Metallofoldamers E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 856

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

Metallofoldamers are oligomers that fold into three-dimensional structures in a controlled manner upon coordination with metal ions. Molecules in this class have shown an impressive ability to form single-handed helical structures and other three-dimensional architectures. Several metallofoldamers have been applied as sensors due to their selective folding when binding to a specific metal ion, while others show promise for applications as responsive materials on the basis of their ability to fold and unfold upon changes in the oxidation state of the coordinated metal ion, and as novel catalysts.

Metallofoldamers: From Helicates to Biomimetic Architectures describes the variety of interactions between oligomers and metal species, with a focus on non-natural synthetic molecules.

Topics covered include:

• the major classes of foldamers and their folding driving force
• metalloproteins and metalloenzymes
• helicates: self-assembly, structure and applications
• abiotic metallo-DNA
• metallo-PNA and iDNA
• metallopeptides
• interactions of biomimetic oligomers with metal ions
• applications of metallofoldamers

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Foreword

Preface

Chapter 1: Metalloproteins and Metallopeptides – Natural Metallofoldamers

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Metalloproteins

1.3 Metallopeptides

1.4 Conclusion and Perspectives

1.5 Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 2: Introduction to Unnatural Foldamers

2.1 General Definition of Foldamers

2.2 Biotic Foldamers

2.3 Abiotic Foldamers

2.4 Organization Induced by External Agents

2.5 Applications

2.6 Conclusions and Outlook

References

Chapter 3: Self-Assembly Principles of Helicates

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Thermodynamic Considerations in Self-Assembly

3.3 Cooperativity in Self-Assembly

3.4 Kinetic Aspects of Multicomponent Organization

3.5 Understanding Self-Assembly Processes

3.6 Secondary Structure and Stabilizing Interactions

3.7 Conclusions

References

Chapter 4: Structural Aspects of Helicates

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Structural Dynamics

4.3 Template Effects

4.4 Sequence Selectivity

4.5 Self-Sorting Effects in Helicate Formation

4.6 Diastereoselectivity I – “Meso”-Helicate versus Helicate Formation

4.7 Diastereoselectivity II – Enantiomerically Pure Helicates from Chiral Ligands

4.8 Summary and Outlook

References

Chapter 5: Helical Structures Featuring Thiolato Donors

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Coordination Chemistry of Bis- and Tris(Benzene-o-Dithiolato) Ligands

5.3 Coordination Chemistry of Mixed Bis(Benzene-o-Dithiol)/Catechol Ligands

5.4 Subcomponent Self-Assembly Reactions

5.5 Summary and Outlook

References

Chapter 6: Photophysical Properties and Applications of Lanthanoid Helicates

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Homometallic Lanthanoid Helicates

6.3 Heterometallic d-f Helicates

6.4 Chiral Helicates

6.5 Extended Helical Structures

6.6 Perspectives

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 7: Design of Supramolecular Materials: Liquid-Crystalline Helicates

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Imino-Bipyridine and Imino-Phenanthroline Helicates

7.3 Conclusions

7.4 Outlook and Perspectives

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 8: Helicates, Peptide-Helicates and Metal-Assisted Stabilization of Peptide Microstructures

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Selected Examples of Metal Peptide Conjugates

8.3 Helicates and Peptide-Helicates

8.4 Metal-Assisted Stabilization of Peptide Microstructures

8.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 9: Artificial DNA Directed toward Synthetic Metallofoldamers

9.1 Introduction

9.2 The Quest for Alternative Base Pairing Systems

9.3 Design and Synthesis of Metal Base Pairs

9.4 Assembly and Analysis of Metal Base Pairs Inside the DNA Double Helix

9.5 Artificial DNA for Synthetic Metallofoldamers

9.6 Functions, Applications and Future Directions

References

Chapter 10: Metal Complexes as Alternative Base Pairs or Triplets in Natural and Synthetic Nucleic Acid Structures

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Brief Overview of Synthetic Analogues of DNA: PNA, LNA, UNA, and GNA

10.3 Metal-Containing, Ligand-Modified Nucleic Acid Duplexes

10.4 Duplexes Containing Multiple Metal Complexes

10.5 Metal-Containing, Ligand-Modified Nucleic Acid Triplexes

10.6 Summary and Outlook

Acknowledgement

Abbreviations

References

Chapter 11: Interaction of Biomimetic Oligomers with Metal Ions

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Single-Stranded Oligomers in Which Metal Coordination Templates, or Templates and Nucleates the Formation of an Abiotic Helix

11.3 Folded Oligomers in Which Metal Coordination Nucleates the Formation of an Abiotic Single-Stranded Helix

11.4 Folded Oligomers in Which Metal Coordination Enhances Secondary Structure and Leads to Higher-Order Architectures

11.5 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 12: Applications of Metallofoldamers

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Metallofoldamers in Molecular Recognition

12.3 Metallofoldamers as Sensors for Metal Ions

12.4 Metallofoldamers as Dynamic Materials

12.5 Conclusions and Outlook

References

Index

This edition first published 2013

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List of Contributors

Catalina Achim, Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, USA

Markus Albrecht, Institut für Organische Chemie, RWTH Aachen University, Germany

Martin Berg, Kekulé Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bonn, Germany

Jean-Claude G. Bünzli, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland

Photovoltaic Materials, Department of Materials Chemistry, Korea University, Sejong Campus

Nicola Castellucci, Dipartimento di Chimica “G. Ciamician”, Università di Bologna, Italy

Guido H. Clever, Institute for Inorganic Chemistry, Georg-August University Göttingen, Germany

Arnie De Leon, Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, USA

F. Ekkehardt Hahn, Institut für Anorganische und Analytische Chemie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Germany

Josef Hamacek, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Geneva, Switzerland

Jing Kong, Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, USA

Dennis Lewing, Institut für Anorganische und Analytische Chemie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Germany

Arne Lützen, Kekulé Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bonn, Germany

Vasiliki Lykourinou, Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, USA

Galia Maayan, Schulich Faculty of Chemistry, Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Israel

Li-June Ming, Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, USA

Mitsuhiko Shionoya, Department of Chemistry, University of Tokyo, Japan

Claudia Tomasini, Dipartimento di Chimica “G. Ciamician”, Università di Bologna, Italy

Yan Zhao, Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, USA

Raymond Ziessel, Laboratoire de Chimie Organique et Spectroscopie Avancées (LCOSA)

Ecole de Chimie, Polymères, Matériaux Université de Strasbourg France

Foreword

Since their initial presentation 25 years ago, helicates, helical metallosupramolecular architectures, have received wide attention and been subject to numerous investigations. Much of the fascination they exerted and continue to exert on chemists results from their helical structure, and in particular the relationship of double helicates with the emblematic entity, double-stranded DNA. Although this feature was part of our initial motivation, the goal and the impact were much wider. Indeed, as pointed out earlier, the generation of double helicates from designed ligands and suitable metal ions had for us a much broader significance as it marked the start of the implementation of self-organization processes in supramolecular chemistry via metalloarchitectures. It represented an important first step in the formulation of supramolecular self-organization as the outcome of programmed chemical systems, whereby information stored in the structural features of the ligand molecules is processed by the metal cations via their coordination algorithm. In a further extension, the self-sorting processes occurring in mixtures of equilibrating helicates and the generation of anion-dependent circular helicates became the starting points of our studies that were to evolve into constitutional dynamic chemistry.

