Medical Ethics Today E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 2555

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

This is your source for authoritative and comprehensive guidance from the British Medical Association (BMA) Medical Ethics Department covering both routine and highly contentious medico-legal issues faced by health care professionals. The new edition updates the information from both the legal and ethical perspectives and reflects developments surrounding The Mental Capacity Act, Human Tissue Act, and revision of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Series

Title Page

Copyright

List of statutes and regulations

United Kingdom

Non-United Kingdom

Directives and conventions

List of cases

United Kingdom

Non-United Kingdom

Where to find legal references online

Medical Ethics Committee

Acknowledgements

Preface to the third edition

Bridging the gap between theory and practice: the BMA’s approach to medical ethics

What is medical ethics?

Summary – what is medical ethics?

The framework of good practice

Summary – the framework of good practice

The theoretical and philosophical background

Summary – the theoretical and philosophical background

The BMA’s approach

Summary – the BMA’s approach

A hypothetical case on refusal of life-prolonging treatment

Chapter 1: The doctor–patient relationship

General principles

Changing expectations of the doctor–patient relationship

Summary – changing expectations of the doctor–patient relationship

Types of relationships in modern medicine

Summary – types of relationships in modern medicine

Choice and duty

Summary – choice and duty

Maintaining a balanced relationship

Summary – maintaining a balanced relationship

Importance of good communication

Summary – the importance of good communication

Trust and reciprocity

Summary – trust and reciprocity

Breakdown of the doctor–patient relationship

Summary – breakdown of the doctor–patient relationship

Recognising responsibilities and boundaries

Summary – recognising responsibilities and boundaries

Patients’ responsibilities

Summary – patients’ responsibilities

Chapter 2: Consent, choice and refusal: adults with capacity

The nature and purpose of consent

General principles

Standards and good practice guidance

The process of seeking consent

Summary – capacity to give valid consent

Summary – who should seek consent?

Summary – providing information

Summary – documenting consent

The scope of consent

Summary – the scope of consent

Pressures on consent

Refusal of treatment

Summary – refusal of treatment

Are there limits to an individual’s choices?

Summary – are there limits to an individual’s consent?

Chapter 3: Treating adults who lack capacity

Consent and the alternatives

General principles

Assessing an individual’s decision-making capacity

Research and innovative treatment involving adults lacking the capacity to consent

Providing treatment to adults lacking capacity – England and Wales

Summary – assessing capacity (England and Wales)

Summary – best interests (England and Wales)

Summary – acts in connection with care and treatment

Summary – care and treatment involving restraint or deprivation of liberty

Summary – advance decisions refusing treatment

Summary – lasting powers of attorney

Summary – dispute resolution

Summary – Court of Protection and court-appointed deputies

Summary – independent mental capacity advocates

Summary – the relationship with mental health legislation

Providing treatment to adults lacking capacity – Scotland

Summary – assessing capacity under the Adults with Incapacity (Scotland) Act 2000

Summary – providing treatment to adults lacking capacity (Scotland)

Summary – exceptions to the general authority to treat

Summary – dispute resolution

Providing treatment to adults lacking capacity – Northern Ireland

Summary – advance decisions refusing treatment (Northern Ireland)

Chapter 4: Children and young people

Combining respect for autonomy with best interests

Has human rights legislation changed things for children?

Scope of this chapter

General principles

Emergencies

Consent and refusal by competent young people

Summary – consent and refusal by competent young people

Consent and refusal by people with parental responsibility

Summary – consent and refusal by people with parental responsibility

The courts

Summary – the courts

Refusal of blood products by Jehovah’s Witnesses

Providing treatment against a child or young person’s wishes

Cultural practices

Summary – male circumcision

Summary – female genital mutilation

Conjoined twins

Child protection

Chapter 5: Confidentiality

The duty of confidentiality

General principles

What data are confidential?

