformity of A value distribution in space ).

4. Scalar and vector fields

If a scalar (vector) value corresponds to each point of the spatial volume D and to each temporal moment t, it means that a scalar (vector) field is defined in the volume D. Thus, the field of a certain value is defined as the aggregation of its numerical values established at each point of the volume D and within the assigned time interval. For instance, if the functions of scalar values are established

(1.20)

where ρ is density and T is temperature, then the functions (1.20) define the scalar fields of density and temperature. If a vector function is established, for instance,

(1.21)

then the function (1.21) defines the vector field of velocities.

Thus the concept of the field with a physical value is applicable for the motion description only through the Euler’s technique.

A scalar (vector) field is called continuous if any representing function is continuous over xi and t. If a function representing the field does not depend on time t, the field is called stationary.

If all fields describing the motion of the continuous medium are stationary, such a motion is called transient-free or stationary. However, if these fields (or either of them) depend on time, the motion is called transient or non-stationary. In the case of the transient-free motion all local derivatives (partial derivatives over time) are equal to zero, i. e.,

The notion of transient-free or transient motion is applicable only if the motion is described using the Euler’s technique relative to a reference coordinates. One motion may be transient-free relative to one coordinate system and transient relative to the other one. For instance, when a solid is moving at a constant velocity in a liquid, the liquid’s motion is transient-free in the coordinate system associated with the solid, and transient in an immovable coordinate system.

For any vector field, a notion of a vector line may be introduced. The vector line is a tangent line at each point at a given moment in time coinciding with the direction of the field of vectors. It follows from this definition that if a vector field is established, then at a given moment in time the condition is accomplished in the vector line points. Here, is infinitely small vector of the tangent, or where dλ is a scalar parameter (Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2

The velocity field vector lines are called the flow lines. As by definition for the , the equation flow lines can be presented as:

(1.22)

Please note that the following equality is true along the motion trajectory of the material point:

(1.23)

In Eq. (1.22), the time is the parameter and in Eq. (1.23), it is an independent variable.

At the transient-free motion, Eqs. (1.22) and (1.23), respectively, have the following form:

And the distinction boils down to the parameter over which the differentiation is conducted. Therefore, at the transient-free motion the flow-lines and material point trajectories coincide.

If the equation system (1.22) has a solution, and the solution is singular, then the only one flow line runs through each point in space. However, there are some points of the velocity field where the conditions of the existence and singularity may be broken. In particular, the solution singularity conditions may be broken at the points where velocity vector components approach zero or infinity.

The points where velocity approaches zero or infinity are called singularities. Fig. 1.3 shows an example of the velocity field that occurs when the liquid flows around a solid. The velocity at point A equals zero, and the flowline bifurcates.

Fig. 1.3

Next, the writers examine some aspects of the velocity field with no singularities. Drawing flowlines within the area of the curve AB, one flowline may be carried through each point of the curve AB. The aggregation of these flowlines forms a surface at each point in which the velocity vector lies in the plane tangent to this surface. Such a surface is called a flow-surface. As the only flowline runs through each point of the flow-surface, this surface is impermeable for the particles of the liquid. If the AB line is closed (Fig. 1.4), the surface is called the flow-tube.

Fig. 1.4

is the vector normal to this surface, and the velocity vector lies on the plane tangent to the flow-surface, then:

(1.24)

is the condition necessarily fulfilled on the flow-surface.

If the AB line length is infinitely small, the flow-tube is called elementary. The flow parameters (velocity, density, etc.) within the elementary flow-tube are uniformly distributed on the effective cross-section.

5. Forces and stresses in the continuous medium. Stress tensor

A continuous medium and a rigid body move upon acting forces. Theoretical mechanics deals mostly with concentrated forces, but mechanics of continua deals mainly with distributed forces.

Depending on the nature of acting forces, regardless of the specific physical nature, mechanics of continua distinguishes two types of forces, the mass forces and the surface forces. The mass forces are those whose value is proportional to the mass of the medium they act on. Gravity, electromagnetic forces, and inertia are examples of these types of forces. The surface forces are those whose value is proportional to the surface of the medium they act on such as pressure and friction.

Mechanics of continua deals not with the mass and surface forces but rather with the stress (distribution density).

The stress of mass forces is defined as the limit of a ratio:

Where is the main vector of mass forces acting on the mass Δm contained in an elementary volume ΔV, which includes the point M (Fig. 1.5). The dimension for mass force’s stress is that of acceleration. For the gravity force, the stress where is the vector of the gravity acceleration.

