Membrane Processing for Dairy Ingredient Separation E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Institute of Food Technologists Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 520

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

Membrane processing is a filtration technique in which particles are separated from liquids by being forced through a porous material, or membrane. Applied to dairy products, the separation techniques allow valuable compounds, found in milk, to be isolated for use as ingredients in food processing. A comprehensive overview of membrane separation processes, this book explores various applications such as pressure driven processes, electrical field driven processes, and concentration driven processes, for the recovery of various dairy streams and ingredients. The topics covered place emphasis on new applications, including microfiltration, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, and pervaporation. The text also presents in-depth knowledge of the mechanisms of each membrane separation process, as well as membrane types and the equipment used in these processes. Combining their educational backgrounds and substantial industrial experience in dairy ingredients processes, the authors address cutting-edge technologies that have been thoroughly researched and have great potential to be commercialized in the near future. The book will therefore be of interest to dairy industry professionals and will serve as a source of reference material for professors and students in food science and engineering.

Leseprobe

CONTENTS

Cover

Title page

Dedication

Acknowledgment

Preface

List of contributors

1 Microfiltration for casein and serum protein separation

1.1 INTRODUCTION OF MICROFILTRATION

1.2 CASEIN MICELLES AND SERUM PROTEINS IN SKIM MILK

1.3 EFFECTS OF PERMEATE FLUX AND SHEAR STRESS ON SEPARATION PERFORMANCE

1.4 SEPARATION OF CASEIN AND SERUM PROTEINS USING CERAMIC MEMBRANE MF

1.5 SEPARATION OF CASEIN AND SERUM PROTEINS USING POLYMERIC MEMBRANE MF

1.6 COMPARISON OF CERAMIC MEMBRANE SYSTEM AND POLYMERIC MEMBRANE SYSTEM

Nomenclature

References

2 Dairy stream lactose fractionation/concentration using polymeric ultrafiltration membrane

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 ULTRAFILTRATION MEMBRANE

2.3 ULTRAFILTRATION ON LACTOSE FRACTIONATION/CONCENTRATION

2.4 INTEGRATED MEMBRANE BIOREACTOR

2.5 FUTURE AND CHALLENGES IN SEPARATING MILK SUGAR FOR A PRODUCTION OF LOW LACTOSE MILK

Nomenclature

References

3 Membrane fouling: a challenge during dairy ultrafiltration

3.1 DAIRY ULTRAFILTRATION

3.2 FLUX–PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP

3.3 CONCENTRATION POLARIZATION

3.4 MEMBRANE FOULING

3.5 FACTORS AFFECTING MEMBRANE FOULING

3.6 ENGINEERING MODELS FOR MEMBRANE FOULING

3.7 CONTROL STRATEGIES

3.8 MEMBRANE CLEANING AND SANITIZATION

References

4 Dairy protein fractionation and concentration using charged ultrafiltration membranes

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 THEORY

4.3 CHARGED ULTRAFILTRATION MEMBRANES FOR PROTEIN FRACTIONATION

4.4 NEGATIVELY CHARGED ULTRAFILTRATION MEMBRANES FOR PROTEIN CONCENTRATION

Nomenclature

References

5 Demineralization of dairy streams and dairy mineral recovery using nanofiltration

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.2 MEMBRANE OPERATIONS

5.3 THEORY OF SEPARATION

5.4 DAIRY SALTS AND SALT EQUILIBRIUM

5.5 MEMBRANE FOULING

5.6 CONCLUSIONS

Nomenclature

References

6 Development and application of reverse osmosis for separation

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.2 REVERSE OSMOSIS AND ITS WORKING MECHANISM

6.3 REVERSE OSMOSIS MEMBRANES

6.4 MEMBRANE MODULES AND CONFIGURATIONS

6.5 TRANSPORT MECHANISMS AND MODELS IN REVERSE OSMOSIS MEMBRANES

6.6 REVERSE OSMOSIS PROCESS

6.7 TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC CHALLENGES

6.8 REVERSE OSMOSIS PROCESS IN THE DAIRY INDUSTRY

6.9 CURRENT DEVELOPMENT IN REVERSE OSMOSIS MEMBRANES

6.10 CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK

Nomenclature

References

7 Pervaporative extraction of dairy aroma compounds

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 PERVAPORATION – FUNDAMENTALS

