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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Microwave and Millimeter-wave Antenna Design for 5G Smartphone Applications In-depth and practical coverage of design considerations for 5G antennas In Microwave and Millimeter-wave Antenna Design for 5G Smartphone Applications, two distinguished researchers deliver a holistic, multidisciplinary approach to antenna design methodologies. The book covers approaches ranging from sub-6GHz microwave to the millimeter-wave spectrum, explaining how microwave and millimeter-wave 5G antennas coexist and function, both independently and collaboratively. The book offers coverage of key considerations for designing millimeter-wave 5G antennas within space-constrained mobile devices, as well as practical concerns, like cost, fabrication yield, and heat dissipation. Readers will also find explorations of the likely future directions of 5G antenna evolution, as well as: * A thorough introduction to basic concepts in 5G FR1 Band mobile antenna design, including discussions of antenna placement, element design, and topologies * Comprehensive explorations of antenna feeding mechanisms and impedance matching, including chassis considerations and effects * Practical discussions of frequency tunable millimeter-wave 5G antenna-in-package * Fulsome treatments of compact millimeter-wave 5G antenna solutions and millimeter-wave antenna-on-display technologies for 5G mobile devices Perfect for antenna, microwave, communications, and radio-frequency engineers, Microwave and Millimeter-wave Antenna Design for 5G Smartphone Applications will also benefit graduate students, policymakers, regulators, and researchers with an interest in communications and antennas.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022
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Table of Contents
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Introduction
References
2 Considerations for Microwave and Millimeter‐Wave 5G Mobile Antenna Design
2.1 Frequency Characteristics and Channel Models
2.2 5G Network Architecture
2.3 Evolution of Mobile Devices
2.4 Antenna Materials
2.5 Conclusion
References
3 Basic Concepts for 5G FR1 Band Mobile Antenna Design
3.1 Design Considerations
3.2 Antenna Element Design and Topologies
3.3 Antenna‐Feeding Mechanism and Impedance Matching
3.4 Chassis Consideration and Effects
3.5 Electromagnetic Exposure and Mitigation
3.6 Conclusion
References
4 Multi‐Band 5G FR1 Band Mobile Antenna Design
4.1 Planar Antenna Design Topologies
4.2 Hybrid Antenna Design Topologies
4.3 Co‐existence with 3G/4G and Millimeter‐Wave 5G Antenna Techniques
4.4 Wideband Antenna Design Topologies Beyond Band n77/n78/n79
4.5 Conclusion
References
5 MIMO‐Based 5G FR1 Band Mobile Antenna
5.1 Motivation and Requirements
5.2 Antenna Isolation Techniques
5.3 Practical Considerations and Challenges
5.4 Conclusion
References
6 Millimeter‐Wave 5G Antenna‐in‐Package (AiP) for Mobile Applications
6.1 Miniaturized Antenna‐in‐Package (AiP) Technology
6.2 Multi‐Modal AiP Technology
6.3 Conclusion
References
7 Multi‐Physical Approach for Millimeter‐Wave 5G Antenna‐in‐Package
7.1 Background and Current Challenges
7.2 Heat Dissipation Strategies
7.3 Multiphysical Analysis
References
8 Frequency Tunable Millimeter‐Wave 5G Antenna‐in‐Package
8.1 Background and Realistic Challenges for Mobile Applications
8.2 Tunable Matching Network
8.3 Topology and Design Considerations
8.4 Examples and Demonstrations
8.5 Upcoming Challenges
References
9 Cost‐Effective and Compact Millimeter‐Wave 5G Antenna Solutions
9.1 Background
9.2 Compact Inverted‐L Antenna Element with 1‐D EBG Structures
9.3 Low‐Coupled mmWave Phased‐Arrays Fabricated on FR‐4 PCB
9.4 Conclusion
References
10 Millimeter‐Wave Antenna‐on‐Display for 5G Mobile Devices
10.1 Performance Metrics of mmWave 5G Mobile Antenna Systems
10.2 Optically Invisible Antenna‐on‐Display Concept
10.3 OLED Display‐Integrated Optically Invisible Phased‐Arrays
10.4 OLED Touch Display‐Integrated Optically Invisible Phased Arrays
10.5 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 FR1 FDD (frequency division duplex) frequency bands for 5G new ra...
Table 2.2 FR1 TDD (time division duplex) frequency bands for 5G new radio....
Table 2.3 FR1 supplementary downlink bands (SDL) and supplementary uplink b...
Table 2.4 5G NR frequency bands in FR2 above 24 GHz.
Table 2.5 Performance comparison of Rogers, FR4, and LTCC substrate.
Table 2.6 Performance comparison between PI, MPI, and LCP.
Table 2.7 Antenna technology and characteristics from 1G to 5G.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 User's hand parameters in simulation for various frequencies.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Calculated MEGS of the eight‐antenna array in [6].
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Comparison with the state‐of‐the‐art vertically polarized endfire...
Table 6.2 The mode and the weighting matrix of 4 × 4 BCA.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Antenna parameters.
Table 7.2 Metal stamped AiP parameters.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Equivalent reactance by frequencies.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 UE minimum peak EIRP and spherical coverage EIRP for power class...
Table 10.2 5G NR sub‐6 GHz Requirements for EVM [27].
Table 10.3 5G NR mmWave minimum requirements for EVM [25].
Table 10.4 Comparison of bandwidth and simulated gain as a function of
w
gap
Table 10.5 Calculated efficiency of the transparent and optically invisible...
Table 10.6 Phase distribution of the RF port excitation to demonstrate beam...
Table 10.7 Comparison with state‐of‐the‐art mmWave phased‐array AiPs.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 5G spectrum outlined by country.
Figure 2.2 The three frequency bands at the core of 5G network.
Figure 2.3 Evolution from the 4G network to 5G SA infrastructure.
Figure 2.4 The evolution of the mobile device dimension and screen size.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Conceptual diagram for 8‐port C‐band (3.5 GHz) antenna array and ...
Figure 3.2 Conceptual diagram for integration of 5G NR band n77/n78 antenna ...
Figure 3.3 The placement of 5G mmWave AiP module (Qualcomm QTM) in Samsung G...
Figure 3.4 The various major components in a smartphone that may result in m...
Figure 3.5 Major components' configuration and positions of antennas in a sm...