Fig. 1.5

To determine the surface forces, consider an elementary area ΔS on the surface S placed within the continuous medium. The ΔS area includes point M (Fig. 1.6). The stress of the surface force at point M is determined by the limit of a ratio

Fig. 1.6

It is obvious that an infinite number of surfaces S may be carried through point M. In a general case, the stress at point M may be different for different surfaces (Fig. 1.7). Therefore, the stress of a surface force is not only a spatial function but a function of the orientation of the elementary area ΔS.

Fig. 1.7

Thus, contrary to stress of the mass forces (they are spatial functions, therefore, they form a vector field), the surface force stress does not form a vector field.

The orientation of the ΔS area in space may be established by a singular vector of the normal to the surface S at point M. Considering as function of is denoted by a subscript: .

However, the surface S is bilateral. Two normals may be carried through point M, and − (Fig. 1.8). That is why a convention of the normals positive direction is necessary. Assume the positive direction points toward the part of the continuous medium, from which the surface forces are acting on the area ΔS. It follows that when the n and pn directions coincide, surface forces are extension forces, and if these directions are opposite, they are contractive forces.

Fig. 1.8

It is desired to divide the continuous medium volume Vinto parts V1 and V2 by surface S (Fig. 1.8). Considering the surface S and the boundary of the volume V1 the force acting on the ΔS area from the side of volume V2, is equal to n(M)ΔS, and the force acting on the entire surface S is given by:

However if, the surface S to the boundary of the volume V2 is considered, the force acting on the ΔS area is equal to , and the force acting on the entire surface S is given by:

Under the Newton’s third law of motion:

the surface S is chosen arbitrary such that:

(1.25)

the stress may be expanded into the normal pnn and tangential pr components:

(1.26)

where is a singular vector and .

Carrying coordinate axes x1, x2, x3 through any point of the continuous medium yields an infinitely small tetrahedron ABCM (Fig. 1.9). The verges of the tetrahedron will be dx1, dx2, dx3. By default, the tetrahedron faces BCM, AM, CAM are perpendicular to the corresponding basis vectors. Therefore, and . The ABC face orientation is arbitrary and is established by the vector of the normal , where are directing cosines of the normal. Then the stresses on the corresponding faces is given by , and .

Fig. 1.9

(1.27)

Surface forces and the mass force are acting on the tetrahedron ABCM (dm is the mass within the tetrahedron dV, and h is the tetrahedron height). Under the Newton’s second law of motion, the sum of forces acting on the tetrahedron ABCM is equal to the product of its mass and the acceleration, i. e., demonstrated in Eq. (1.27),

(1.28)

Canceling all dS’s in Eq. (1.28), and constricting the tetrahedron to a point (i. e., assuming h→0):

or, like Eq. (1.25):

(1.29)

The vectors can be presented in the following format:

(1.30)

Here, pji is the jth component of vector pi.

The Eq. (1.30) vector equality is equivalent to the following equations expressed in the component format:

(1.31)

Thus, the state of stress at any given point is determined by the aggregation of three stress vectors pi or by the nine-component-pij defined over three mutually perpendicular areas. The Eq. (1.29) is the definition of tensor.

The pij components form a second rank tensor like:

(1.32)

The first subscript of the pij stress tensor component indicates the direction of the coordinate axis to which the normal vector is parallel. The second subscript of the pij stress tensor component indicates the direction of the coordinate axis onto which the stress vector is projected (Fig. 1.10). For instance, p21 represents the projection of vector, attached to the area perpendicular to the x2 axis, onto the x1 axis.

Fig. 1.10

The components with the same subscripts pü are called normal stresses, and the components pik (i ≠ k) are called tangential stresses or shear stresses.

The pij stress tensor depends on coordinates xi and time t forming a tensor field.

It is necessary to note here that the concept described above is the classical theory of the state of stress. It is important to note that the moments of the surface and mass forces at point M are equal to zero. However, there are more detailed theories considering continuous series with distributed moments of surface and mass forces. These theories are dealing with special branches of the mechanics of continua, for instance in studies of liquid and elastic media with a micro-structure.