Contacting patients

Implied consent for disclosure of information as part of the direct provision of healthcare

Summary – implied consent for disclosure of information as part of the direct provision of healthcare

The law

GMC guidance

NHS Care Record Guarantee

Summary – the law and professional standards

Anonymous information

Pseudonymised data

Statutory and legal disclosures

Summary – statutory and legal disclosures

Statutory restrictions on disclosure

Disclosures in the public interest

Summary – disclosure in the public interest

Secondary uses of patient information

Summary – secondary uses of patient information: disclosure for purposes associated with providing healthcare

Summary – secondary uses of patient information: uses of health information for purposes not associated with providing care

Adults who lack capacity to consent

Summary – adults who lack capacity to consent

Children and young people

Summary – children and young people

Deceased patients

Summary – deceased patients

Chapter 6: Health records

The importance of health information

Records and record keeping

General principles

Content of health records

Summary – content of health records

Omitting information from health records

Removing information from health records

Summary – removing information from health records

Tagging records

Electronic records

Summary – electronic records

Security

Summary – security

Transmission

Recordings

Summary – recordings

Ownership

Retention of records

Disposal

Private records

Access to health records

Summary – access to health records

Access to medical reports

Looking towards the future

Chapter 7: Contraception, abortion and birth

The nature of reproductive ethics

General principles

Autonomy, rights and duties

Contraception

Summary – contraception

Sterilisation

Summary – sterilisation

Abortion

Summary – abortion

Prenatal screening and diagnosis

Summary – prenatal screening and diagnosis

Pregnancy

Summary – pregnancy

Childbirth

Summary – childbirth

Reproductive ethics: a continuing dilemma

Chapter 8: Assisted reproduction

New reproductive technologies, new dilemmas?

General principles

Regulation of assisted reproduction

Monitoring the outcome of fertility treatment

What, if any duties, are owed to ‘hypothetical’ people?

Access to treatment

Summary – access to treatment

Consent to the storage and use of gametes and embryos

Summary – consent to the storage and use of gametes and embryos

Use of donated gametes or embryos

Summary – use of donated gametes or embryos

Preimplantation genetic testing

Summary – preimplantation genetic testing

Sex selection

Summary – sex selection

Surrogacy

Summary – surrogacy

Seeking treatment in other countries

A law for the twenty-first century?

Chapter 9: Genetics

The impact of developments in genetics

General principles

Does genetics raise different ethical issues?