Figure 3.6 Conceptual illustration of a 5G mobile smartphone with full incor...
Figure 3.7 Configuration of integrating a 4G LTE antenna in a practical mobi...
Figure 3.8 Simulation model of the 5G FR1 slot antenna array type loaded by ...
Figure 3.9 (a) Simulation model of the dual‐loop array for WWAN/LTE full‐met...
Figure 3.10 Simulation model of the 5G FR1 slot antenna array type loaded by...
Figure 3.11 Simulated surface current and electric field distributions of th...
Figure 3.12 Geometry of the 10‐antenna MIMO array with dual open‐ended slot ...
Figure 3.13 Geometry of the 10‐antenna MIMO array with modified single open‐...
Figure 3.14 Geometry of the 12‐antenna MIMO array with two dual‐band monopol...
Figure 3.15 Geometry of the hybrid eight‐antenna MIMO array with coupled‐fed...
Figure 3.16 The layout of the eight‐antenna MIMO array, including the geomet...
Figure 3.17 Configuration of the three typical types of loop antennas, and t...
Figure 3.18 Configuration of the modified folded dipole loop antenna, and it...
Figure 3.19 Side view and top view of the coupled‐fed loop antenna and its e...
Figure 3.20 Configuration of two coupled‐fed loop antenna designs with dissi...
Figure 3.21 Configuration of parasitic gap‐coupled loop branch antenna coupl...
Figure 3.22 Configuration of a planar inverted‐F antenna printed on a substr...
Figure 3.23 Different feeding mechanisms for 5G FR1 antenna elements summari...
Figure 3.24 50 Ω SMA and coaxial cable feeding for 5G FR1 antenna elements....
Figure 3.25 The effects on the 5G FR1 slot antenna array before and after lo...
Figure 3.26 Apple iPhone 4 and its metallic chassis antenna design.
Figure 3.27 Geometry of a practical mobile phone integrated with a 4G LTE an...
Figure 3.28 Spherical coverage of single antenna module and multiple antenna...
Figure 3.29 Simulated total efficiencies of the eight‐antenna array (formed ...
Figure 3.30 Simulated reflection coefficients and efficiencies of the eight‐...
Figure 3.31 Simulated reflection coefficients and total efficiencies of the ...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Conceptual feeding mechanism diagram for transforming a single ba...
Figure 4.2 Layout of the wideband eight‐antenna array, and the configuration...
Figure 4.3 Conceptual structure of the loop antenna element with different c...
Figure 4.4 The current distributions of the first three modes (traditional l...
Figure 4.5 The conceptual diagrams of forming a single branch monopole (sing...
Figure 4.6 The geometry and dimensions of the proposed eight‐antenna array w...
Figure 4.7 (a) The reflection coefficient of Ant. 1 (a double branch monopol...
Figure 4.8 The conceptual diagrams of transforming a single band open‐end sl...
Figure 4.9 The layout of the 10‐antenna array element, and the detailed conf...
Figure 4.10 The surface electric field (
E
‐field) distribution of the inverte...
Figure 4.11 The simulated reflection coefficients when tuning the inverted T...
Figure 4.12 The design evolution of the integrated slot antenna pair. (a) Ca...
Figure 4.13 The common mode (CM)
E
‐field distributions. (a) at 3.4 GHz. (b) ...
Figure 4.14 (a) The eight‐antenna array layout. (b) Geometry of the integrat...
Figure 4.15 The conceptual diagrams of transforming a single band convention...
Figure 4.16 The layout of the separated slot (L‐shaped open slot) and couple...
Figure 4.17 The layout of the separated slot (L‐shaped open slot) and dual b...
Figure 4.18 The measured radiation patterns of the hybrid antenna in [9] at ...
Figure 4.19 The measured radiation patterns of the hybrid antenna in [9] at ...
Figure 4.20 The eight‐antenna MIMO array layout and configuration of the int...
Figure 4.21 Measured radiation patterns of the integrated slot and monopole ...
Figure 4.22 The eight‐antenna (four‐antenna pairs) MIMO array layout and con...
Figure 4.23 The design evolution procedure of the tightly arranged hybrid an...
Figure 4.24 The simulated current distributions of the tightly arranged hybr...
Figure 4.25 The conceptual diagram of transforming a single port coupled‐fed...
Figure 4.26 The four‐antenna (two‐antenna pairs) MIMO array layout and confi...
Figure 4.27 The measured and simulated reflection coefficients and transmiss...
Figure 4.28 The measured and simulated radiation patterns of the tightly arr...
Figure 4.29 The configuration of the tightly arranged loop and slot radiator...
Figure 4.30 The excitation of loop mode and slot mode via Port‐1 and Port‐2 ...
Figure 4.31 The fabricated eight‐antenna MIMO array formed by four tightly a...
Figure 4.32 The conceptual diagram of transforming a single coupled‐fed loop...
Figure 4.33 The 4G LTE dual MIMO antenna array configuration of [8], and the...
Figure 4.34 The configuration of the integrated 4G LTE MIMO array and 5G FR1...
Figure 4.35 The configuration of integrated 4G/5G antennas built on a full m...
Figure 4.36 (a) The full geometry of the 4G antenna built on the upper slot ...
Figure 4.37 The measured reflection coefficients of the 4G antenna for diffe...
Figure 4.38 The detailed geometry of the 5G MIMO antenna array built on the ...
Figure 4.39 The configuration of the collocated 4G planar antenna and 5G mmW...
Figure 4.40 The configuration of the collocated 4G LTE antenna and 5G mmWave...
Figure 4.41 The fabricated prototype of the collocated 4G LTE antenna and 5G...
Figure 4.42 The configuration of the collocated 4G LTE antenna pairs, 5G sub...
Figure 4.43 5G AiPiA design for mmWave and non‐mmWave MIMO applications.
Figure 4.44 Conceptual diagrams and performances of antenna designs that are...
Figure 4.45 Antenna designs that are operating at 5G NR band n77/n78/n79 and...
Figure 4.46 Conceptual diagrams of antenna designs that are operating at 5G ...
Figure 4.47 The layout of the eight‐antenna array element and the detailed c...
Figure 4.48 The layout of the eight‐antenna array element and the detailed c...
Figure 4.49 The layout of the eight‐antenna array element and the detailed c...
Figure 4.50 The layout of the eight‐antenna array element and the detailed c...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 The channel capacity of a MIMO system with different number of re...