1 Orthonormal basis is an aggregate of three mutually perpendicular single vectors.

2 Here and thereafter, unless specifically stated otherwise, letter subscript assume values of 1, 2, 3, and the summation is performed for the repeated subscripts, i. e.,

4 If the Euler’s description is known, then the velocity distribution is also known, i. e., the vi(xj, t) functions are known.

CHAPTER II

CONSERVATION LAWS. INTEGRAL AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF CONTINUOUS MEDIUM

1. Integral parameters of a continuous medium and the conservation laws

Basic equations for the continuous medium are derived from the conservation laws which are the fundamental laws of nature. The major conservation laws in the mechanics of continua are the conservation laws of mass, variation in momentum, moment of momentum, energy and entropy balance. For a mathematical formulation of the conservation laws, a material (movable) or control volume is reviewed.

The material (movable) volume is such a volume composed at all time from the same material points.

A volume of space whose boundaries are open to material, energy, and momentum transfer is called the control volume, and the limiting boundary is called the control surface. The control surface may change its position in space but usually it is considered static.

When considering the material volume, it is assumed that it represents a singular physical body with mass:

(2.1)

with its corresponding momentum:

(2.2)

moment of momentum:

(2.3)

energy:

(2.4)

which is a sum of the kinetic energy:

(2.5)

internal energy:

(2.6)

and entropy:

(2.7)

Under the law of mass conservation, the mass of a material volume (2.1) remains constant. Therefore, the total derivative of Eq. (2.1) is equal to zero, i. e.,

(2.8)

Under the Newton’s second law of motion, the rate of variation in momentum of a liquid volume equals to the sum of all external forces acting on this volume. Thus, the material derivative of the Eq. (2.2) is equal:

(2.9)

where is the total sum of all mass and surface forces attached to the volume V(t).

The sum of all mass forces may be presented in the following format (Fig. 2.1):

Fig. 2.1

The sum of all surface forces (Fig. 2.1) obviously is equal to:

where S(t) is a closed surface delimiting the material volume V(t).

Taking all these remarks into account, the law of kinetic momentum Eq. (2.9) may be presented in the following format:

(2.10)

Considering the law of kinetic momentum, the rate of change in the kinetic momentum of a material volume in relation to any point is equal to the main momentum of all external mass and surface forces in relation to the same point. Equation for the momentums is given by:

then the relationship for the variation of kinetic momentum of a given material volume is given by:

(2.11)

As it can be seen from the kinetic momentum relationship, the rate of change of a material volume V(t) is equal to the sum of mechanical work W of the external mass and surface forces per unit time (external force power) and of the other energy inflow Q per unit time. Therefore, the material derivative of Eq. (2.4) is associated with the W and Q values as follows:

(2.12)

From now on, in this book it is assumed that Q is only the rate of heat in-flow The law of the energy conservation is also called the first law of thermodynamics.

Power of the external volume forces W1 is equal to:

and that of the surface forces W2:

Heat inflow Q per unit time may be presented as:

where qe is heat delivered per unit volume of fluid V(t) per unit time.

The energy conservation law following from Eq. (2.12) is given by:

(2.13)

Along with the laws of conservation of mass, variation in momentum, moment of momentum and energy, a theorem (law) may be formulated for the relationship between the variations of kinetic energy (theorem of live force). As opposed to the other mentioned laws, the kinetic energy theorem is not an independent law. Considering the theoretical mechanics law, kinetic energy theorem is derived from the momentum theorem (law). According to this theorem; the changes in kinetic energy in time for a given fluid volume is equal to the sum of works (powers) done by the external and internal forces acting on this volume. The material derivative of Eq. (2.5) is given by:

(2.14)

where Ni is the magnitude of internal forces per-unit mass of the medium.

Please notice that Eq. (2.14), as opposed to the energy conservation law Eq. (2.13), includes the magnitude of external and of internal forces.

The change in the entropy of a given fluid volume V(t) can never be less than the sum of entropy inflow through its boundary S(t) and entropy generated within it by the external sources. This is the definition of the second law of thermodynamics or so called the law of the entropy balance. The mathematical expression of this law is formulated through an inequality as follows:

(2.15)

This inequality is called the Klausius-Dughem inequality, where, s is entropy per unit mass, e is power of local external sources of entropy per unit mass, is the heat flow vector through a unit area per unit time. The Eq. (2.15) equality is valid for the reversible processes, and the Eq. (2.15) inequality is valid for the irreversible processes.