From double-stranded to multiple stranded, from two centers to multiple centers, from identical metal ions to different ones, the field of helicates developed extensively, exploring structural features, physical properties and coding schemes, and reaching beyond towards a great variety of other metallosupramolecular architectures. Its expansion demonstrated once again that, without claiming to imitate what biology has so powerfully achieved in the DNA molecule, chemistry is exploring a much wider scene, generating entities entirely imagined and fabricated by chemists, exerting the power of chemistry over the expressions of matter.

The present volume displays a selection of the various aspects of the chemistry of helicates and related entities. It takes stock of achievements, but also suggests numerous exciting developments to the imagination of chemists, at the triple interface of organic, inorganic and biological chemistry, as well as, from a more general perspective, towards the precise control of the self-organization of chemical entities through appropriate programming.

The editors have to be congratulated for assembling a remarkable roster of active players in the field, who deserve our warmest thanks for their expert contributions.

Jean-Marie Lehn

Preface

Nature's examples of functional molecular entities are highly versatile. The living world as we know it only exists due to the specific properties and selective interactions of molecules. Hereby, the observed broad functionality of biological systems is mainly based on the structure of biomacromolecules (proteins or DNA), which strongly relies on an intra- or intermolecular connection between polymer strands. This occurs either in a covalent (e.g., –S-S– bridges) or in a noncovalent fashion. In the latter case H-bonding is probably the most prominent bonding motif. In many cases, however, metal ions have a significant role in the structure and function of biopolymers, being able to bind them and consequently to control their overall structural and thus functional features. It is now well established that the identity of the metal-binding ligands and their coordination mode, as well as side chain interactions, have a crucial role in governing metal binding and selectivity in proteins. The coordination of metal ions to proteins and peptides results in conformational changes, which lead to important functions such as catalysis, interactions with specific receptors or target proteins and the inhibition of biochemical or biophysical processes.

The effect of metal ions on conformational changes in proteins and peptides and thus on their function, which is widely discussed in Chapter 1, has inspired the design and synthesis of “metallofoldamers” – synthetic oligomers that fold upon interactions with metal ions to give various stable architectures in solution. Metallofoldamers are one class of “foldamers”, which are unnatural oligomers that fold into well defined three-dimensional structures in solution via noncovalent interactions. The design, synthesis, structures and applications of foldamers, as thoroughly described in several reviews and a book, are summarized in Chapter 2. We distinguish between three types of metallofoldamers: helicates (Chapters 3–8), metallo-nucleic acids (Chapters 9–10) and metallo-peptidomimetics (Chapter 11).

The term “helicate” was introduced 25 years ago by J.-M. Lehn and describes a rigid oligomer that spontaneously folds into helical structure upon binding of metal ions to its backbone. The self-assembly principles of helicates are presented in Chapter 3. Due to their simplicity, helicates are the ideal “supramolecular Drosophila” to be investigated. Indeed, in the years following their introduction, the chemistry of helicates was intensely studied. This included looking into their structural aspects (Chapter 4) and exploring new ways to construct helicates with various structures and features using unique oligomer backbone chelators (Chapter 5) or nontransition metal ions (Chapter 6). Although the majority of studies were based on the helicate model character, some functional helicates were developed. Thus, liquid-crystalline helicates were designed as supramolecular materials (Chapter 7). In the quest for the creation of more biomimetic helicates, a new generation of helicates is being developed, which includes the use of biopolymers such as peptides and DNA as backbones (Chapters 8–10). This new direction in the field of helicates leads the way to new trends in the field of foldamers – the generation of synthetic oligomers which are peptide and nucleic acid mimics and can fold upon metal coordination to produce various three-dimensional structures stable in solution (Chapters 9–11). It is important to note that, while in helicates the metal ions template a helical structure via self-assembly, in biomimetic oligomers the metal ions nucleate the formation of a three-dimensional structure in a controlled manner. These biomimetic metallofoldamers are therefore macromolecular coordination compounds in which the overall structure of the macromolecule is influenced by its coordination to metal ions (Chapter 11). This copies nature's example of metallaproteins and opens the door to developing novel functional materials (Chapter 12).

The present book covers the whole field of structure control in oligomeric, polymeric, biomimetic and biological systems spanning the bridge from the simple helicates to polymers and natural or artificial peptides or DNA. This directly leads to prospective applications. We believe that the presented aspects are of interest and we hope that many scientists will be inspired and motivated as we are to do research in this fascinating field of chemistry.

Finally, we would like to deeply acknowledge the authors of the individual chapters for their singular and extraordinary contributions. We are also thankful to our coworkers and colleagues for introducing us to this fascinating field of chemistry, for fruitful discussions and for sharing our interest and passion. We also want to express our gratitude to the Wiley team, especially Paul Deards, who initiated the production of this book, as well as Sarah Tilley and Rebecca Ralf for their professional assistance during the editing and publishing process.

August 2012Galia MaayanMarkus Albrecht

1

Metalloproteins and Metallopeptides – Natural Metallofoldamers

Vasiliki Lykourinou and Li-June Ming

Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, USA

1.1 Introduction

By a combination of amino acids with various properties, it is possible to obtain the natural polymers, peptides and proteins, capable of catalyzing key transformations, sustaining energy flow, and maintaining life in a narrow range of allowable conditions and starting materials. The folding, flexibility, and structural changes of peptides and proteins are integral to their functions within living systems. Several factors affect their folding and conformation, including primary sequence, subunit composition, nature and type of subunit interactions, presence of cofactors, and compartment and sequence during folding in a well controlled environment. Emphasis must also be placed on the conformational flexibility of peptides and proteins necessary in the context of their folding and function. In the case of enzymes, such conformational flexibility renders the induced fit process possible during enzymatic catalysis, as found in the large domain movements in hexokinase, HIV protease, and many others upon substrate or inhibitor binding.

Protein conformation, structure, and function are often determined or modulated by metal ions. Therefore, it is instructive to discuss the effect of metal ions or cofactors on the conformational changes of proteins prior to and during their actions. Furthermore, by comparing the folding of metallopeptides and metalloproteins to those whose conformational changes take place in the absence of metal ions can provide further structural and functional information on the metal ions in the former molecules. Such discussion is important in this context, as many proteins require metal ion(s) for their optimal structure and function.

1.2 Metalloproteins

1.2.1 Metalloproteins are Nature's “Metallofoldamers!”

The term “foldamer” was defined as “polymers with a strong tendency to adopt a specific compact conformation” (Gellman) or “oligomers that fold into a conformationally ordered state in solution, the structures of which are stabilized by a collection of noncovalent interactions between nonadjacent monomer units” (Moore) [1]. In this respect foldamers share common characteristic with proteins and thus the term is adopted to differentiate synthetic oligomers and polymers from “nature's foldamers” such as peptides, proteins, and nucleic acids. The term “metallofoldamers” thus is used to describe foldamers that adopt conformationally ordered states in the presence of metal ions or complexes [2]. Therein, the metal center(s) plays a key structural role in the formation of the specific conformation of the corresponding foldamer.