Genetic testing of those with a family history of genetic disease

Consent for genetic testing

Summary – consent for genetic testing

Confidentiality within families

Summary – confidentiality within families

Diagnostic testing

Carrier testing for recessive or X-linked disorders

Summary – carrier testing for recessive or X-linked disorders

Predictive or presymptomatic testing

Summary – predictive or presymptomatic testing

Susceptibility testing

Summary – susceptibility testing

Incidental findings

Population genetic screening

Summary – population genetic screening

Genetic tests supplied direct to consumers

Summary – genetic tests supplied direct to consumers

Controversial uses of genetic information

Summary – controversial uses of genetic information

Other developments

Law and regulation

Chapter 10: Caring for patients at the end of life

Issues covered in this chapter

General principles

Communication when patients are approaching death

Summary – communication when patients are approaching death

Diagnosing the dying patient and preparing for death

Summary – diagnosing the dying patient and preparing for death

Decisions to withhold or withdraw life-prolonging treatment

Summary – decisions to withhold or withdraw life-prolonging treatment

Cardio-pulmonary resuscitation

Summary – cardio-pulmonary resuscitation

Caring for children and young people

Summary – caring for children and young people

After the patient’s death

Summary – after the patient’s death

Training

Summary – training

Chapter 11: Euthanasia and physician assisted suicide

General principles

Terms and definitions

Public and professional views on assisted dying

The law

Summary – the law

Moral, legal and pragmatic arguments

Summary – moral, legal and pragmatic arguments

Chapter 12: Responsibilities after a patient’s death

Scope of this chapter

General principles

Terminology

Society’s and individuals’ attitudes to deceased people

Summary – society’s and individuals’ attitudes to deceased people

The impetus for law reform

Duties and responsibilities after death

Summary – duties and responsibilities after death

Confidentiality after death

Summary – confidentiality after death

Certifying and confirming death

Summary – certifying and confirming death

Post-mortem examinations

Summary – post-mortem examinations

Organ and tissue transplantation

Summary – organ and tissue transplantation

Organ and tissue donation for research and teaching

Anatomical examination

Use of bodies or body parts for public display

Use of skeletons for private study

Testing for communicable diseases

Post-mortem DNA testing

Practising procedures on newly deceased people

Dealing with unusual requests

Ownership and trade in human bodies, body parts and tissue

The law

Summary – the law

Chapter 13: Prescribing and administering medication

The challenges and dilemmas

General principles

Responsibility for prescribing

Summary – responsibility for prescribing

Providing information to patients about medication

Summary – providing information to patients about medication

Prescribing for different patient groups

Summary – prescribing for different patient groups

Pressure from patients

Summary – pressure from patients

Pressure from employers

Summary – pressure from employers

Clinical freedom and official guidance

Summary – clinical freedom and official guidance

Conflicts of interest in prescribing matters

Summary – conflicts of interest in prescribing matters

Shared prescribing

Summary – shared prescribing

Referrals and discharge summaries

Doctors who prescribe complementary and alternative medicine

Prescribing placebos

Controlled drugs

Self-prescribing and prescribing for family members

Prescribing at a distance

Summary – prescribing at a distance

Drug administration

Summary – drug administration

Reporting adverse drug reactions

Generic prescribing

Supply of drugs into the UK

Pharmacogenetics

Chapter 14: Research and innovative treatment

Definitions

General principles

Summary – general principles

People who cannot consent to research or innovative therapy

Summary – participation of adults who lack capacity

Summary – research and innovative treatment involving children and young people

Confidentiality

Summary – confidentiality

Research governance

Law and regulation

Specialised areas of research

Fraud and misconduct in research and innovative treatment

Summary

Chapter 15: Emergency situations

General principles

Consent and refusal

Summary – consent and refusal

Confidentiality

Duties to families

Summary – duties to families

Treating the victims or perpetrators of crime or abuse

Summary – treating the victims or perpetrators of crime or abuse

Recognising skill and competence levels

Emergency care outside healthcare establishments

Summary – emergency care outside healthcare establishments

Chapter 16: Doctors with dual obligations

When do dual obligations arise?

General principles

Providing reports for third parties

Medical reports for insurance

Summary – medical reports for insurance

Expert witnesses

Summary – expert witnesses

Refereeing firearms licences

Summary – refereeing firearms licences

Doctors examining asylum seekers

Summary – doctors examining asylum seekers

Pre-employment reports and testing

Summary – pre-employment reports and testing

Occupational health physicians

Summary – occupational health physicians

Doctors in the armed forces

Summary – doctors in the armed forces

Sports doctors

Summary – sports doctors

Media doctors

Doctors with business interests

Chapter 17: Providing treatment and care in detention settings

Doctors’ duties in detention settings

General principles

General issues of consent, confidentiality and choice within detention settings

Summary – general issues of consent, confidentiality and choice within detention settings

Practical issues common to various detention settings

Summary – practical issues common to various detention settings

Healthcare in prisons

Facilities accommodating young adult offenders, children and young people

Immigration removal centres (IRCs)

Summary – healthcare in prisons, facilities accommodating young adult offenders, children and young people, and immigration removal centres