The left portions of the Eqs. (2.8), (2.10), (2.11), (2.13) and (2.14) can be written in a general form as:

where φ(xj,t) can be one of the values of , and Φ representing the right portions of the above formulas. In order to attribute the corresponding mathematical formulation to Eqs. (2.8), (2.10), (2.11), (2.13) and (2.14), it is necessary to compute the total (material) derivative over the material (movable) volume.

2. Time differentiation of the integral taken over a movable volume

To derive the formula for time derivative, it is necessary to review the position of the control volume V(t) at time moments t and Δt (Fig. 2.2). From the definition of the total derivative:

Fig. 2.2

(2.16)

where V(t + Δt) is the position occupied by the fluid volume V(t) at the time t + Δt.

As

the Eq. (2.16) may be rewritten as:

(2.17)

According to Eq. (2.17), the first component is equal to:

(2.18)

For the volume V2, the volume element dV may be computed as the volume of a cylinder (Fig. 2.2) with the base dS and height , where vn is the projection of velocity on the external normal to the surface S2 separating volumes V2 and V3.

Then:

Similarly for the volume V, the height of the elementary cylinder is: and

where S1 is the surface separating volumes V1 and V2.

This lead to a conclusion that the second component in the right hand side of Eq. (2.17) can be formulated as follows:

(2.19)

where S(t) is a closed surface limiting volume V(t).

Replacing Eqs. (2.18) and (2.19) into Eq. (2.18) yields:

(2.20)

In Eq. (2.20), the normal is considered external relative to the closed surface S(t).

For further transformations of Eq. (2.20), the Gauss–Ostrogradsky theorem is used in the following format:

(2.21)

where , αni are directing cosines of the normal , and divergence of the vector is:

According to Eq. (2.21), , deriving from Eq. (2.20):

(2.22)

where, arguments of the φ(xj,t) are not shown.

As

and:

Eq. (2.22) can be rewritten as follows:

(2.23)

The Eqs. (2.20) and (2.23) preserve their appearance even when φ (xj,t) is a vector function of its arguments.

3. Continuity equation (law of mass conservation)

(2.24)

As this equation is true for any fluid volume, the expression under integral in Eq. (2.24) is equal to zero:

(2.25)

Eq. (2.25) is called the continuity equation. If Eq. (2.22) is substituted rather than Eq. (2.23), the continuity equation changed to the following format:

(2.26)

(2.27)

Eq. (2.27) is called the integral form of the continuity equation.

Next, Eq. (2.27) is applied to the fluid flow through a flow-tube. Carrying the effective cross-sections S1 and S2 (Fig. 2.3), the control surface S is composed of three parts: the effective sections S1 and S2 (through which the fluid flows in and out of the flow-tube segment under consideration), and its side surface S3.

Fig. 2.3

(2.28)

(2.29)

In the case of a transient-free motion, , and from Eq. (2.29):

(2.30)

The is the fluid mass per unit time, running through the effective cross-section or so-called the mass throughflow. It can be concluded from Eq. (2.30) that under the transient-free flow environment, the mass throughflow along the tube is constant.

For the elementary flow-tube, Eq. (2.30) takes the following format:

(2.31)

A fluid is called incompressible if the density of any particle within that fluid is a constant value, i. e., if . Eq. (2.25) for incompressible fluid is: , and as , this condition is valid for as well as for .

Then, under the Gauss–Ostrogradsky theorem:

(2.32)

Repeating the procedure similar to the previous one, from Eq. (2.32) the equation for the flow-tube of an incompressible fluid is:

(2.33)

The value is the fluid volume running through the effective cross-section per unit time or so-called throughflow. Therefore, Eq. (2.33) demonstrates that when an incompressible fluid is flowing through the tube, the throughflow in all of its effective cross-sections at any time is constant whether the flow is transient-free or not.

In the case of an elementary flow-tube, Eq. (2.33) follows:

(2.34)

which shows that the smaller the effective cross-section area, the greater the flow velocity, and vice versa.

4. Motion equation under stress

The formulation of the momentum law Eq. (2.10) includes the value, which is the momentum of a unit volume, and the surface force stress . Thus, to derive the motion equations expressed in stresses, by taking in Eq. (2.23):

(2.35)

According to the continuity Eq. (2.25), the expression in parentheses is equal to zero. Substituting Eq. (2.35) into the momentum law Eq. (2.10):

(2.36)

where from Eq. (1.29)

(2.37)

(2.38)

Similarly, for the components a2 and a3:

(2.39)

It follows from Eqs. (2.37) and (2.39) that

(2.40)

Substituting Eqs. (2.40) into (2.36):

(2.41)

Eq. (2.41) is applicable for all kinds of material volumes. The expression under integral is equal to zero, i.e.:

(2.42)

or in coordinate format:

(2.43)

Eqs. (2.42) and (2.43) are called equations of motion of a continuous medium and expresses the law of kinetic momentum (or the law of variation of momentum).