Metal ions may play a key role in the conformational changes of proteins or peptides crucial in their functions. Given the high occurrence of metal ions as cofactors and their integral role in the function of proteins in carrying out catalytic transformations, it is important to review how they are incorporated in the structure of proteins. The mechanism of metal incorporation ranges from a controlled manner through the use of metallochaperones to the direct incorporation from the cellular pool. In the former case this specific class of proteins binds metal ions and mediates the delivery into target enzymes through protein–protein interactions. In the case of iron transport and heme incorporation, transferrin transports iron into cells and hemopexin delivers apo-heme to the same compartment. For cytochrome-c, the heme must be attached before proper folding occurs [3], whereas the assembly of Fe–S clusters and incorporation into proteins and the folding of the F—S proteins require machinery encoded in the iron–sulfur cluster operon [4].

Nevertheless, metal ion incorporation is not always well controlled in such a manner. There are still many metalloproteins without a known chaperone counterpart for metal delivery and folding. Therefore, metal incorporation has also been suggested to be controlled by the choice of compartment in which the metal incorporation takes place. From studies in cyanobacteria, it becomes apparent that many copper and manganese containing proteins fold in different compartments where metal insertion can be controlled in a way that the Irvin–Williams series of stability can be circumvented [5].

A classic example of the structural role of metal ions that affects the function is the zinc finger domains, wherein the metal ions crosslink α–β domains and thus play a central role in the formation of the defined structures. The metal binding as well as the packing of a hydrophobic core drive the folding process. The zinc coordinates to the Cys2His2 motif and drives the folding process, while its removal causes the disruption of the proper folding. These zinc finger domains were first found in the transcription factor TFIIIA, which represents the most common nucleic acid binding motif in transcription factors [6]. Upon binding to DNA, the Zn finger domains undergo further conformational change in order to fit into the major groove of DNA (Figure 1.1; PDB 1ZAA) [7], representing one typical example of metal- and ligand-mediated conformational change of a natural metallofoldamer.

Figure 1.1Crystal structure of zinc finger–DNA complex (of Zif268). The Zn(II) ions (black spheres) in the three “fingers” (cyan) are bound to the protein through two Cys and two His residues and hold the α-helical/β-sheet structural motifs together.

1.2.2 Metal-Triggered Conformational Change of Proteins

1.2.2.1 Cytochrome c and Heme Binding

The cytochrome c family of electron-transfer proteins has a high α-helix content and a heme cofactor that is postranslationally modified to covalently attach to the protein by two thioether bonds between the vinyl group of heme and two cysteine residues within the motif Cys-Xaa-Xaa-Cys-His [8]. The folding of cytochrome c has been studied by proton to deuterium exchange equilibrium monitored with NMR [9]. The folding sequences involve the interaction of the two terminal helices (N- and C-, respectively) first, followed by joining of the 60s helix. The heme center locks in the designated pocket and this is followed by final coordination of the Met80 in the sixth position. These three helices containing the axial methionine appear to be the minimal structural requirement in cytochrome c folding (Figure 1.2) [10]. The axial heme ligand is not conserved among all the proteins and can be found to be histidine, asparagine, or it can be absent [11]. The cytochrome c family has also been implicated in the apoptotic mechanism of cell death via a reactive oxygen species mechanism, scavenging of hydrogen peroxide, and in the assembly of cytochrome c oxidase [11].

Figure 1.2Comparison of the three-dimensional structures of two different cytochromes c. Left: crystal structure of tuna cytochrome c (PDB ID 3CYT). Right: solution structure of oxidized cytochrome c from Bacillus pasteurii determined by NMR. The three helices are in cyan, the extra loop in the tuna enzyme is shown in lavender, the heme is shown in red.

The absence of the heme from cytochrome c causes complete destabilization of the protein due to a decrease of hydrophobic contacts as the heme resides at the hydrophobic core essential for the folding of the protein, an effect similar to guanidinium chloride denaturation [12]. The denaturant action is related to its competition with water molecules in the protein binding, resulting in an unfolding of the protein structure. Simulations of protein folding have shown that correct folding requires full heme contacts at the folding transition state in addition to the hydrophobic interactions as a critical “folding nucleus” [13]. The computational results are in agreement with H—D exchange NMR results, suggesting the initiation of the folding by the terminal helices followed by the 60s helix for the Met80 loop and β-sheets to build onto. The last helix to form is the 40s loop, concluding the significant folding role of the heme for providing a hydrophobic core to stabilize the protein and coordinating to the His and Met residues which results in further lowering the entropy en route to native folding. The heme center can also complicate the folding process as other residues or small molecules can compete for heme binding, which causes what is termed “chemical frustration” [14]. Folding of cytochrome c can therefore be modulated by choosing solvent conditions that favor one set of heme ligands over others. No crystal structures of the apo protein could be obtained for this reason [10], indicating the significance of the heme cofactor in forming and maintaining the folding this natural metallofoldamer cytochrome c.

1.2.2.2 α-Lactalbumin and its Ca2+ Binding and Molten Globule

Calcium binding can cause significant conformational changes, which in turn may mediate a signaling cascade. The “EF-hand” folding is a major Ca-binding motif composed of a helix-loop-helix sequence as found in the multifunctional messenger calmodulin and S100. The assembly of the Ca binding can then be propagated to a protein partner with which the Ca-binding protein is interacting with. In the S100-type of proteins (which regulate cell cycles, cell growth, and differentiation), Ca binding influences protein folding to aid in their dimerization and further interaction with other partner proteins. Likewise, Ca binds α-lactalbumin at a domain containing a helix-loop-helix bend – close to the EF-hand domain – dubbed a Ca-binding “elbow” [8].

α-Lactalbumin is a main protein component of milk, which has been the target for investigation of calcium binding to proteins besides the EF-hand group of proteins and is used as a model for the study of protein stability. It is the regulatory subunit of lactose synthase for the synthesis of lactose from UDP-galactose and glucose in the lactating mammary gland. The protein possesses a single strong Ca2+-binding site, which can also bind Mg2+, Mn2+, Na+, and K+, and a few distinct Zn2+-binding sites. In bovine α-lactalbumin, Ca2+ binds to the “elbow” region (Figure 1.3, lavender) via three carboxylates of Asp82, Asp87, and Asp88, two carbonyl groups of Lys79 and Asp84, and two water molecules in a distorted pentagonal bipyramid coordination sphere with the two carbonyl groups at the axial positions. The binding of cations to the Ca2+ site increases the stability of α-lactalbumin against heat and various denaturing agents and proteases, while the binding of Zn2+ to Ca2+-saturated protein decreases the stability and causes aggregation.

Figure 1.3Stereo view of crystal structure (PDB 1F6S) of bovine holo α-lactalbumin, showing the “Ca2+ elbow” in lavender. The structure of hen egg white lysozyme (3LZT; yellow) is superimposed onto the α-lactalbumin structure, showing the significant similarity in folding.