Figure 5.2 Calculated peak channel capacity with respect to SNR for an 8 × 8...
Figure 5.3 The main factors that result in high coupling or poor port isolat...
Figure 5.4 Simulated reactive near‐field radiation patterns at 2.1, 2.8, and...
Figure 5.5 The antenna layout of [14] that includes polarization diversity (...
Figure 5.6 The conceptual equivalent circuit diagram of a closely arranged t...
Figure 5.7 The conceptual diagram of two inverted‐F antennas closely arrange...
Figure 5.8 The conceptual diagram of a two‐antenna slotted pairs design that...
Figure 5.9 The simulated surface current distribution diagrams between Ant. ...
Figure 5.10 Layout of the dual band eight‐antenna array (with four antenna p...
Figure 5.11 The layout of the eight‐antenna array elements and the detailed ...
Figure 5.12 Simulated transmission coefficients of Ant. 2 and Ant. 3 with/wi...
Figure 5.13 Simulated transmission coefficients (isolations) with/without lo...
Figure 5.14 The simulated vector current distributions and densities of the ...
Figure 5.15 The simulated electric field (
E
‐field), equivalent magnetic curr...
Figure 5.16 The simulated current distributions of the balance loop antenna ...
Figure 5.17 Conceptual diagrams of the three decoupled building blocks repor...
Figure 5.18 Simulated current distribution diagram of an excited wideband lo...
Figure 5.19 Conceptual diagrams of the traveling wave and standing wave (nul...
Figure 5.20 Normalized ideal current distributions at 3.5 GHz in different s...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 mmWave and sub‐THz bands for next‐generation wireless technology....
Figure 6.2 Conceptual illustration of the (a) sub‐6 GHz and (b) mmWave mobil...
Figure 6.3 Illustration and key features of the RF front‐end modules for sub...
Figure 6.4 Conceptual illustration of devising a V‐pol endfire PFSA topology...
Figure 6.5 The proposed mmWave V‐pol endfire PFSA element. (a) 3D view. (b) ...
Figure 6.6 Simulated
S
11
of the V‐pol endfire PFSA element. (a)
S
11
as a fun...
Figure 6.7 Measured and simulated input reflection coefficients of the V‐pol...
Figure 6.8 Measured and simulated normalized far‐field radiation patterns of...
Figure 6.9 Simulated antenna efficiency of the V‐pol endfire PFSA element....
Figure 6.10 3D view of the proposed 1 × 4 V‐pol endfire PFSA array.
Figure 6.11 Photograph of the fabricated V‐pol endfire PFSA element and arra...
Figure 6.12 Measured input reflection coefficients of the 1 × 4 V‐pol endfir...
Figure 6.13 Measured and simulated normalized far‐field radiation patterns o...
Figure 6.14 Optimization methodology to reduce the excess capacitive parasit...
Figure 6.15 The designed GCPW‐to‐stripline‐to‐GCPW vertical transition struc...
Figure 6.16 Photograph of the measurement setup and the fabricated prototype...
Figure 6.17 Measured results of the fabricated prototypes: (a) Insertion los...
Figure 6.18 The simplified transmitter and receiver to simulate the eye diag...
Figure 6.19 The eye diagram of the transition channel.
Figure 6.20 The stack‐up and conceptual diagram of the proposed mmWave beamf...
Figure 6.21 The 3‐D view of the mmWave antenna array module consisting of th...
Figure 6.22 The zoom‐in view of the vertical interconnection between the rou...
Figure 6.23 (a) Photograph of the fabricated mmWave antenna array module, an...
Figure 6.24 (a) Measured normalized far‐field radiation patterns of the prop...
Figure 6.25 System block diagrams of mmWave phased array architectures. (a) ...
Figure 6.26 Conceptual figure of the block cell antenna (BCA) fully integrat...
Figure 6.27 Schematic of the proposed unit BCA. Optimized dimensions (in mm)...
Figure 6.28 Derivation of the unit BCA from one loop antenna.
Figure 6.29 Derivation of the unit BCA from one loop antenna. Schematics of ...
Figure 6.30 Current distribution of unit BCA in
n
= 3. (a) Current distribut...
Figure 6.31 Simulated radiation patterns of the unit BCA. (a)
n
= 1 (0° diff...
Figure 6.32 Simulated reflection coefficients of the unit BCA.
Figure 6.33 Current distribution of 1 × 2 BCA in mode 3 (
n
= 3). (a) Current...
Figure 6.34 Simulated gain and directivity of 1 ×
N
pixels with the phase di...
Figure 6.35 Simulated 3‐D far‐field radiation patterns of the 1 × 13 BCA....
Figure 6.36 Schematic of the proposed 4 × 4 BCA. Each element in weighting m...
Figure 6.37 Simulated 3‐D far‐field radiation patterns of 4 × 4 BCA in all m...
Figure 6.38 Schematic of the proposed 4 × 4 BCA and fan‐out board, (a) conce...
Figure 6.39 Schematic of the proposed fan‐out board for 4 × 4 BCA. (a) Conce...
Figure 6.40 Measured reflection coefficients of the 4 × 4 BCA.
A
mn
denotes t...
Figure 6.41 Measured and simulated radiation patterns of the 4 × 4 BCA at 28...
Figure 6.42 Measured and simulated radiation patterns of the 4 × 4 BCA at 28...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Exploded view and cross‐section of the AiP with microchannel heat...
Figure 7.2 Detailed structure of the microchannel heat sinks with a ladder‐s...
Figure 7.3 Configuration of multiphysical simulation and measurement for 5G ...
Figure 7.4 (a) The conceptual diagram of the proposed metal stamped AiP. (b)...
Figure 7.5 Simulated reflection coefficient of the radiating element: (a) As...
Figure 7.6 Illustration of the metal stamped AiP POC: (a) The detailed view ...
Figure 7.7 Photograph of the measurement setup for radiation patterns of the...
Figure 7.8 Measured and simulated input reflection coefficient of the metal ...
Figure 7.9 Measured and simulated normalized radiation patterns for the meta...
Figure 7.10 Geometry of the metal stamped AiP: (a) The top view after stampi...
Figure 7.11 Simulated realized gain of the proposed metal stamped antenna el...
Figure 7.12 Simulated realized gain of the proposed metal stamped antenna el...