Police stations and forensic physicians

Summary – police stations and forensic physicians

Chapter 18: Education and training

The ethical practice of medicine

General principles

Medical education: the changing landscape

The teaching of medical ethics and law

Summary – the teaching of medical ethics and law

Ethical issues raised in teaching medical students

Summary – ethical issues raised in teaching medical students

Particular dilemmas of medical students

Summary – particular dilemmas of medical students

The teaching of ethics and the ethics of teaching

Chapter 19: Teamwork, shared care, referral and delegation

General principles

Working in multi-disciplinary teams

Summary – working in multi-disciplinary teams

Coordination and information sharing among care providers

Summary – coordination and information sharing among care providers

Delegation, referral and second opinions

Summary – delegation, referral and second opinions

Administrative issues in working with others

Summary – administrative issues in working with others

Chapter 20: Public health dimensions of medical practice

General principles

The public health perspective

Summary – the public health perspective

Legal aspects of public health

Summary – legal aspects of public health

Public health threats – tackling diseases, changing lives

Summary – public health threats

Public health tools

Summary – health promotion campaigns

Summary – changing the environment

Summary – population screening

Summary – vaccination

Summary – incentives

Summary – the role of the media

Commissioning services – tackling inequities

Summary – commissioning services

Processing health data for public health management

Looking towards the future

Chapter 21: Reducing risk, clinical error and poor performance

The duty to protect patients

General principles

Standard setting

Summary – standard setting

Duties of doctors to monitor quality and performance

Summary – duties of doctors to monitor quality and performance

Poorly performing systems and poor management

Summary – poorly performing systems and poor management

Identifying and addressing doctors’ health problems

Summary – identifying and addressing doctors’ health problems

Appendix a

The Hippocratic Oath

Appendix b

Declaration of Geneva

Appendix c

Declaration of a new doctor, as devised by Imperial College School of Medicine graduating year of 20011

Index

Information about major developments since the publication of this book may be obtained from the BMA’s website or by contacting:

Medical Ethics Department

British Medical Association

BMA House

Tavistock Square

London WC1H 9JP

Tel: [phone]

Email: [email protected]

Website: www.bma.org.uk/ethics

This edition first published 2012 © 2012 by BMA Medical Ethics Department.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataMedical ethics today : the BMAs handbook of ethics and law / project manager, Veronica English ; head of medical ethics, Ann Sommerville ; written by Sophie Brannan … [et al.]. – 3rd ed.

p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4443-3708-2 (cloth) I. English, Veronica. II. Sommerville, Ann. III. Brannan, Sophie. IV. British Medical Association. [DNLM: 1. Ethics, Medical–Great Britain. 2. Jurisprudence–Great Britain. W 50] LC-classification not assigned 174.2–dc23 2011033670

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

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List of statutes and regulations

Page numbers are shown in bold

United Kingdom

Abortion (Scotland) Regulations 1991 (SI 1991/460)

Abortion Act 1967

Abortion Regulations 1991 (SI 1991/499)

Access to Health Records (Northern Ireland) Order 1993

Access to Health Records Act 1990

Access to Medical Reports Act 1988

Access to Personal Files and Medical Reports (Northern Ireland) Order 1991

Adult Support and Protection (Scotland) Act 2007

Adults with Incapacity (Conditions and Circumstances Applicable to Three Year Medical Treatment Certificates) (Scotland) Regulations 2007 (SI 2007/100)

Adults with Incapacity (Requirements for Signing Medical Treatment Certificates) (Scotland) Regulations 2007 (SI 2007/105)

Adults with Incapacity (Scotland) Act 2000

Adults with Incapacity (Specified Medical Treatments) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (SI 2002/275)

Age of Legal Capacity (Scotland) Act 1991

Age of Majority Act (Northern Ireland) 1969

Anatomy (Northern Ireland) Order 1992

Anatomy Act 1984

Care Quality Commission (Registration) Regulations 2009 (SI 2009/3112)

Child Support (Pensions and Social Security) Act 2000

Child Support, Pensions and Social Security Act (Northern Ireland) 2000

Children (Northern Ireland) Order 1995

Children (Scotland) Act 1995

Children Act 1989

Children Act 2004

Civil Partnership Act 2004

Computer Misuse Act 1990

Congenital Disability (Civil Liability) Act 1976

Coroners (Amendment) Rules 2005 (SI 2005/420)

Coroners (Amendment) Rules 2008 (SI 2008/1652)

Coroners Act (Northern Ireland) 1959

Coroners Act 1988

Coroners and Justice Act 2009

Cremation (England and Wales) Regulations 2008 (SI 2008/2841)