There are four disulfide bonds in α-lactalbumin (Figure 1.3, red), but none in the EF-hand proteins, which dramatically stabilize the protein conformation [8]. The correct folding of the protein, which relies on the correct formation of the proper disulfide bonds, is promoted by the high Ca2+-binding affinity to the protein. Ca2+ binding however does not change the secondary structure based on circular dichroism (CD) and fluorescence studies [15, 16] which can effectively afford the molten globular state of the protein in the absence of Ca2+ possessing a native-like secondary structure but a flexible tertiary structure [16]. The molten globular state of the protein can be obtained by removal of calcium, in the presence of denaturants, or in an acid denaturant state [17].

Ca2+ does not have a significant effect on the metal-binding site, but it does affect the cleft at the opposite face (underneath the β-sheets shown in Figure 1.3) of the molecule at the joining of the α-helical (Figure 1.3, light brown) and the β-sheet (Figure 1.3, cyan) lobes by disturbing the H-bonding pattern in this region, which results in a more open conformation in apo α-lactalbumin and demonstrates the significance of Ca2+ in the folding of α-lactalbumin [18].

Bovine α-lactalbumin (BLA) shares 38% sequence homology with hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) with most of the differences at charged residues in BLA. However, their tertiary structures are nearly superimposable with all the four conserved disulfide bonds (Figure 1.3, yellow ribbon). Electrostatic interactions can stabilize partially unfolded conformations, which can aid in the formation of molten globule state in BLA, but not in HEWL. The thermodynamic folding barriers in the two proteins are different with a marginal barrier possible for BLA due to stabilization of partially unfolded conformations in the presence of Ca2+, which stabilizes the fully folded state of the protein [19]. Such electrostatic interactions can be potentially engineered in artificial systems as a means to aid in structure stabilization. These studies again reveal the significance of metal ions in the proper folding and stabilization of proteins in order to afford functional natural metallofoldamers.

1.2.2.3 Metallothionein and Heavy Metal Regulation

The concentration of zinc must be well controlled in the cell, as high concentrations can be toxic and cause mitochondrial dysfunction. Metallothionein plays a central role in zinc homeostasis since it is the major protein important in regulation of the zinc level in the cell and its translocation [20] and it has been shown to induce an effect on brain neurons by binding to neuronal receptors and initiating pathways which cause neurite survival [21, 22]. Metallothionein regulates the flow of zinc and copper in the cell and can further prevent poisoning from exposure to toxic cadmium and mercury. Its overall role is suggested to be the control of the distribution of zinc as a function of the cellular energy state and it has been implicated in the following functions [23, 24]: (a) intracellular zinc transport, (b) zinc binding and exchange (e.g., with the zinc cluster protein Gal4, zinc finger transcription factors such as TFIIIA, and aconitase) as well as a zinc-specific chaperone, (c) oxidoreductive properties of cysteine bound zinc as cysteine ligands are redox-sensitive regulatory switches [25], (d) controlling cellular zinc distribution as a function of the energy state of the cell as shown by the interaction with ATP, GSH, and ROS and zinc distribution to enzymes in metabolic networks of gene expression and respiration [26], and (e) a possible role in neural activity, storing and distributing zinc for the neuronal network and protecting it against cellular damage as well as neuronal recovery through binding to neuronal receptors initiating signal transduction pathways [22].

One function of metallothionein may resemble that of the iron-storage protein ferritin in terms of its zinc-storage capability. It is a small protein rich in cysteine (20 cysteines in a total of 62 amino acids in human metallothioneine), but without aromatic amino acids such as tyrosine or histidine. The apo protein can bind a total of seven equivalents of divalent metal ions with d10 configuration such as Zn2+ or Cd2+ in two noninteracting domains (Figure 1.4) [27] and up to six Cu+ ions in each domain [28]. The protein can bind up to seven Zn2+ or Cd2+ ions in tetrahedral coordination spheres, or 12 three-coordinate Cu+ ions with only cysteine residues. The binding of metal converts the random coil conformation of apo metallothionein into a folded two-domain structure (Figure 1.4). Cd2+ binding has been extensively studied with C-13 NMR [29], wherein structural flexibility was observed. The absence of hydrophobic residues for stabilizing a folded form is compensated by the presence of the metal–thiolate core in the folding of this protein.

Figure 1.4Stereo view of the structure (PDB 4MT2) of Cd5Zn2, showing the N- (cyan) and C- (pink) domains with the coordinated Cys residue.

Apo metallothionein retains the backbone conformation imposed by the formation of the metal–thiolate clusters. REF computational studies indicate a potential H-bonding network present in apo metallothionein which plays a role in the formation of a constant but flexible backbone needed to adjust to the incoming metal to ensure specific metal incorporation [30]. The metal–thiolate clusters then direct the “wrapping” of the protein into its three-dimensional structure. There are two distinct metal binding sites in the C-terminal (a-domain) and N-terminal domains (b-domain). The C-domain contains four Zn2+ ions bound to 11 Cys residues with five serving as bridging ligands, while the N-domain binds three Zn2+ ions via nine Cys residues and the metal binding follows a noncooperative model up to four equivalents, as shown by Co2+ binding [31, 32]. Computational studies also support this metal-binding mechanism. MM3/MD calculations of metallothionein structure after sequential removal of metals show that the last two metals bind to independent tetrathiolate sites from terminal thiolate ligands, which further supports independent Co2+ binding to isolated sites prior to metal cluster formation and also confirms that the C-terminal site is the first to bind metal ions [24]. Taken together, metalothionein represents an excellent example for describing the role of metal ions in the proper folding of a natural metallofoldamer.

1.2.3 Conformational Change of Metalloproteins Caused by Ligand Binding

1.2.3.1 Calmodulin and Ca2+/Ligand Binding

The role of metal ions in stabilizing the folded states of small proteins is well established, as illustrated in zinc finger proteins [33] (Figure 1.1). Reversible binding of metal ions, where both the metal-free disordered form and the metal-bound ordered form are functional, is very widely observed among calcium-binding proteins. The coupling of the N- and C-terminal lobes in the EF-hand Ca2+-binding calmodulin is a good example [34]. Since calcium signaling is such an important process in many metabolic systems, it is likely that this kind of reversible order–disorder equilibrium is quite common. The binding of up to four Ca2+ ions in the two different globular ends of apo calmodulin [35] causes significant conformational changes to the molecule (Figure 1.5), including straightening of the long interdomain helix (Figure 1.5, red). Calcium binds to the sites with different affinities (i.e., a higher preference for the C-terminal binding site than the N-terminus), resulting in conformational changes and interaction with other proteins and enzymes to perform its regulatory role (Figure 1.5) [36]. Ca2+ binding to the C-terminal sites stabilizes the long interdomain helix via a Tyr138–Glu82 interaction, which in turn disrupts two interaction helices by breaking an Asp/Glu2–Lys77 interaction, which is followed by Ca2+ binding to the N-terminal sites to form a binding cleft for target proteins [37].

Figure 1.5Right: structure of Ca2+-free calmodulin determined with NMR in solution, showing a kink in the middle of the interdomain helix (PDB ID 1CFD). Left: crystal structure of Ca2+-bound calmodulin, showing dramatic conformational change upon Ca2+ binding (PDB 1EXR).