Figure 7.13 Comparison of simulated temperature distribution (top and bottom...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Examples of (a) wireless system and (b) techniques to increase da...
Figure 8.2 (a) Small antenna performance comparison.and (b) representati...
Figure 8.3 Example of tunable matching network (TMN) application for externa...
Figure 8.4 Flowchart of the proposed mmWave TMN operation scenario.
Figure 8.5 Representative cases of the tunable matching network.
Figure 8.6 Smith chart for reconfigurable matching mechanism.
Figure 8.7 (a) PFSA with aperture tuning. (b) Simulated field distributions....
Figure 8.8 Simulated reflection coefficient and 3‐D far‐field radiation patt...
Figure 8.9 Smith chart illustration when increasing the transmission line.
Figure 8.10 Frequency tuning mechanism using impedance tuning method.
Figure 8.11 Examples of resistance and reactance which can be fabricated [6]...
Figure 8.12 (a) PFSA examples and (b) simulated reflection coefficients.
Figure 8.13 An example of RF choke and the self‐resonant frequency (SRF)....
Figure 8.14 The effect of solder balls when implementing components and inte...
Figure 8.15 The effect of the amount of soldering.
Figure 8.16 (a, b) Examples of the transition structures. (b)(c) an aper...
Figure 8.17 (a) The example of a frequency tunable AiP architecture and (b) ...
Figure 8.18 (a) Nine layers of designed AiP configuration for fabrication, a...
Figure 8.19 Working mechanism of the 1/2
λ
times transformer.
Figure 8.20 (a) The dielectric and ground plane effect, and (b) the overall ...
Figure 8.21 Simulated current distribution at each state.
Figure 8.22 Example of the large metal ground effect. (a) Similar to smartph...
Figure 8.23 (a) The photo of the fabricated tunable 5G AiP and (b) setup for...
Figure 8.24 Measurement setup for the far‐field radiation pattern.
Figure 8.25 Measured beamsteering on mobile platform at (a) state A and (b) ...
Figure 8.26 Scalable patch antenna and reflection coefficient results.
Figure 8.27 Unit cell reflect array. (a) Top view; (b) S‐parameters.
Figure 8.28 The LC‐based tunable bandpass filter.
Figure 8.29 Measured capacitance over frequency range with the MEMS.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 (a) Global 5G NR spectrum by regions. (b) Beam coverage of mmWave...
Figure 9.2 (a) Various printing and packaging technologies for mmWave antenn...
Figure 9.3 Illustration of coupling paths between antennas A and B at transm...
Figure 9.4 Representative modeling for sources of mutual coupling. (a) Plana...
Figure 9.5 Representative modeling for sources of mutual coupling in low‐pro...
Figure 9.6 Characterization of feeding network for 4 array elements. (a) 4by...
Figure 9.7 Characterization of feeding network including power divider. (a) ...
Figure 9.8 Configuration of planar ILA with 1‐D EBG ground structures [15]. ...
Figure 9.9 Reflection phase of partially grounded FR‐4 substrates with and w...
Figure 9.10 Configuration setup of ACPS TL with and without 1‐D EBG structur...
Figure 9.11 Measured reflection coefficients of the fabricated antennas [15]...
Figure 9.12 Measured radiation patterns for the fabricated antennas at opera...
Figure 9.13 Electric field distribution of the designed antennas [15]. (a) C...
Figure 9.14 Design of single antenna element with HIS [4]. (a) Configuration...
Figure 9.15 Simulated results of single antenna elements [4]. (a) Reflection...
Figure 9.16 (a) Photograph of three types of fabricated array antennas with ...
Figure 9.17 Measurement results of three types of fabricated array antennas ...
Figure 9.18 Averaged surface currents at common ground plane edge of three t...
Figure 9.19 (a) Experimental setup for OTA system performance tests. (b) Mea...
Figure 9.20 Configuration of feeding networks for array antenna with 8‐eleme...
Figure 9.21 (a) Photograph of symmetrical T‐Junction power divider. (b) Meas...
Figure 9.22 (a) Photograph of three samples of the fabricated array antennas...
Figure 9.23 Measured radiation patterns (
E
theta
‐polarization) of the fabrica...
Figure 9.24 Simulated total scan patterns of the designed array antennas. (a...
Figure 9.25 Simulated coverage efficiency of the designed array antennas....
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Illustration of the AoD concept for future UE.
Figure 10.2 Stack‐up of the mmWave AoD.
Figure 10.3 Photograph of transparent diamond‐grid CPW.
Figure 10.4
S
21
of the 2 mm‐long CPW as a function of the thickness of Ag‐al...
Figure 10.5
S
21
of the transparent 10 mm‐long CPW as a function of
w
mesh
....
Figure 10.6 Photograph of the fabricated transparent diamond‐grid antenna fe...
Figure 10.7 Measured and simulated
S
11
of transparent diamond‐grid antenna....
Figure 10.8 Photograph of the optically invisible diamond‐grid antenna featu...
Figure 10.9 Current distributions of the transparent diamond‐grid antenna (a...
Figure 10.10 Measured and simulated
S
11
of the optically invisible diamond‐g...
Figure 10.11 The mmWave far‐field antenna chamber setup.
Figure 10.12 Measured and simulated normalized radiation pattern (E‐plane) o...
Figure 10.13 (a) The proposed 5G NSA wireless communication systems consisti...
Figure 10.14 Measured beamforming far‐field radiation patterns of the mmWave...
Figure 10.15 Measurement setup of the mmWave 5G NR CATR chamber for system‐l...
Figure 10.16 Measured constellations at different modulations.
Figure 10.17 (a) Illustration of the CoD concept for future wearable devices...
Figure 10.18 Schematics of the HEMS architecture including the touch control...
Figure 10.19 Conceptual illustration of devising a HEMS topology. (a) The un...
Figure 10.20 (a) The HEMS unit cell containing the left half of the antenna ...
Figure 10.21 Characterization of the antenna electrodes of the display‐integ...
Figure 10.22 Simulation model for the 5 × 5 HEMS unit cells.
Figure 10.23 Simulated Tx–Rx mutual capacitance change ratio when the touch ...
Figure 10.24 Comparison of
E
‐field distribution of the HEMS circuit. (a) Wit...
Figure 10.25 Optical photographs of the fabricated HEMS composite for freest...