Cremation (Scotland) Regulations 1935

Cremation Act 1902

Cremation Act 1952

Crime and Disorder Act 1998

Criminal Attempts Act 1981

Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Act 1966

Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 1998

Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2005

Criminal Justice Act 2003

Criminal Justice and Police Act 2001

Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996

Data Protection (Miscellaneous Subject Access Exemptions) Order 2000 (SI 2000/419)

Data Protection (Processing of Sensitive Personal Data) (Elected Representatives) Order 2002 (SI 2002/2905)

Data Protection (Processing of Sensitive Personal Data) Order 2000 (SI 2000/417)

Data Protection Act 1998

Detention Centre Rules 2001 (SI 2001/238)

Environment Act 1995

Environmental Protection Act 1990

Family Law Reform (Northern Ireland) Order 1977

Family Law Reform Act 1969

Fatal Accidents and Sudden Deaths Inquiry (Scotland) Act 1976

Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003

Firearms (Northern Ireland) Order 1981

Firearms (Scotland) Rules 1989 (SI 1989/889)

Firearms Acts 1968 to 1997

Firearms Rules 1998 (SI 1998/1941)

Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002

Freedom of Information Act 2000

Gender Recognition Act 2004

Health and Social Care Act 2001

Health and Social Care Act 2008

Health Protection (Notification) (Wales) Regulations 2010 (SI 2010/1546)

Health Protection (Notification) Regulations 2010 (SI 2010/659)

Health Service (Control of Patient Information) Regulations 2002 (SI 2002/1438)

Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Deceased Fathers) Act 2003

Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Disclosure of Donor Information) Regulations 2004 (SI 2004/1511)

Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Disclosure of Information for Research Purposes) Regulations 2010 (SI 2010/995)

Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Parental Orders) Regulations 2010 (SI 2010/985)

Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Quality and Standards) Regulations 2007 (SI 2007/1522)

Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Research Purposes) Regulations 2001 (SI 2001/188)

Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Statutory Storage Period for Embryos and Gametes) Regulations 2009 (SI 2009/1582)

Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990

Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 2008

Human Organ and Tissue Live Transplants (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (SI 2006/390)

Human Organ Transplants (Northern Ireland) Order 1989

Human Organ Transplants Act 1989

Human Reproductive Cloning Act 2001

Human Rights Act 1998

Human Tissue (Quality and Safety for Human Application) Regulations 2007 (SI 2007/1523)

Human Tissue (Scotland) Act 2006

Human Tissue Act (Northern Ireland) 1962

Human Tissue Act 1961

Human Tissue Act 2004

Human Tissue Act 2004 (Persons who lack capacity to consent and transplants) Regulations 2006 (SI 2006/1659)

Immigration and Asylum Act 1999

Infant Life (Preservation) Act 1929

Ionising Radiation Regulations 1999 (SI 1999/3232)

Joint Inspection of Children’s Services and Inspections of Social Work Services (Scotland) Act 2006

Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Scotland) Act 1990

Medical Act 1983

Medicines (Advertising) Regulations 1994 (SI 1994/1932)

Medicines (Marketing Authorisations etc.) Amendment Regulations 2005 (SI 2005/2759) Mental Capacity Act 2005

Medicines for Human Use (Clinical Trials) and Blood Safety and Quality (Amendment) Regulations 2008 (SI 2008/941)

Medicines for Human Use (Clinical Trials) Regulations 2004 (SI 2004/1031)

Medicines for Human Use (Marketing Authorisations etc.) Regulations 1994 (SI 1994/3144)

Medicines for Human Use (Manufacturing, Wholesale Dealing and Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations 2005 (SI 2005/2789)

Mental Capacity Act 2005 (Independent Mental Capacity Advocates) (General) Regulations 2006 (SI 2006/1832)

Mental Capacity Act 2005 (Loss of Capacity During Research Project) (England) Regulations 2007 (SI 2004/679)

Mental Capacity Act 2005 (Loss of Capacity During Research Project) (Wales) Regulations 2007 (SI 2007/837)