7.3 PERVAPORATION FOR RECOVERY OF AROMA COMPOUNDS USING ORGANOPHILIC MEMBRANES

7.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS

Nomenclature

References

8 Membrane chromatography: current applications, future opportunities, and challenges

8.1 INTRODUCTION

8.2 CURRENT APPLICATIONS

8.3 FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES

8.4 CHALLENGES

8.5 CONCLUSION

References

9 Electrodialysis applications on dairy ingredients separation

9.1 INTRODUCTION

9.2 ELECTRODIALYSIS

9.3 APPLICATIONS TO DAIRY INGREDIENTS

9.4 CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES

Nomenclature

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 The composition and molecular weight of the major milk proteins (Fox and McSweeney, 2003).

Table 1.2 Estimation of membrane area required to recover 90% serum protein from a feed stream 20 m

3

/h, using a multistage MF system including concentration and diafiltration stages.

Table 1.3 Capital investment and operation cost for the ceramic membrane system compared to the polymeric membrane system for the recovery of casein from skim milk using microfiltration systems.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Applications of membrane processes in the dairy industry (modified from Cheryan and Alvarez, 1995; Rosenberg, 1995; Brans et al., 2004; Pouliot, 2008).

Table 2.2 Current available lactose-free products on the market worldwide.

Table 2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of the integrated membrane bioreactor (modified from Garcia et al., 1999; Rios et al., 2004).

Table 2.4 Examples of integrated membrane bioreactors for the hydrolysis of lactose and GOS production.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Sieving coefficients of ALA and BLG and selectivity during the ultrafiltration of MSP at pH 4.3 using the charged and uncharged membranes. The reader is referred to Arunkumar and Etzel (2013) for more details.

Table 4.2 Purities of ALA and BLG in the permeates and retentates for different staging situations. The feed (MSP) contains 1.2 g/L ALA and 2.2 g/L BLG (35% ALA and 65% BLG).

S

o

ALA = 0.52,

S

o

BLG = 0.13, volume reduction of 5 times for each stage.

Table 4.3 Performance characteristics of unmodified and negatively charged ultrafiltration membranes during the ultrafiltration of MSP. Experiments were performed at 2 bar.

Table 4.4 Permeate flux of different membranes during the ultrafiltration of Swiss cheese whey. Experiments for the unmodified membranes were performed at 2 bar and those for the charged membrane were performed at 1.4 bar.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Current NF membranes sold for whey demineralisation and lactose Concentration. (Data taken from Manufacturer Specification Sheets.)

Table 5.2 Hydrated ionic radii for some ions commonly present in dairy solutions.

Table 5.3 Typical values of the parameters

a

,

b

,

c

, and

e

for use in Equation (5.16) for relevant membrane modules (Prudich et al., 2008).

Table 5.4 Distribution of milk salts between soluble and insoluble colloidal fractions in cow's milk (Fox and McSweeney, 1998).

Table 5.5 Calculated concentration (mM) of ions and complexes in the aqueous phase of milk (Holt, Dalgleish, and Jenness, 1981).

Table 5.6 Intrinsic solubility products for some dairy salts (Marshall and Daufin, 1995; Walstra and Jenness, 1984).

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Commercially available ROMs and modules (Chian et al., 2007). Reproduced with permission of Humana Press.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Dairy aroma compounds studied for pervaporative extraction.

Table 7.2 Pervaporative extraction of dairy aromas by PDMS-based membranes.

Table 7.3 Pervaporative extraction of dairy aromas by POMS-based membranes.

Table 7.4 Pervaporative extraction of dairy aromas by PEBA-based membranes

Table 7.5 Pervaporative extraction of dairy aromas by EPDM-based membranes.