Calmodulin can bind various molecules, including drugs, peptides, and their regulating target proteins. Calmodulin-modulated Ca2+ signaling is thus attributed to the different responses of these target molecules to the conformational change of calmodulin upon Ca2+ binding. The difference in Ca2+ binding and target interactions of the two lobes also enable calmodulin to work out local and global Ca2+ sensing and signaling through conformational change [38]. Further, the binding of target molecule to calmodulin can also influence the Ca2+ sensitivity of calmodulin [39]. The calmodulin-binding regions in the target proteins are comprised of short helical segments of ~14–26 amino acids with a high occurrence of hydrophobic and basic residues for high affinity and specificity without the need for sequence specificity [40]. Such dramatic conformational change is illustrated in Figure 1.6 for Ca4-calmodulin binding binding to the “IQ” “motif” in the α1 subunit of the L-type voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel Cav1.1, which undergoes Ca2+- and CaM-dependent channel facilitation and inactivation [41]. The C-terminal conformation of the α1 subunit is critical for channel function and has been proposed to regulate the gating machinery of the channel [42]. The binding causes a significant conformational change in calmodulin, especially the kink at positions 79–81 of the interdomain helix, which results in wrapping around the peptide (Figure 1.6). Taken together, calmodulin represents one of the best examples showing significant metal- and ligand-induced conformational changes.

Figure 1.6Two different views (rotating by ~90°) of Ca4-calmodulin-bound “IQ motif” of the Cav1.1 channel (PDB ID 2VAY). The interdomain helix is colored in red, the IQ motif in yellow, and the four Ca2+ ions as green spheres.

1.2.3.2 Carboxypeptidase A Catalytic Mechanism

Another example of dramatic conformational changes in a metalloenzyme is well represented in the action of carboxypeptidase A, a pancreatic proteolytic enzyme. It belongs to a family of exopeptidases responsible for catalyzing the hydrolysis of peptide bonds at the C-terminus of peptides and proteins. It plays a regulatory role or complements the action of other proteolytic enzymes such as trypsin, chymotrypsin, and pepsin to aid in the production of essential amino acids [43]. Carboxypeptidase A is specific to hydrophobic C-terminal amino acid residues (such as phenylalanine, tyrosine, or tryptophan), while the B-type is specific to the charged residues Lys and Arg. Carboxypeptidase A is a monomer of 307 amino acids with a globular shape consisting of both α-helices and β-sheets (Figure 1.7). The active-site zinc ion plays a key role in the catalysis as it participates in the stabilization of the intermediate, the deprotonation of the nucleophilic coordinated water, and the electrostatic interactions critical for recognition of the terminal amino acid in the substrate peptide chain. This enzyme shares a common active-site motif of H69xxE72 for zinc binding (with a bidentate carboxylate of E72), along with a second histidine (H196) located far downstream and a water molecule to complete the coordination sphere of the metal (Figure 1.7) [44].

Figure 1.7Stereo views of the crystal structure of (left) bovine carboxypeptidase A at 1.25 Å (PDB 1ML) with the nucleophilic water shown in red sphere and (right) the enzyme with a bound potato inhibitor (lavender; PDB 4CPA).

As in the case of hexakinase, this protein also undergoes conformational changes upon substrate binding to the active site “pocket,” which closes upon substrate binding. More specifically, the negatively charged residues can interact with Arg145 residues in the active site while the hydrophobic interactions between the substrate and the hydrophobic pocket can help orient the substrate. Upon binding of potato inhibitor via its C-terminal carboxylate (Figure 1.7) [45], the bidentate Glu72 residue becomes monodentate which is accompanied by a >10 Å movement of Tyr248 to form a H-bond with the bound inhibitor along with a ~2 Å movement of the backbone of the region around Tyr248 toward the metal. Once again, conformational flexibility in metalloproteins is illustrated herein with carboxypeptidase A during its catalytic action.

1.2.3.3 Aminopeptidase and Alternative Catalysis

Aminopeptidases are widely distributed hydrolytic enzymes catalyzing various processes, such as peptide digestion and hormone production, some requiring metal ion(s) in the active site for full activity. The nuclearity of the active site of metallopeptidases varies from mononuclear in the case of carboxypeptidase, to dinuclear in aminopeptidases, and trinuclear in phospholipase C. Even among the dinuclear aminopeptidases, such as those isolated from bovine lens (bAP) [46], Escherichia coli (eAP) [47], Aeromonas proteolytica (aAP) [48], and Streptomyces griseus (sAP) [49], there is a variation in the structural and mechanistic roles of the metal ions [50]. For example, the dinuclear aAP shows selective metal binding, but mononuclear catalytic activity with the second metal playing a regulatory role [51]. In contrast, the dinuclear sAP (as well as bAP) exhibits dinuclear catalysis, despite its very similar folding and active-site coordination (Asp/His on one metal, Glu/His on the other metal, and a bridging Asp) to those of aAP (Figure 1.8), which indicates that the microenvironment such as the proximal amino acid residues around the active-site coordination sphere must be more significant than the folding of the peptide backbone for proper functions and specific activities.

Figure 1.8Left: stereo view of superimposed sAP (lavender; PDB ID 1CP7) and aAP (cyan; PDB 1AMP), with the active-site di-Zn in red sphere and Ca (in sAP) in yellow. Right: stereo view of di-Cu catechol oxidase from sweet potato, showing the very different folding from that of sAP. The two Cu ions are shown in red.

Streptomyces AP is a di-Zn2+-containing 30-kDa enzyme which consists of a central β-sheet core surrounded by helices with the active site found within the β-sheet region (Figure 1.8), wherein the dinuclear site can selectively bind metal ions such as Co2+ and Mn2+ in the two metal-binding sites of sAP [52]. The various metal derivatives exhibit significant alternative catalysis toward a phosphodiester substrate, despite the fact the latter frequently serves as a transition-state inhibitor, which is not the case for aAP [53]. Moreover, the di-Cu2+ derivative of the enzyme shows significant activity toward catechol oxidation [54], despite its protein folding and active-site coordination environment being completely different from those of catechol oxidase with three His residues bound to each Cu (Figure 1.8). The observations presented herein indicate that protein folding in not the only control for showing specific enzyme catalysis (i.e., sAP vs aAP toward alternative catalysis) and the folding and/or active-site coordination sphere does not need to be restricted to a certain pattern to exhibit a specific catalysis (i.e., di-Cu-sAP vs catechol oxidase).

1.2.4 Protein Misfolding: Causes and Implications – Cu, Zn-Superoxide Dismutase

The superoxide dismutase (SOD) family has four distinct groups, that is, Cu-, Zn-, Fe-, Mn-, and Ni-containing, which are responsible for catalyzing the conversion of superoxide anionic radical to O2 and H2O2 to protect the cellular environment from damage by superoxides generated during respiration or through the oxidative activity of immune cells [55]. The Cu,Zn-containing SOD (SOD1) is a dimeric protein, with each monomer consisting of an eight-stranded β-barrel and electrostatic and metal-binding loops (Figure 1.9) [56]. The electrostatic loop features Arg143 for hydrogen bonding to superoxide and Thr137 in conjunction with Arg143 to limit the anions coming into the copper-active site. The catalytic site features a unique bridging His63 residue between the two metal ions at 6 Å apart. The coordination site of Cu2+ is completed by three more His residues and a water molecule in a square pyramidal geometry, whereas the Zn2+ tetrahedral site is comprised of two more His residues and an Asp residue. The catalytic cycle starts with the binding of superoxide to Cu2+ by displacing the coordinated water followed by electron transfer to the copper and diffusion of oxygen, which results in a trigonal planar Cu+ site. A second electron transferred by another superoxide results in the regeneration of the Cu2+ center and the release of peroxide [57].