Figure 10.26 Exploded view of the CoD POC.
Figure 10.27 Illustration of the RF measurement setup for the CoD POC integr...
Figure 10.28 (a) Distribution loss and gain at different locations in the Co...
Guide
Cover Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
Preface
Acknowledgments
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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IEEE Press445 Hoes LanePiscataway, NJ 08854
IEEE Press Editorial BoardSarah Spurgeon, Editor in Chief
Jón Atli Benediktsson
Andreas Molisch
Diomidis Spinellis
Anjan Bose
Saeid Nahavandi
Ahmet Murat Tekalp
Adam Drobot
Jeffrey Reed
Peter (Yong) Lian
Thomas Robertazzi
Microwave and Millimeter‐Wave Antenna Design for 5G Smartphone Applications
Wonbin Hong
Pohang University of Science and Technology
Pohang, South Korea
Chow‐Yen‐Desmond Sim
Feng Chia University
Taichung, Taiwan
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About the Authors
Wonbin Hong received his B.S. in electrical engineering from Purdue University, West Lafayette in 2004 and Masters and Ph.D. in electrical engineering from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor in 2005 and 2009, respectively. As of 2016 February, Dr. Hong is with the Department of Electrical Engineering at Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) as an associate professor. He currently holds the Mueunjae Chaired Professorship. From 2009 to 2016, he was with Samsung Electronics as a principal and senior engineer. Since 2021, he is also the CEO of Kreemo Inc., a University startup specializing in 360° coverage mm‐wave antennas and measurement solutions.
He has authored and co‐authored more than 150 peer‐reviewed journals, conference papers, and multiple book chapters and is the inventor of more than 50 granted and 180 pending patent inventions.
He has received numerous awards during his tenure at Samsung, and as a faculty and CEO including multiple recognitions for his contributions in the field of 5G antennas by the Government of Republic of Korea. His students were recipients of multiple paper awards including 1st Best Paper Award from numerous conferences including the 2020 IEEE AP‐S/URSI, 2020 IEEE EuCAP, 2018 IEEE ISAP, and 2nd Best Paper Award in 2021 IEEE AP‐S/URSI.
Email: [email protected]
Chow‐Yen‐Desmond Sim was born in Singapore in 1971. He received the B.Sc. degree from the Engineering Department, University of Leicester, the United Kingdom, in 1998, and the Ph.D. degree from the Radio System Group, Engineering Department, University of Leicester, in 2003. In 2007, he joined the Department of Electrical Engineering, Feng Chia University (FCU), Taichung, Taiwan, and he was promoted to Distinguished Professor in 2017. He co‐founded the Antennas and Microwave Circuits Innovation Research Center in FCU and served as the Director between 2016 and 2019. He has served as the Head of Department of Electrical Engineering in FCU between 08/2018 and 07/2021. He has authored or coauthored over 190 SCI papers. His current research interests include 5G (sub‐6 and mmWave) antenna for smartphone/base‐station/AiP, WiFi‐6E laptop antenna, and RFID applications. He is a Fellow of the Institute of Engineering and Technology (FIET), a Senior Member of the IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society, and a Life Member of the IAET (Taiwan). He has served as the Associate Editor of IEEE Access between 08/2016 and 01/2021. He is now serving as the Associate Editor of IEEE AWPL, IEEE Journal of RFID, and (Wiley) International Journal of RF and Microwave Computer‐Aided Engineering. Since October 2016, he has been serving as the technical consultant of SAG (Securitag Assembly Group), which is one of the largest RFID tag manufacturers in Taiwan. He is also serving as the consultant of ZDT (Zhen Ding Technology, Taiwan) since August 2018, which is ranked no. 1 global PCB enterprise in 2021. He was the recipient of the IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Outstanding Reviewer Award (IEEE TAP) for eight consecutive years between 2014 and 2021. He also received the Outstanding Associate Editor Award from the IEEE AWPL in July 2018.
Email: [email protected]
Preface
With the development of the fifth generation (5G) of mobile communications and artificial intelligence of things (AIoT), it has driven the industry to confront and develop new diversified innovative application services, which will allow the industry to move from the automation era of the third industrial revolution into a new era of digital and intelligent Industry 4.0. According to the Global mobile Suppliers Association (GSA) report, as of January 2021, 144 operators worldwide have provided 5G services in 61 countries and regions, ringing the bell of the arriving 5G commercial era. Although killer applications for 5G mobile services are still in the exploratory stage, the release of the 3GPP standard Rel‐16/17 will more fully support industry applications such as autonomous driving, industrial networks, smart logistics and telemedicine, and vertical markets. Therefore, new business opportunities based on the new 5G mobile services and applications are expected to bring about a whole new situation.
Observing the world’s leading 5G development countries such as South Korea, the United States, China, Japan, and Germany, global governments and operators regard the expansion of 5G applications as an important development goal and actively plan relevant regulatory measures and development strategies to accelerate the landing of 5G applications. According to the Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Association (JEITA), the global 5G private network market will reach US$99.1 billion in 2030, and the global manufacturing industry’s use of 5G for digitization is more active than other industries. Besides participating in industrial applications and the formulation of the 5G standard, 5G private networks have been established in multiple factories for smart factory application verification. Even though the development prospects for the vertical application of the 5G private network system seem to be bright, there are still many challenges to be overcome.
The cellular service providers released the first 5G‐enabled smartphones in the middle of 2020, and it was slowed down due to the COVID‐19 pandemic; however, countries such as South Korea and China have been making very good progress in 2021, especially in the development and deployment of wireless infrastructure technologies such as the massive multiple‐input multiple‐output (MIMO) and millimeter‐wave (mmWave), both of which contribute to the realization of 5G characteristics such as very high data transmission rate and extremely low latency rate. Besides the challenges of building expensive 5G infrastructure, another challenge that has raised the eyebrows of the consumer end‐user is the development of new 5G smartphones with sub‐6 GHz and mmWave operational bands. Since 2015, many researchers have begun developing antennas designed for 5G smartphone applications, but most are working in the narrow C‐band (3.5 GHz). However, in the past five years, many mmWave antenna designs have been studied as well, especially after the announcement of 5G New Radio (NR) bands in the frequency range 1 (FR1) and frequency range 2 (FR2).