Table 7.6 Pervaporative extraction of dairy aromas by EVA-based membranes

Table 7.7 A comparison of membrane performance for diary aroma extraction by pervaporation

Table 7.8 Pervaporative extraction of dairy aromas by other membranes

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Microfiltration membrane surface images. (a) Polymeric membranes fabricated by melt-stretch (from Barbe, Hogan, and Johnson, 2000. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier). (b) Polymeric membranes fabricated by track-etching (Millipore Product Catalogue, 2013). (c): Polymeric membranes fabricated by phase inversion (Ying, Kang, and Neoh, 2002. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier). (d) Ceramic membranes fabricated by sintering (Zhang, Zhong, and Xing, 2013. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier).

Figure 1.2 (a) Dead-end flow and (b) cross-flow MF.

Figure 1.3 Concentration polarization effects of a microfiltration membrane with particle concentration profiles.

Figure 1.4 (a) Cross-flow microfiltration permeate flux decreases with time due to membrane fouling. Membrane fouling caused by pore plugging and cake layer formation: (b) initial deposition of particles and concentration polarization followed by (c) cake layer formation.

Figure 1.5 Critical flux regimes: flux dependency on transmembrane pressure (from Brans et al., 2004. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier).

Figure 1.6 Casein and serum protein separation from skim milk using MF.

Figure 1.7 Illustration of the TMP along a cross-flow membrane.

Figure 1.8 Commercial ceramic membrane elements (a) and module (b). Adapted from Pall Corporation product data sheet (Pall Corporation Catalogue, 2007).

Figure 1.9 Process illustration and the changes of TMP (solid line) and

J

V

(dotted line) with

L

for (a) conventional, (b) UTP, and (c) GP processes.

Figure 1.10 Permeate flux and absorbance (indicating protein concentration) of the permeate during microfiltration of skim milk at 50 °C, cross-flow velocity of 6.9 m/s and 190 kPa average TMP.

▪

flux; ♦ absorbance (from Pouliot, Pouliot, and Britten, 1996. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier).

Figure 1.11 Evaluation of the critical operating ratio

J

/

τ

during MF of skimmed milk: permeation flux,

J

, versus wall shear stress,

τ

(from Gesan-Guiziou, Boyaval, and Daufin, 1999. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier).

Figure 1.12 A commercial GP system with three modules installed in a parallel manner. The image is provided by Pall Corporation.

Figure 1.13 The structure of a polymeric spiral wound membrane element. (Adapted from Lin et al., 2013. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier).

Figure 1.14 A spiral wound system used for dairy processing. © GEA Process Engineering Inc.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Schematic flow diagram of the process for a lactose-free milk product patented by Lange (modified from Lange, 2005).

Figure 2.2 Schematic flow diagram of the process for a lactose-free milk product patented by Wang (Wang, 2005).

Figure 2.3 Schematic flow diagram of the process for a lactose-free milk product patented by Tossavainen and Sahlstein (modified from Tossavainen and Sahlstein, 2013).

Figure 2.4 Configuration types of (a) a membrane bioreactor reactor coupled with a membrane separation unit and (b) an integrated membrane bioreactor in which the membrane serves as a catalytic and separation unit.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Typical correlation between UF flux and transmembrane pressure, indicating a pressure and mass transfer controlled area (Cheryan, 1998).

Figure 3.2 Loss of productivity due to membrane fouling in (a) constant pressure UF and (b) constant flux UF.

Figure 3.3 Mechanisms of membrane fouling: (a) external fouling and (b) internal fouling.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Schematic of the stagnant film model for concentration polarization.

Figure 4.2 Different three-stage flow configurations: (a) three-stage system with two rectification stages and one stripping stage and (b) three-stage system with three rectification stages.

Figure 4.3 Schematic diagram of the process used to concentrate Swiss cheese whey by 40 times to manufacture WPC 80.

Figure 4.4 Protein recovery (%) and for the WPC 80 process in terms of other whey proteins (OWP), glycomacropeptide (GMP), and total whey protein (TWP).

Figure 4.5 Total permeate dry solids and total nonprotein permeate dry solids measured from the composite permeate and diafiltrate streams.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 A process flowsheet showing how dairy minerals can be recovered from an ultrafiltration whey permeate stream following nanofiltration (based on Vembu and Rathinam, 1997).