The law of kinetic momentum for a flow-tube can be derived from Eqs. (2.10) and (2.20) and by taking . as follows:

(2.44)

Eq. (2.44) is the integral form of the kinetic momentum law.

Consider a closed surface S composed of effective cross-sections of the flow-tube S1 and S2 and its side surface S3 (Fig. 2.4). Repeating the procedure followed to the derivation of Eqs. (2.28) and (2.29), one can obtain from Eq. (2.44):

(2.45)

Calling G the mass force acting on the identified volume V of the flow-tube:

(2.46)

and , results of the surface forces acting from the fluid in the S1 and S2 sections:

(2.47)

By using factorization presented in Eq. (1.26) forces acting on surface S3 can be determined (the S3 surface may, in particular, be a solid wall). Assigning

(2.48)

where is resultant of the normal forces, and is resultant of the tangential forces applied to surface S3.

Substituting Eqs. (2.46), (2.47) and (2.48) into Eq. (2.45) results in the mathematical expression for the momentum law for a flow-tube:

(2.49)

For the transient-free motion, , and Eq. (2.49) reduces to:

(2.50)

Using the mean value theorem in the integral calculus:

(2.51)

where and are flow velocity mean values, respectively, in cross-sections S1 and S2. Keep in mind that expressions (2.44), (2.45), (2.49), (2.50) and (2.51) are vector equations, so the variation of momentum may occur at a change in the velocity value as well as its direction.

Eq. (2.51) is convenient for the solution of a number of practical problems (examples will be provided in Chapter VII).

5. Law of variation of kinetic momentum. Law of pairing of tangential stresses

Eq. (2.11), the law of kinetic momentum, includes the term . Substituting the expression into the Eq. (2.23):

(2.52)

Using the continuity Eq. (2.25) and taking into account that and consequently , Eq. (2.52) may be transformed into:

(2.53)

It follows from Eqs. (2.37) and (2.39) that:

(2.54)

Substituting Eqs. (2.53) and (2.54) into Eq. (2.11):

(2.55)

Because Eq. (2.53) is true for any arbitrary volume, the under-integral expression must be equal to zero, i. e.:

(2.56)

Eq. (2.56) represents the law of the kinetic momentum. This law has one important implication discussed below.

First, multiply the motion vector Eq. (2.42) by the radius-vector :

(2.57)

Then subtract Eq. (2.57) from Eq. (2.56):

(2.58)

As , and , then Eq. (2.58) may be rewritten as follows:

(2.59)

Using a known vector equation:

where a1 and b1 are projections of vectors and onto coordinate axes. From Eq. (2.59):

and from this:

(2.60)

The Eq. (2.60) represents the law of pairing or reciprocity of tangential stresses. It follows from this law that the stress tensor Eq. (1.33) is symmetric meaning the stress tensor contains only six different components. Thus, the number of variables in the Eq. (2.43) decreases.

6. The law of conservation of energy

The law of conservation of energy was shown previously in Eq. (2.13). To transform this equation, it is assumed in Eq. (2.23). Then:

(2.61)

Taking the continuity equation Eq. (2.25) into account, Eq. (2.61) changes into the following format:

(2.62)

It follows from Eq. (2.37) and the Gauss–Ostrogradsky theorem Eq. (2.39) that:

(2.63)

By substituting Eqs. (2.62) and (2.63) into Eq. (2.13):

(2.64)

Because this equation is valid for an arbitrary volume, the under-integral expression must be equal to zero:

(2.65)

Eq. (2.65) is a mathematical expression of the law of energy conservation for the thermo-mechanical continuum. It shows that the change of total energy is equal to the sum of all external forces and the amount of heat supplied per unit time. Remember that Eq. (2.65) includes per unit volume values.