As early as January 2019, we have begun corresponding with each other regarding the writing of a book specifically for 5G smartphone antenna design, as we have found no such book available in the market with a clear 5G antenna design guideline for smartphone applications. But at that time, there wasn’t enough published open literature to support this cause. Even though in early 2020, when we have finalized the topics and chapters of the book, in which Chapters 1–5 (for sub‐6 GHz antenna) and Chapters 6–10 (for mmWave antenna) will be written separately by us (Desmond and Wonbin, respectively), due to the outbreak of the COVID‐19 pandemic, all preparation and writing up of the book have come to a halt, until early 2021 when we resumed the writing of this book.
This book is a complete reference book on 5G antennas for smartphone applications. It provided the 5G smartphone antenna engineer with a clear design guide and knowledge on how to build a multiple or wideband antenna from sub‐6 GHz to mmWave bands. It can also be used in an advanced antenna design course. This book has presented many works that were also reported by the authors of this book, and detailed illustrations with many examples from the open literature are also given. One point to note, this book has covered almost all reported works in the area of 5G smartphone antenna design (including the new mmWave 5G Antenna‐in Package design) up to date and the latest development are explicitly presented.
Acknowledgments
Chow‐Yen‐Desmond Sim wishes to thank his family (in Taiwan and Singapore, especially his beloved wife Shu‐Fen) for all the support that he has received during the process of writing this book, especially when the family had to go through a difficult period amid the COVID‐19 pandemic. He is also indebted to many of his postgraduate students from Feng Chia University (Taiwan), who had provided him with all the necessary aid in producing many of the figures and tables depicted in Chapters 1–5. Lastly, he is grateful to the co‐author (Prof. Wonbin Hong) of this book for his invitation to co‐write this book. Even at one time when he has ceased writing the book and pondering if he should give up the hope of completing the book chapters during the pandemic, the patience and assistance given by Wonbin have very much encouraged him to complete his very first international book in 5G antenna design for smartphone applications.
Wonbin Hong wishes to first thank his past and current students at Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH). In particular, this book would not have been possible without the participation of Dr. Junho Park, who was deeply involved in Chapters 6, 7, and 10. He is extremely grateful to Dr. Jaehyun Choi and Dr. Jae‐Yeong Lee for their participation in Chapters 8 and 9, respectively. The three aforementioned contributors are recognized by Wonbin Hong as co‐authors of the mentioned Chapters. Ms. Youngmi Kim and Ms, Yemin Park of POSTECH were extraordinarily helpful during the editing and the final preparation would not have been possible without them. He thanks his beloved wife InKyung and daughter Yonwoo for their support and encouragement. It has been an amazing experience to work with Desmond, a very close friend and incredibly talented colleague. And last but certainly not least, the authors thank the editorial board at Wiley for their faith, friendship, and support during this exciting journey.
1Introduction
Since the appearance of the first cellular network technology (mobile telecommunications) in the 1980s, a new generation (G) will emerge approximately every decade. 1G refers to the first wireless cellular technology that used the analog cellular network to allow voice transmission only, and the maximum data rate was 2.4 Kbps. 2G utilized digital signals for voice transmission in the early 1990s, and the analog world was discarded. At this point in time, peak data rates with General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) of up to 50 Mbps can be sent/transmitted by phones, including text messages and emails. 3G has brought the internet to mobile phone users in late 2001, based on Global Systems for Mobile (GSM) and Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS). The peak data rate was estimated to be 2 Mbps. 4G Long‐Term Evolution (LTE) was commercialized in 2010, and the end‐users can experience Downlink (DL) and Uplink (UL) data rates of up to 100 and 50 Mbps, respectively. Mobile phone users can perform online gaming, watch movies online, and conduct video conferences everywhere. With the arrival of the 4G LTE‐Advanced (LTE‐A) Pro (sometimes known as 4.5G) that comes with a new technology known as carrier aggregation, it allows Gbps data rates and an even faster internet connection.
The 5G cellular network infrastructure was deployed by global operators in early 2019. Even though the initial stage is the 5G Non‐Standalone (NSA) architectures (see Figure 2.3), the rollout of 5G Standalone (SA) architectures is expected to be completed in 2025 with 1350 million 5G connections [1]. Interestingly, mobile phone users globally are forecasted to amount to 7.49 billion in 2025 [2]. It is also expected that future innovation devices/technologies such as wearable devices and the massive Internet of Things (IoT) will be emerged in full force, especially when the Fifth‐Generation (5G) SA networks are fully established. As indicated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), future development of International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT) for 2020 and beyond would support different user‐experienced data rates covering a variety of environments for enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB) that has high mobility up to 500 km/h with acceptable Quality of Service (QoS) [3]. The initial stage of 5G environment is expected to deliver ultra‐low latency of below 1 ms, at least 1 Gbps peak data rate (up to 10 Gbps), and able to connect approximately 1 million devices per kilometer square. This ultra‐low latency feature is expected to transform autonomous vehicles, industrial and manufacturing processes, traffic systems, etc., while higher data rates will expect 50 to 100 times faster than current 4G networks. Therefore, the 5G mobile network is predicted to revolutionize the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) and automotive industry and enable advanced mobile broadband by delivering Machine‐to‐Machine (M2M) and machine‐to‐person communications on a massive scale.
To enable higher data transmission rates (throughput) for 5G New Radio (NR) Over‐the‐Air (OTA), one of the key techniques is the advancement in spatial processing, which includes the massive Multiple‐Input Multiple‐Output (MIMO) network and its related hardware devices such as the antenna [4–6]. In a massive MIMO communication system, the antenna designs of the mobile device and base station are the key elements of the air interface, as higher throughput (channel capacity) can be made possible by increasing the number of antenna array elements on both the transmitting and receiving ends (see Figure 5.1). However, as the volume size of a smartphone is very limited, MIMO antenna array designs at 5G NR band n77/n78/n79 (3300–5000 MHz) for 5G smartphones can generally accommodate approximately 4 to 8 array elements, not to mention the additional factors to consider the new Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure 6 GHz band (UNII‐6GHz) that has recently been included into the 5G frequency range 1 (FR1) band as the 5G NR Unlicensed (NR‐U) band n46 (5150–5925 MHz) and n96 (5925–7125 MHz). As for the 5G FR2 band (5G mmWave band > 24 GHz), a compact‐size antenna array of up to 16 elements can be easily implemented due to the smaller electrical wavelength required for the antenna. However, the metal casing of the smartphone may pose a serious threat to antenna performance. From the practical point of view, increasing the number of 5G FR1 antenna array elements will increase the difficulty of maintaining good isolation/decoupling between adjacent antenna elements [7]. Therefore, a full investigation and solutions to resolve the decoupling problems for different scenarios are vital to the 5G smartphone antenna engineers. As the present flagship smartphone has included up to three mmWave 5G Antenna‐in‐Package (AiP) for the 5G FR2 cellular network, the various design techniques and approaches to realize the integrated mmWave antenna array are essential to the antenna community. In addition, the challenges for mmWave 5G AiP to achieve frequency agility and coexist with the metallic chassis of the mobile device are vital topics for the Radio Frequency (RF) packaging industry.