Figure 1.9Crystal structure of as-isolated dimeric human SOD1 (PDB ID 2C9U). The Cu ions are shown in blue and Zn ions in red.

SOD1 is properly folded through posttranslational modifications which proceed via two distinct pathways, depending on whether or not the copper chaperone CCS is required for the insertion of Cu and the formation of an intramolecular disulfide bond [58]. The formation of disulfide bridges is crucial in the oligomerization of the protein as the reduced metal free protein favors the monomeric state. Proper folding of SOD1 is important since many mutant forms of this protein have been shown to cause amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), suggested to be due to destabilized or completely unfolded structures and aggregation at room temperature [59]. More specifically, the immature reduced forms of the mutant protein without the formation of disulfide bonds [60] have been implicated in the aggregation process as they can form incorrect intermolecular disulfide crosslinks. The spinal cords of ALS transgenic mice have been found to contain significant amounts of insoluble aggregates composed of such crosslinked multimers, which however are not observed in other tissues such as the brain cortex and liver [60]. Transgenic mice expressing the human mutant G85R SOD1 protein develop paralytic ALS symptoms along with the appearance of SOD1-enriched inclusions in their neural tissues. The crystal structure of this mutant supports that metal-deficient and/or disulfide-reduced SOD1 mutants may contribute to toxicity in SOD1-linked ALS [61].

The unfolding process of SOD1 has been shown to include more than two states, involving other intermediates in the unfolding process. The irreversible inactivation process due to thermal denaturation has distinct features between apo- and holoenzymes, with the rates of inactivation showing a biphasic response as a function of temperature for the apoenzyme but a monophasic function in the case of the apoenzyme [62, 66]. The role of the metal ions has been also implicated in the stabilization of the β-barrel structure of the protein fold [63]. Moreover, the unfolded state of the protein is also stabilized by metal ions [64]. The derivative Cu, E-SOD1 without a bound Zn2+, has a lower thermal stability, supporting the primary structural role of Zn2+ in this protein. In addition, Co(II) or Hg(II) can replace Zn(II) in order to maintain the thermal stability of the Cu(II)-free apoenzyme [65]. Overall, the apoenzyme is more sensitive to inactivating processes compared to the holoenzyme. Stability is also affected by the oxidation state of the bound copper. DSC measurements of dithionite reduced native SOD1 containing Cu+ and Zn2+ reveal one peak at 96 °C while native SOD1 containing Cu2+ and Zn2+ exhibits two melting transitions at 89 and 96 °C wherein the transition at 89 °C is affected by oxygen in the solution [66]. The effect of metal binding in protein stabilization is not unique to SOD1. For example the Cu-binding in P. aeruginosa azurin stabilizes the protein, whereas in beta-2-macroglobulin it causes native-state destabilization [67].

Taken together, the presence and identity of the metal ion bound to SOD1 and the status of the disulfide bonds in SOD1 have significant effects on the folding, stability, and catalytic efficiency of the enzyme. Destabilization and misfolding of this enzyme may result in the formation of aggregations in neural tissues and cause neurodegeneration and ALS. The above sections have briefly described the folding, structure, and function of several natural metallofoldamers–metalloproteins, which serve as a foundation for the further design and investigation of synthetic metallofoldamers.

1.3 Metallopeptides

Analogous to the metalloproteins discussed above which inspired the design and syntheses of metallofoldamers, a number of simple natural products such as oligopeptides and oligoketides and some antibiotics also adopt secondary or specific structures upon binding with metal ion(s) and can serve as templates for functional metallofoldamers. Metal ions play a key role in the actions of synthetic and natural metallopeptides [68, 69] and are involved in specific interactions with proteins, membranes, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules. For example, Fe/Co-bleomycin binds DNA, which impairs DNA function and may also result in DNA cleavage; metallobacitracin binds the sugar-carrying undecaisoprenyl pyrophosphate to inhibit cell wall synthesis; and the specific binding of metal ions to ionophores or siderophores results in their transport through the cell membrane either causing disruption of the potential across the membrane or enabling microorganisms to acquire Fe from the environment.

In addition to the α-helical and β-sheet secondary structures, the β-turn is another important secondary structure in peptides and proteins, in which Pro frequently found at the “break point” [70] and the β-turns [71] to afford an anti-parallel β-sheet structure. In addition to Pro, Gly is also a “structure breaker” and frequently associated with Pro to form a turn [72] as observed at the G12–P13 β-turn in Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase (Figure 1.10). Combining with His, a metal-binding site can form near the turn in metalloproteins, such as the Pro86 turn in the copper site of plastocyanin (Figure 1.10, blue). Peptides are prototypical molecules which can adopt secondary structures to exhibit broad biological activities by interacting with specific receptors or target proteins, including a large number of G protein-coupled receptors, wherein a general “turn motif” is associated with the binding [73]. Peptides are involved in many physiological regulations and bioactivities, such as the opioid peptides dynorphin, endorphin, and enkephalin, galanin (which may regulate nociception), ghrelin (which may stimulate hunger), Ca2+-regulating calcitonin, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, and some neurotoxins. Such peptide-associated activities have triggered the design and synthesis of a β-turn mimetic library targeting the major recognition motifs in protein–protein and peptide–receptor interactions [74].

Figure 1.10Left: the tight G12-P13-β-turn in Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase (PDB ID 1QE). Right: the metal-binding P86 turn in plastocyanin (PDB ID 1AG6).

1.3.1 Antibiotic Metallopeptides

There are many antibiotic peptides of diverse structures isolated from various sources which interact with a variety of biomolecules, resulting in the inhibition of the associated biochemical or biophysical processes which frequently are associated with conformational changes of the peptides and/or the targets. A number of antibiotics need metal ions to function properly, thus dubbed “metalloantibiotics” [75], such as the peptide bacitracin (Bc) from Bacillus species [76] and the peptides/ketide bleomycin (Blm) from the culture medium of Streptomyces verticullus [77]. Metal binding to these antibiotics results in significant conformational changes, such as the ~180° twisting of the simple antibiotic streptonigrin upon metal binding [78, 79]. A few prototypical antibiotic metallopeptides are discussed in this section to show conformational changes of these peptides associated with metal binding and interaction with targets.

1.3.1.1 Metallo-Blm and DNA Binding

Blm is a Cu2+-containing glycopeptidyl antibiotic excreted by Streptomyces verticullus [80, 81] which also exhibits antiviral [82] and anticancer [83] activities and is widely used in chemotherapy. Blm contains a few uncommon amino acids, that is, β-amino-Ala, β-hydroxy-His, and methylvalerate and a peptidyl bithiazole chain for DNA binding (1, with potential metal-binding sites marked in red). It is the most extensively studied metalloantibiotic from various view points [75], including structures, oxidative DNA cleavage, and use as a model system to gain further insights into O2 activation by nonheme Fe enzyme [84]. DNA cleavage by Fe-Blm is carried out by the active O = FeV/IV-Blm species via oxidation at C4′ and C2′–H proton abstraction immediately after the 5′GC and 5′GT sequences [84–87], Fe2+-Blm can also bind and cleave RNA molecules [88], including tRNA and its precursors and rRNA [89] mainly at the junctions between double- and single-stranded regions [90], and also DNA–RNA hybrids [8b, [91]].