Figure 5.2 Effect of calcium on the measured zeta potential of a GE Osmonics Desal 5 membrane. All experiments were performed with a background electrolyte of 1 mM KCl. Error bars signify ±1 mV (Rice et al., 2011a). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

Figure 5.3 Operational modes of a typical dairy membrane operation.

Figure 5.4 The concept of osmotic pressure (a) causes water to flow into a salt solution until it reaches a certain height to even out the concentration difference – this is osmosis. (b) An applied pressure in excess of this osmotic pressure is required to drive flow in the opposite direction – this is reverse osmosis.

Figure 5.5 Rejection of ions during nanofiltration of a solution containing 10 mM KCl and 2 mM CaCl

2

, measured at 15 bar TMP, 0.45 m/s cross-flow velocity and 25 °C. Error bars represent ±2 standard deviations (Rice et al., 2011b). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

Figure 5.6 The impact of concentration polarisation on membrane performance once solute precipitation occurs. The concentration at the membrane surface is constrained by the solid/liquid equilibria of the solute at

C

G

. The flux (

J

v

) is then limited by the rate of back diffusion (

D

d

C

/d

y

).

Figure 5.7 Predicted distribution of phosphate species in an aqueous phase of a 10 mM KCl +2 mM CaCl

2

+2 mM KH

2

PO

4

system as a function of pH. The ionic strength was 0.020 ± 0.003 M (Rice et al., 2010). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

Figure 5.8 Predicted distribution of citrate species in a 10 mM KCl + 2 mM CaCl

2

+ 2 mM KH

2

Cit system as a function of pH. The ionic strength was 0.018 ± 0.0004 M (Rice et al., 2010). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

Figure 5.9 Predicted distribution of calcium in an aqueous phase of a 10 mM KCl + 2 mM CaCl

2

+ 2 mM KH

2

Cit + 2 mM KH

2

PO

4

system as a function of pH. The ionic strength is 0.021 ± 0.003 M (Rice et al., 2010). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

Figure 5.10 Solubility diagram for a salt such as calcium phosphate, showing the metastable region.

Figure 5.11 Variation in flux decline during nanofiltration of different batches of UF permeate at 30 °C and 15 bar transmembrane pressure (Rice et al., 2009). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

Figure 5.12 Flux decline during NF of UF permeate at various operating temperatures and modified feed pH values, 15 bar TMP, 0.45 m/s cross-flow velocity (Rice et al., 2009). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Schematic view of normal osmosis and reverse osmosis processes.

Figure 6.2 Classification of polymeric membranes (Ren and Wang, 2011). Reproduced with permission of Springer.

Figure 6.3 Schematic of the TFC-ROM and the chemical structure of the aromatic polyamide.

Figure 6.4 Schematic diagram of a spiral wound RO module (Ettouney and Wilf, 2009). Reproduced with permission of Springer.

Figure 6.5 Schematic diagram of hollow fiber membrane (Chen et al., 2011). Reproduced with permission of Springer.

Figure 6.6 Schematic diagram of membranes for the solution diffusion mechanism.

Figure 6.7 Schematic view of the membrane pore for pore flow models.

Figure 6.8 Schematic view of the ROM process.

Figure 6.9 Schematic view of the concentration polarization profile in a cross-flow membrane system.

Figure 6.10 Conceptual illustrations of antifouling mechanisms: (a) steric repulsion, (b) formation of a water layer, (c) electrostatic repulsion (Kang and Cao, 2012). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Schematic diagram of a typical laboratory pervaporation set-up (Overington et al., 2008). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Figure 7.2 Number of publications each year indexed within the “Web of Science Core Collection” (as of June 2014).

Figure 7.3 Illustration of solution-diffusion model for mass transport in pervaporation.

Figure 7.4 Dairy aromas most widely used as model compounds in pervaporation extraction.

Figure 7.5 Range of membrane selectivities for pervaporative extraction of dairy aroma compounds.

Figure 7.6 Illustration of typical cross-sections of composite membranes.