In this book, we have focused specifically on the designs of antenna arrays for 5G mobile devices at two vital 5G frequency bands, 5G FR1 and 5G FR2 (mmWave). This book is organized into 10 chapters:
Chapter 1
gives a brief introduction to the 5G cellular network technology.
Chapter 2
illustrates the present 5G frequency characteristics and the frequency bands designated for 5G NR. An overview of the general channel models for 5G FR1/FR2 bands is provided, along with a brief description of 5G network architecture and mobile devices’ evolution.
Chapter 3
explores the multi‐antenna placement on an actual smartphone, followed by showing the topologies of 5G FR1 band array antenna designs for smartphone applications, especially those working at C‐band 3.5 GHz (3400–3600 MHz).
Chapter 4
investigates the most recently reported dual‐band, multi‐band, and wideband antenna array designs for smartphone applications working at 5G FR1 band, including 5G NR band n77/n78/n79 and 5G NR‐U band n46/n96. A complete review of the co‐existence designs with 3G/4G antennas and mmWave 5G AiP is illustrated with various case studies.
Chapter 5
discusses in detail the MIMO antenna diversity performances, followed by a full review of the various isolation enhancement techniques applied by the antenna array designs operating in the 5G FR1 band. Practical considerations, existing problems, and new design approaches on the 5G FR1 band antenna array are briefly illustrated.
Chapter 6
investigates the mmWave 5G AiP for mobile applications, reviewing the design strategies, packaging considerations, and antenna‐IC feeding mechanisms. The selection of appropriate materials and future challenges are illustrated.
Chapter 7
presents the multi‐physical approach for the mmWave 5G AiP, including a brief background review and the challenges encountered by the packaging industry. As heat dissipation of AiP is a critical matter, the strategies to improve heat dissipation are illustrated with some practical examples.
Chapter 8
reveals the background and challenges for mmWave 5G AiP with tunable frequency. Its related matching network and design topologies are demonstrated with examples.
Chapter 9
discusses the design constraint and major challenges in realizing cost‐effective and compact mmWave 5G antennas for mobile applications. The methods to resolve the limitations are illustrated with case studies involving mmWave 5G antenna miniaturization and utilization of conventional Printed Circuit Board (PCB) fabrication and laminations.
Chapter 10
gives a clear illustration and design methodology on mmWave Antenna‐on‐Display (AoD) design for 5G mobile devices. An overview of the antenna element/array design and packaging of the display‐integrated AoD are included with related detailed examples.
References
1
The 5G guide, a reference for operators, GSMA, Apr. 2019.
2
Statista (Online)
https://www.statista.com/statistics/218984/number‐of‐global‐mobile‐users‐since‐2010/
3
IMT Vision – Framework and overall objectives of the future development of IMT for 2020 and beyond, Recommendation ITU‐R M.2083‐0, Sept. 2015.
4
E. G. Larsson, O. Edfors, F. Tufvesson, and T. L. Marzetta, “Massive MIMO for next generation wireless systems,”
IEEE Commun. Mag
.
, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 186–195, Feb. 2014.
5
L. Lu, G. Li, A. Swindlehurst, A. Ashikhmin, and R. Zhang, “An overview of massive MIMO: benefits and challenges,”
IEEE J. Sel. Top. Sign. Process
.
, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 742–758, Oct. 2014.
6
Bleicher, “The 5G phone future,”
IEEE Spectrum
, vol. 50, no. 7, pp. 15–16, 2013.
7
Y. Huo, X. Dong, and W. Xu, “5G cellular user equipment: From theory to practical hardware design,”
IEEE Access
, vol. 5, pp. 13992–14010, Aug. 2017.
2Considerations for Microwave and Millimeter‐Wave 5G Mobile Antenna Design
Due to the ongoing deployment of the 5G mobile services since early 2019 and the recent exponential growth in the number of mobile phone users globally, all major cellular industries are actively commercializing and competing for their new flagship 5G mobile phones (or smartphones) with better features, such as the foldable phone from Samsung, Wing T‐shaped dual‐display phone from LG, and powerful processor that outperforms any chipset found in an Android phone from Apple iPhone. Even though the promises of delivering higher multi‐Gigabit/s peak data rate communication, negligible latency for real‐time interaction with ultra‐reliable communication services, and high densities of connected devices/sensors are appealing to the end‐users, to realize the potential of 5G, a different smart antenna system must be adopted. Here, one of the key smart antenna technologies known as the multiple‐input multiple‐output (MIMO) antenna system is applied to exploit smart beamforming for high data rate transmissions in the 5G mmWave frequency bands, as well as the 5G mid‐band frequency ranges. The MIMO antenna system deploys multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to increase the throughput and channel capacity of the radio link. It also applies the techniques known as spatial diversity and spatial multiplexing to transmit independent and separately encoded data signals (streams), by reusing the same time and frequency resources. More descriptions of the MIMO technology and the motivation and requirement of applying the MIMO antenna technology to a mobile phone are explicitly illustrated in Chapter 5.
In this chapter, we review the present 5G frequency characteristics and the frequency bands for 5G New Radio (NR), and summarize the general channel models for 5G FR1 bands and in the 5G FR2 mmWave bands. A brief description of the network architecture for the 5G system is presented with an overview of the 5G network structure. The evolution and history of mobile devices, and their cellular generations and featured sizes are revealed. Finally, we look at some of the advanced materials that the 4G/5G antennas have applied, and a comparison is made between these materials.