Now it is desired to derive the law of energy conservation for the flow-tube. Assuming in Eq. (2.20) and substituting into Eq. (2.13):

(2.66)

And, based on the Gauss–Ostrogradsky theorem Eq. (2.21):

(2.67)

Consider a closed surface, the surface composed of the flow-tube effective cross-sections S1 and S2 and its side surface S3 (Fig. 2.4). In the effective cross-section S1, , in S2, , and on the side surface S3, where is a singular vector positioned on the plane tangential to the flow-tube. Then, taking Eq. (1.26) into account:

(2.68)

Now by substituting Eqs. (2.67) and (2.68) into Eq. (2.66) and repeating the same procedure used for the derivation of Eqs. (2.26) and (2.27), one obtains:

(2.69)

Eq. (2.69) is an expression of the energy conservation law for the flow-tube in the presence of the mass force stress potential. In the case of a transient-free motion:

(2.70)

Using the mean value theorem:

(2.71)

where subscripts “1” and “2” denote the corresponding cross-sections.

7. Teorem of variation of kinetic energy

In order to develop mathematical expression of the kinetic energy theorem, it should be denoted in Eq. (2.23). Then, by considering the continuity equation Eq. (2.25):

(2.72)

Substituting Eqs. (2.63) and (2.72) into Eq. (2.14):

(2.73)

And because this equation is valid for an arbitrary volume, then:

(2.74)

It follows from Eq. (2.74), i. e., from the theorem of forces for the continuous medium, that the rate of kinetic energy variation is equal to the sum of all external and internal forces. Both Eqs. (2.74) and (2.75) deal with per-unit volume values.

In order to obtain the force theorem for the flow-tube, it is assumed in Eq. (2.20). Then by using Eq. (2.14):

(2.75)

which represents the integral format of the theorem of kinetic energy variation.

(2.76)

which represents an expression of the kinetic energy theorem for the flow-tube with the presence of potential of the mass forces.

At transient-free motion, Eq. (2.76) takes the following format:

(2.77)

or

(2.78)

where the averaging over cross-sections S1 and S2 has the same implication as in Eq. (2.71)

In order to compute the internal force magnitude per-unit, N(i), consider Eq. (2.68). After a scalar (non-vectorial) multiplication of the motion equation in stresses Eq. (2.42) by the velocity vector :

(2.79)

Subtracting Eq. (2.79) from Eq. (2.78) term-by-term:

But, as , and :

(2.80)

8. Heat flow equation

In order to obtain an equation describing variation in the internal energy, subtract, Eq. (2.74) from the equation of the total energy conservation law (Eq. 2.65) term-by-term results in:

(2.81)

Using Eq. (2.80), this equation may be rewritten as follows:

(2.82)

Note that the heat flow equation like the kinetic energy variation theorem is not an independent equation but is a consequence of the main conservation laws.

Examples of the heat flow equation applications are reviewed in Chapter IV.

9. Continuous medium motion equations

The continuous medium motions as defined by the fundamental physical laws of mass conservation, kinetic momentum conservation, energy conservation are described by a system of equations comprised of Eqs. (2.25), (2.42) and (2.65):

(2.83)

Therefore, the system of equations describing the motion of any continuous medium consists of one vector and two scalar equations, or of five scalar equations. In a general case, the system Eq. (2.83) includes 11 scalar variables1: vi, pij, ρ, u. Therefore, it is not closed. This circumstance implicates the fact that the conservation laws do not include any parameters describing the properties of specific continuous media. As a result, the derived equations need to be supplemented by the corresponding interrelations (connections), assigning physical properties of a specific continuous medium. It should be noticed that for different continuous media (such as fluids, elastic bodies, plastic bodies, etc.) these connections are different, and the resulting, now closed, systems of equations for different continuous media are also different.

The establishment of connections necessary for specific media requires a preliminary study of the continuous medium deformations or deformation rates.

The relation between stresses and deformations or between stresses and deformation rates are called rheologic equations. Thus, different rheologic equations correspond to different continuous media.

It is important to note that in this Chapter it is assumed that there is a postulate in the classical mechanics of continua under which the main conservation laws are considered valid not only for the entire body under consideration (in our case, a material volume) but for any section of a body. This postulate is called the principle of locality, and the differential equations – results of the integral laws of conservation, are called local formulations of the conservation laws.

It is also important that, if the coordinate system, in which the continuous medium motion is considered, is moving then all equations in this coordinate system preserve their format; however, the mass forces also include the inertia forces appearing in the relative motion.

1 The stress of mass forces and heat input qe are exeternal actions and are considered given.