Figure 7.7 Organophilic membranes used for pervaporative extraction of dairy aroma compounds.

Figure 7.8 Structure of PDMS, POMS, PEBA, EPDM, and EVAC polymers.

Figure 7.9 Possible mechanism of cross-linking reaction between PDMS and PMHS (Tanaka et al., 2010).

Figure 7.10 Schematic of boundary layer effect in pervaporation transport.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Comparison of mass transport in particle-based packed bed and membrane adsorbers (A: convection of solute from inlet to particle, B: pore diffusion of solute to binding site, C: pore diffusion of solute away from binding site, D: convection of solute from particle to outlet, a: convection of solute from inlet to binding site, b: convection of solute from binding site to outlet).

Figure 8.2 A stacked-disc type membrane chromatography device.

Figure 8.3 Arrangement of membrane roll within a spiral-wound radial flow membrane device.

Figure 8.4 ESEM images of high-binding capacity hydrogel-based Natrix HD-S Membrane (A: 400X magnification, B: 1000X magnification) (Image courtesy of Natrix Separations Inc.)

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Schematic representation of a conventional electrodialysis cell. AEM: anion-exchange membrane, CEM: cation-exchange membrane.

Figure 9.2 Principle of an anion-exchange membrane.

Figure 9.3 Electrodialysis with bipolar membrane cell configuration. BM: bipolar membrane, AEM: anion-exchange membrane, CEM: cation-exchange membrane.

Figure 9.4 Electrodialysis with filtration membrane cell configuration. FM: filtration membrane, AEM: anion-exchange membrane, CEM: cation-exchange membrane.

Figure 9.5 Ionic concentration profiles in boundary layers close to a cation-exchange membrane under an electric field and the different mass transfer mechanisms involved in cation migration (adapted from Bazinet, 2011).

Figure 9.6 Schematic diagram of a bipolar membrane electrodialysis unit using a three-compartment configuration for lactate migration. BM: bipolar membrane, AEM: anion-exchange membrane, CEM: cation-exchange membrane.

Figure 9.7 Simultaneous hydrolysis and peptide separation by electrodialysis with filtration membrane. UFM: ultrafiltration membrane, AEM: anion-exchange membrane, CEM: cation-exchange membrane.

Guide

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Membrane Processing for Dairy Ingredient Separation

Edited by

Kang Hu

Global Dairy Ingredients, Land O’Lakes Inc., Arden Hills, Minnesota, USA

James M. Dickson

Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4L7

This edition first published 2015 © 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

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Trait-Modified Oils in Foods

(Frank T. Orthoefer and Gary R. List)

Water Activity in Foods: Fundamentals and Applications

(Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas, Anthony J. Fontana Jr., Shelly J. Schmidt, and Theodore P. Labuza)

Whey Processing, Functionality and Health Benefits

(Charles I. Onwulata and Peter J. Huth)

Kang Hu would like to dedicate this book to his family: Kate, Sarah, and Haiyan for the happiness and joy they bring to his life.

James Dickson would like to dedicate this book to his loving, supportive, patient and caring wife, Debi.

Acknowledgment

This book would not have been possible without the work from all the contributors. It is their unique background and experience on membrane technology that bring the depth and color to this book. We express our appreciation to the publisher, John Wiley & Sons, particularly to David McDade, Fiona Seymour, Audrie Tan, and Lea Abot, for their patience and assistance during the past three years.

As well the book editors, Kang Hu and Jim Dickson would like to thank the continued support of McMaster University. Kang Hu acknowledges the support of Land O’Lakes. Jim Dickson wishes to thank the hard work of all the students that have worked with him over the years many of whom continue to work in membrane science and engineering.

Kang Hu and James M. Dickson

Preface

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2011, about 730 million tonnes of milk were produced annually from around 260 million dairy cows.1 The vast majority of this production goes to feeding humans in various forms including raw milk, various processed milk products, and cheese. However, many valuable components exist within milk that are or can be produced industrially, such as lipids, proteins, minerals, and vitamins, by using various separation processes on milk and/or milk by-products. Membrane-based separation processes have proven to be effective in recovering these products and this book is concerned with such processes.