2.1 Frequency Characteristics and Channel Models
As there is no single technology or solution that can ideally be suited to all the different potential 5G applications and their spectrum availability, the third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) has taken evolutionary steps on the network and device sides. In December 2017, the 3GPP Technical Specification Group Radio Access Network (TSG RAN) Plenary Meeting successfully approved the first 5G NR specification, known as 3GPP Release 15, meaning that the completion of this very first 5G NR standard will enable full‐scale development of 5G NR [1]. According to TS 38.104, Section 5.2, the frequency bands for future 5G NR are separated into two different frequency ranges, namely Frequency Range 1 (FR1) and Frequency Range 2 (FR2). The FR1 has initially been known as the sub‐6 GHz frequency bands (450–6000 MHz) but has now moved to (410–7125 MHz), and it is also known as mid‐band/low‐band in which some of these bands are traditionally used by previous wireless communication standards, such as the LTE band 46 (5150–5925 MHz) is now included in the 5G NR‐U (NR‐Unlicensed) spectrum. On the other hand, the FR2, also known as the mmWave band (24 250–52 600 MHz), has possessed a very short electrical wavelength that would yield a shorter transmission range, but it can give very wide operating bandwidth than those in the FR1. Even though the Frequency Range 3 (FR3) and Frequency Range (FR4) have recently been imposed for the upcoming 6G technology, they are outside the scope of this Book and will not be further discussed.
The 5G NR can also be further classified into three bands, namely Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) Bands, Time Division Duplex (TDD) Bands, and Supplementary Bands that include Supplementary Downlink (SDL) Bands and Supplementary Uplink (SUL) Bands. The detailed classification of each band in relation to the 5G NR frequency bands is shown in Tables 2.1–2.4 [1, 2].
Table 2.1 FR1 FDD (frequency division duplex) frequency bands for 5G new radio.
5G NR band
Uplink frequency (MHz)
Downlink frequency (MHz)
Bandwidth (MHz)
n1
1920–1989
2110–2170
60
n2
1850–1910
1930–1990
60
n3
1710–1785
1805–1880
75
n5
824–849
869–894
25
n7
2500–2670
2620–2690
70
n8
880–915
925–960
35
n12
699–716
729–746
17
n14
788–798
758–768
10
n18
815–830
860–875
15
n20
832–862
791–821
30
n25
1850–1915
1930–1995
65
n26
814–849
859–894
35
n28
703–748
758–803
45
n30
2305–2315
2350–2360
10
n65
1920–2010
2110–2200
90
n66
1710–1780
2110–2200
90
n70
1695–1710
1995–2020
15/25
n71
663–698
617–652
35
n74
1427–1470
1475–1518
43
n91
832–862
1427–1432
30/5
n92
832–862
1432–1517
30/85
n93
880–915
1427–1432
35/5
n94
880–915
1432–1517
35/85
Table 2.2 FR1 TDD (time division duplex) frequency bands for 5G new radio.
5G NR band
Uplink frequency (MHz)
Downlink frequency (MHz)
Bandwidth (MHz)
n34
2010–2025
2010–2025
15
n38
2570–2620
2570–2620
50
n39
1880–1920
1880–1920
40
n40
2300–2400
2300–2400
100
n41
2469–2690
2496–2690
194
n46
5150–5925
5150–5925
775
n47
5855–5925
5855–5925
70
n48
3550–3700
3550–3700
150
n50
1432–1517
1432–1517
85
n51
1427–1432
1427–1432
5
n53
2483.5–2495
2483.5–2495
11.5
n77
3300–4200
3300–4200
900
n78
3300–3800
3300–3800
500
n79
4400–5000
4400–5000
600
n90
2496–2690
2496–2690
194
n96
5925–7125
5925–7125
1200
Table 2.3 FR1 supplementary downlink bands (SDL) and supplementary uplink bands (SUL) for 5G new radio.
5G NR band
Uplink frequency (MHz)
Downlink frequency (MHz)
Bandwidth (MHz)
Type
n75
–
1432–1517
85
SDL
n76
–
1427–1432
5
SDL
n80
1710–1785
–
75
SUL
n81
880–915
–
35
SUL
n82
832–862
–
30
SUL
n83
703–748
–
45
SUL
n84
1920–1980
–
60
SUL
n86
1710–1780
–
70
SUL
n89
824–849
–
25
SUL
n95
2010–2025
–
15
SUL
Table 2.4 5G NR frequency bands in FR2 above 24 GHz.
5G NR band
Band alias (GHz)
Uplink band (GHz)
Downlink band (GHz)
Bandwidth (GHz)
Type
n257
28
26.5–29.5
26.5–29.5
3
TDD
n258
26
24.25–27.5
24.25–27.5
3.25
TDD
n259
41
39.5–43.5
39.5–43.5
4
TDD
n260
39
37–40
37–40
3
TDD
n261
28
27.5–28.35
27.5–28.35
0.85
TDD
Even though the above tables have shown a very wide bandwidth for each 5G NR bands category (FDD, TDD, SDL, and SUL), it is still worth observing the different frequency bands considered by different countries. The 5G bands (FR1 and FR2) outlined by country/region are shown in Figure 2.1 [3, 4]. In December 2018, China issued the permit to use the spectrum between 3300 and 3600 MHz, whereas the United States and Japan have allocated (3600–4100 GHz) and (4500–4900 MHz), respectively; thus, both the 5G NR band n78 (3300–3800 MHz) and n77 (3300–4200 MHz) are now highly supported by many major telecommunication operators in the world [4]. For European countries, the 5G NR band n78 (3300–3800 MHz), in particular, is being rolled out as their preferred mid‐band frequencies. As for the 5G NR band n79 (4400–5000 MHz), it is due to the two bands imposed by China (4800–5000 MHz) and Japan (4500–4900 MHz), and, therefore, the NR band n79 is only supported by the following operators: China Mobile, China Unicom, China Telecom, NTT DOCOMO, KDDI, and Softbank Mobile. Nevertheless, some other countries have considered using the 5G NR band n79 as their private 5G network (also referred to as “non‐public networks” by 3GPP), as the operating band between 4400 and 5000 MHz are not shared by many mobile network operators. Furthermore, as the organization/industry that owns the wireless spectrum can have full control over the network, it can completely isolate its users from other public networks.
Besides the above sub‐6 GHz NR Bands, the FCC has seen the potential of implementing the new unlicensed mid‐band spectrum (5925–7125 MHz) for next‐generation wireless broadband services [5, 6