Blm can bind various metal ions [92], including Mn2+ [93], Fe2+/3+ [94], Co2+/3+ [95], Ni2+/3+ [96, 97], Cu+/2+ [98, 99], Zn2+ [98], Cd2+ [100], Ga3+ [101], and Ru2+ [102] as well as the radioactive 105Rh for radiotherapy [103], changing the conformation of the molecule from a supposedly more extended form (1) to a more compact form (Figure 1.11, green structure). Metallo-Blm has a distorted octahedral geometry with coordinated imidazole, pyrimidine, amines of β-aminoalamine, the amide nitrogen of β-hydroxyhistidine, and possibly the amide group of α-d-mannose, as shown by optical, NMR, EPR, and electron spin-echo envelope modulation (ESEEM) spectroscopic methods, crystallography, and chemical modeling [104–107]. This leaves an open or exchangeable site for O2 or peroxo binding. Similar coordination chemistry was also suggested for Zn2+-Blm from 2-D NMR [108], however excluding carbamoyl binding. The binding of Co2+-Blm to DNA via the bithiazole rings does not influence the metal coordination, whereas the binding of O2–Co-Blm affects the bound O2 where the unpaired electron resides [109].

Figure 1.11Relaxed-eye stereoviews of (top) the superimposed structures of the activated “green species” HOO-Co3+-deglycopepleomycin (green ball and stick structure; PDB 1AO2) with a more compact folding than that of the complex upon binding with d(CGTACG)2 (red stick structure retrieved from PDB 1AO1) and (middle) deglycopepleomycin-Co3+(OOH)-(CGTACG)2 structure obtained from NMR studies (PDB 1AO1). Peroxide is bound to the metal from the bottom in the structure shown. Bottom: crystal structure of bleomycin-binding protein from Streptoalloteichus hindustanus complexed with a bleomycin congener of an extended conformation (PDB 2ZHP).

Low-spin diamagnetic Co3+ complexes of Blm and analogues have structures similar to Zn-Blm based on 2-D NMR spectroscopy, except the axial ligands [110, 111]. The structures of (DNA)2-Co3+-Blm and (DNA)2-(HOO)Co3+-Blm ternary complexes show further structural changes upon DNA binding (Figure 1.11) [110, 112]. The metal-binding moiety is located in the minor groove of (DNA)2 with the bithiazole rings intercalated into the DNA double helix, rendering the bound peroxide close to the 4′-H of the scissile ribose (<3 Å). Conversely, the bithiazole is in the minor groove in Zn2+-Blm-DNA [113]. Nevertheless, intercalation of bithiazole may not be necessary for DNA cleavage since DNA cleavage by Fe-Blm is similarly effective compared to its derivative with the bithiazole tethered to a porous glass bead [114]. Fe3+-Blm becomes low-spin (g = 2.41, 2.18, 1.89) with a bound hydroxide at slightly alkaline conditions [115, 116]. O2 binds to Fe2+-Blm to afford a superoxide O2−–Fe3+-Blm complex based on its 57Fe Mössbauer spectrum [117] which can afford an active HOO−-Fe-Blm complex toward DNA cleavage [11b]. The paramagnetic Fe2+-Blm (S = 2) with distance-dependent fast relaxing isotropically shifted [118]1H NMR signals has been studied by means of NMR [119, 120]. The structural model of Fe2+-Blm built by the use of NMR relaxation times as constraints is similar to those of Co3+-Blm complexes. Upon binding to the Shble protein from Streptoalloteichus hindustanus, Cu-Blm adopts an extended conformation [121] (Figure 1.11), as opposed to that upon binding to DNA wherein bending of the bithioazole rings occurs in order to intercalate into the base pairs. Taken together, metallo-Blm represents a prototypical natural metallofoldamer which undergoes conformational change upon metal binding and binding with nucleic acid targets.

1.3.1.2 Bc and Cell Wall Biosynthesis

Bc is a metal-dependent peptidyl antibiotic produced by Bacillus subtilis and B. licheniformis, primarily against Gram-positive bacteria via inhibition of cell wall synthesis [76, 122]. It is widely used as a feed additive for livestock [123] and in “triple antibiotics” (along with polymyxin and neomycin) for human external use [124]. Bc contains four d-amino acids, a thiazoline ring, and a cyclic heptapeptide structure formed via a linkage between the sidechain amine of Lys6 and the C-terminal carboxylate of Asn12 (2). It can inhibit metalloproteases presumably due to its metal-binding capability [125], can inhibit a membrane-bound protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) [126], and may serve as a selective inhibitor of β1 and β7 integrin following a not yet known mechanism [127]. However, it was recently shown to have only relatively minor effect on PDI activity in vitro [128] which requires re-evaluation of Bc as a specific inhibitor of PDI in cellular systems.

Bc requires a divalent metal ion for its activity [129] and can bind several divalent transition metal ions, including Co2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, and Zn2+ [130], and it triggers a slight conformational change as discussed below [131]. Co2+-Bc binds C55-isoprenyl (undecaisoprenyl or bactoprenyl) pyrophosphate with a formation constant of 1.05 × 106 M−1 [132], which can prevent dephosphorylation of this lipid pyrophosphate to bind UDP sugars for transport of the sugars during cell wall synthesis [133]. NMR study of Zn2+-Bc suggested that His-10 and the sulfur of thiazoline are coordinated to the metal [130]. EPR study of Cu2+-Bc indicated a tetragonally distorted Cu2+ center (gx = 2.058, gy = 2.047, gz = 2.261, and Az(Cu) = 534 MHz) with coordinated thiazoline ring nitrogen, imidazole of His10, and carboxylates of d-Glu4 and Asp11 [13b]. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) study of Zn2+-Bc in solid form revealed three Ns and one O in the first coordination sphere with a tetrahedral-like geometry [134], suggested them to be thiazoline nitrogen, His10 imidazole, d-Glu4, and possibly the N-terminal amino group. The hyperfine-shifted 1H NMR spectrum of Co2+-Bc revealed the Nε of His10, the carboxylate of d-Glu4, and the thiazoline nitrogen as the metal-binding ligands [131]. A structural model of Co2+-Bc built with relaxation times as distance constraints revealed a hydrophobic pocket formed by the side chains of Ile5 and d-Phe9 for possible binding with the hydrocarbon chain of the sugar-carrying undecaisoprenyl pyrophosphate (Figure 1.12), whereas the structure of apo-bacitracin from 2-D NMR showed that the side chains of d-Phe9 and Ile8 are close to Leu3 [135]. Investigation of the Co2+ complexes of Bc congeners, including the active Bc-B1 and B2 and the inactive stereo isomer A2 and the oxidized form F, revealed that proper metal binding is essential for Bc activity. The crystal structure of a Bc-bound serine protease complex shows an extended structure [136] which would prevent metal binding. The conformational difference among Bc, its protease-bound complex, metallo-Bc, and farnasylpyrophosphate-metallo-Bc complexes reflects conformational flexibility of this peptide framework even for its seemingly rigid cyclic structure.