Mental Health (Care and Treatment) (Scotland) Act 2003

Mental Health (Northern Ireland) Order 1986

Mental Health (Scotland) Act 1984

Mental Health Act 1983

National Assistance Act 1947

National Health Service (General Medical Services Contracts) (Prescription of Drugs etc.) Regulations 2004 (SI 2004/629)

National Health Service (General Medical Services Contracts) Regulations 2004 (SI 2004/291)

National Health Service (Primary Medical Services) (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations 2010 (SI 2010/578)

National Health Service (Reimbursement of the Cost of EEA Treatment) Regulations 2010 (SI 2010/915)

National Health Service (Venereal Disease) Regulations 1974 (SI 1974/29)

National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1978

National Health Service Act 1977

National Health Service Act 2006

Offences Against the Person Act 1861

Police and Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1989

Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984

Police Reform Act 2002

Prescription Only Medicines (Human Use) Amendment (No. 3) Order 2000 (SI 2000/3231)

Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act 2005

Protection of Vulnerable Groups (Scotland) Act 2007

Public Health (Control of Disease) Act 1984

Public Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations 1988 (SI 1988/1546)

Public Health Act (Northern Ireland) 1967

Public Health etc (Scotland) Act 2008

Public Interest Disclosure (Northern Ireland) Order 1998

Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998

Public Services Reform (Scotland) Act 2010

Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages (Scotland) Act 1965

Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Scotland) Act 2000

Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000

Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1995 (SI 1995/3163)

Road Traffic Act 1988

Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act 2006

Sanitary Act 1866

Sexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 2008

Sexual Offences Act 2003

Suicide Act 1961

Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985

Telecommunications Act 1984

Terrorism Act 2000

Terrorism Act 2006

Water Industry Act 1991

Non-United Kingdom

Death with Dignity Act 1994 (Oregon)

Genetic Information Non-discrimination Act 2008 (USA)

Termination of Life on Request and Assisted Suicide (Review Procedures) Act 2001 (The Netherlands)

Directives and conventions

Page numbers are shown in bold

Directive 2001/20/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 April 2001 on the approximation of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the member states relating to the implementation of good clinical practice in the conduct of clinical trials on medicinal products for human use

Directive 2001/83/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 November 2001 on the Community code relating to medicinal products for human use

Directive 2003/88/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 November 2003 concerning certain aspects of the organisation of working time

Directive 2004/23/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 31 March 2004 on setting standards of quality and safety for the donation, procurement, testing, processing, preservation, storage and distribution of human tissues and cells

Directive 2004/24/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 31 March 2004, amending, as regards traditional herbal medicinal products, Directive 2001/83/EC on the Community code relating to medicinal products for human use

Directive 2008/142/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the application of patients’ rights in cross-border healthcare

European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms

United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989

United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 2006

United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966

United Nations International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966

United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948

List of cases

Page numbers are shown in bold

United Kingdom

A (children), Re, sub nom Re A (conjoined twins: medical treatment), sub nom Re A (children) (conjoined twins: surgical separation) [2000] 4 All ER 961

A (male sterilisation), Re [2000] 1 FLR 549

AB v Leeds Teaching Hospital NHS Trust [2005] Q.B. 506

Airedale NHS Trust v Bland [1993] 1 All ER 821

Ashworth Security Hospital v MGN [2002] UKHL 29

Attorney General v Able and others [1984] 1 All ER 277

B (a minor) (wardship: sterilisation), Re [1987] 2 All ER 206

B (adult: refusal of treatment), Re [2002] 2 All ER 449

B (wardship: abortion), Re [1991] 2 FLR 426

Barnett v Chelsea and Kensington Hospital Management Committee (1969) 1 QB 428

Birch v UCL Hospital NHS Foundation Trust [2008] 104 BMLR 168

Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee [1957] 2 All ER 118

Bolitho v City and Hackney Health Authority [1997] 4 All ER 771

BPAS v Secretary of State for Health [2011] EWHC 235 (Admin)

C (a minor) (medical treatment), Re, sub nom Re C (a minor) (withdrawal of lifesaving treatment) [1998] 1 FLR 384

C (adult: refusal of medical treatment), Re [1994] 1 All ER 819