Figure 1.12The structures of Bc-metal complex (pink) and a model of the ternary complex (blue) upon the binding of farnasylpyrophosphate (ball and stick) to metallo-Bc. Conformational changes due to formation of the metal complex and ligand binding are clearly seen including Phe9 and possible detachment of coordinated Glu4.

1.3.1.3 Antibiotic Salivary Peptide

The histatin (Htn) family is comprised of His-rich salivary peptides in higher primates [137–140], showing antibiotic activities against Streptococcus mutans [141] and S. mitis [142], Saccharomyces cerevisiae [143], Cryptococcus neoformans [144], and Porphyromonas gengivalis, as well as the opportunistic pathogenic yeast Candida albicans [145]. Htn5 has the highest concentration among the Htns in human saliva. It is the first 24 amino acids of Htn3 (DSHAK RHHGY10 KRKFH EKHHS20 HRGY) and exhibits its highest activity against C. albicans [138]. Htn5 does not form pores in the bacterial cell membranes [146] but internalizes by binding to the heat shock protein Ssa1/2 on the cell wall [147], followed by interaction with the K+ transporter TRK1 [148] which leads to apoptosis [149]. It may be internalized into mitochondria and interfere with the electron transfer processes to cause cell death [150].

Htn5 contains several potential metal-binding residues from His, Asp, Glu, and Tyr, has been shown to bind divalent metal ions in the order of Cu2+ > Ni2+ > Zn2+ Ca2+ ~ Fe2+ [151], and is suggested to bind three equivalents of Zn2+ or Cu2+ from a calorimetric study. Cu2+ and Ni2+ bind Htn5 at the N-terminal DSH with a high affinity analogous to DAH in bovine serum albumin which folds the N-terminus [152] to afford a square planar coordination geometry on the basis of electronic, NMR, and EPR results [153], and potentially also at HEXXH and two His–His sites, as found in many metallopeptides and metalloproteins. However, Co2+ seems to bind to Htn5 first with three His residues and with two His residues in the second site [153]. Metal binding of Htn5 plays an important role in its bioactivities by fusing negatively charged vesicles (Zn2+ binding [151a]) and exhibiting oxidative nuclease activity (Cu2+ binding [154]). Similar to many Cu2+ complexes, the complex Cu22+–Htn5 also exhibits significant activity toward catechol oxidation [153]. Since Htn5 can effectively bind metal ions, conformation change upon each metal binding can be expected. However, it has not been revealed how all the metal centers are involved in the oxidative catalysis and in the antimicrobial activity of Htn5; and the correlation between structure, antimicrobial activities, and metallo-Htn5 is unknown.

1.3.1.4 Ionophores and Siderophores

Ionophores [155] are small peptides or other kinds of molecules excreted by microorganisms which can selectively bind and transport alkali or alkaline earth metal ions across cell membranes and artificial lipid bilayers, whereas siderophores [156] selectively bind and transport Fe3+ [75]. These molecules can: (a) disturb the ionic balance across membrane, such as nactins, lasalocid, and valinomycin, (b) create pores on membranes, such as gramicidins, and (c) compete for iron in the environment, such as ferrichromes. The potential imbalance across the cell membrane may slow down cell growth or cause cell death. Consequently, the metal ions in metalloionophores serve as “magic bullets” to cause a potential imbalance and engender antibiotic activities. The mechanism of this type of antibiotic activity has been adopted in the design of channel-forming antibacterial agents [157].

Ionophores and siderophores exhibit significant conformational changes upon metal binding [155], from extended conformations to compact folded forms as in the case of nactins (e.g., nonactin, tetranactin, and dinactin) and valinomycin [158, 159]. The metallo-forms then bind specific receptors on the cell surface and result in the transport of metal ions into the cell. Depending on the target metal ions, the structures of the metalloforms may vary dramatically. In the case of enniatin cyclic (l-N-methyl-valine-d-hydroxy- isovalerate)3, the parent ionophore has a structure very similar to its K+ complex, yet quite distinct from its Rb+ complex [160]. This family of antibiotics contain an O-rich metal-binding environment, including ether groups, the carbonyl group of esters and amides, and carboxylates preferably for binding with alkali and alkaline earth metal ions in different metal:ligand ratios attributed to the structures, the size of their metal-binding site, the ionic radii of the metal ions, and/or the hydration energy of the cations [75].

The gramicidins family is a peptide ionophore family produced by Bacillus brevis [161], of which gramicidin A is the major component. Its primary structure contains six d-form amino acids, that is, formyl-Val-Gly-Ala-(d-Leu4)-Ala-(d-Val6)-Val-(d-Val8)-Trp-(d-Leu10)-Trp-(d-Leu12)-Trp-(d-Leu14)-Trp-ethanolamine (and Trp11 → Phe in gramicidin B and Trp11 → Tyr in gramicidin C). This family exhibits an antibiotic mechanism different from those cation-binding ionophores described above by inserting into the lipid bilayer as a dimer and folding into a unique β-double-stranded helix [162] to create a pore of ~4 Å (Figure 1.13) with selectivity in the order H+ > NH4+ > Cs+ > Rb+ > K+ > Na+ > Li+ > N(CH3)4+ in 0.1 M salt [163]. However, it does not show permeability to the divalent metal ions Mg2+, Ca2+, Ba2+, and Zn2+, which bind to the entrance of the channel and prevent the transport of monovalent cations [164]. Similar configurations are observed for the peptide backbone in both solution and solid state [165] (Figure 1.13) with hydrophobic amino acid side chains facing outward for better interaction with the lipid bilayer [165–170]. However, the structures in solution determined by NMR spectroscopy exhibit a higher degree of irregularity, such as the shape of the channel. The binding of monovalent metal ions does not seem to cause a significant conformational change in gramicidins. The insertion of gramicidins into membranes does not rely on the binding of metal ions as in the case of the ionophores described above, thus it does not create a further energy barrier for metal binding and transport.

Figure 1.13Stereo relaxed eye view of the crystal structures of one channel of gramicidin A dimer (top, viewed through the channel; bottom, side view; PDB ID 1AV2). Cs+ ions located in the channel are shown in green spheres, water molecules are shown in small red spheres.

The extremely small solubility product Ksp of ~10−38 for Fe(OH)3 under aerobic physiological conditions makes soluble Fe3+ in aqueous solutions very scarce. To overcome this obstacle, microorganisms excrete Fe3+-specific siderophores which bind Fe3+ with extraordinarily high affinity constants in the range of ~1030–1052 M−1 and transport Fe3+ into cells via specific receptors [156, 171]. There are three families of siderophores, differing from each other by their iron-binding sites: hydroximate- (such as ferrichrome from Penicillium and the edible Ustilago), catechol-containing (e.g., enterobactin from E. coli), carboxylate-containing (like the simple citrate), and their combinations (such as aerobactin) [172]. Upon Fe3+ binding, the ferrichromes fold to afford an octahedral metal coordination sphere with a more compact conformation than their metal-free apo-forms (Figure 1.14