Mobile Broadband Communications for Public Safety E-Book

Ramon Ferrus

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 807

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

This book provides a timely and comprehensive overview of the introduction of LTE technology for PPDR communications. It describes the operational scenarios and emerging multimedia and data-centric applications in demand and discusses the main techno-economic drivers that are believed to be pivotal for an efficient and cost-effective delivery of mobile broadband PPDR communications. The capabilities and features of the LTE standard for improved support of mission-critical communications (e.g., proximity services, group communications) are covered in detail. Also, different network implementation options to deliver mobile broadband PPDR communications services over dedicated or commercial LTE-based networks are discussed, including the applicability of the Mobile Virtual Network Operator (MVNO) model and other hybrid models. Radio spectrum matters are also discussed in depth, outlining spectrum needs and providing an outlook into allocated and candidate spectrum bands for PPDR communications and suitable dynamic spectrum sharing solutions in PPDR communications. Explanations are accompanied by a vast collection of references that allow the more intrigued reader to gain further insight into the addressed topics.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Preface

List of Abbreviations

1 Public Protection and Disaster Relief Communications

1.1 Background and Terminology

1.2 PPDR Functions and Organizations

1.3 Operational Framework and Communications Needs for PPDR

1.4 Communications Systems for PPDR

1.5 Regulatory and Standardization Framework

References

2 Mobile Broadband Data Applications and Capacity Needs

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Data-Centric, Multimedia Applications for PPDR

2.3 Characterization of Broadband Data Applications for PPDR

2.4 Assessment of the Data Capacity Needs in Various Operational Scenarios

References

3 Future Mobile Broadband PPDR Communications Systems

3.1 Paradigm Change for the Delivery of PPDR Broadband Communications

3.2 Techno-economic Aspects Driving the Paradigm Change

3.3 System View of Future Mobile Broadband PPDR Communications

3.4 Current Initiatives

References

4 LTE Technology for PPDR Communications

4.1 Standardization Roadmap towards Mission-Critical LTE

4.2 LTE Fundamentals

4.3 Group Communications and PTT

4.4 Device-to-Device Communications

4.5 Prioritization and QoS Control for PPDR

4.6 Isolated E-UTRAN Operation

4.7 High-Power UE

4.8 RAN Sharing Enhancements

References

5 LTE Networks for PPDR Communications

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Delivery Options for Mobile Broadband PPDR Networks and Services

5.3 Dedicated Networks

5.4 Commercial Networks

5.5 Hybrid Solutions

5.6 Network Architecture Design and Implementation Aspects

References

6 Radio Spectrum for PPDR Communications

6.1 Spectrum Management: Regulatory Framework and Models

6.2 Internationally Harmonized Frequency Ranges for PPDR Communications

6.3 Spectrum Needs for Mobile Broadband PPDR Communications

6.4 Existing Spectrum Assignments for PPDR and Candidate Bands for Mobile Broadband

6.5 Spectrum Sharing for PPDR Communications

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 01

Table 1.1 Common levels of management in a command and control hierarchy.

Table 1.2 High-level classification of required communications services.

Table 1.3 Data applications and associated requirements.

Table 1.4 PPDR applications and examples.

Table 1.5 Comparison chart of the main digital PMR technologies used for PPDR.

Table 1.6 Wireless communications means available for the PPDR services to assist in the emergency response.

Table 1.7 Excerpt of the timeline of events in the Project HELP scenario.

Chapter 02

Table 2.1 Examples of data-centric, multimedia applications in demand for enhanced PPDR operations.

Table 2.2 Type of applications and services included in the ‘LEWP/ETSI Matrix of Applications’.

Table 2.3 Characterization of the ‘multimedia’ applications.

Table 2.4 Throughput estimates for PPDR data applications (based on the LEWP/ETSI Matrix).

Table 2.5 Throughput estimates for PPDR data applications (based on the NPSTC report [4]).

Table 2.6 Data capacity required in some illustrative day-to-day scenarios.

Table 2.7 Data capacity required in a large emergency and a massive public event scenarios.

Table 2.8 Data capacity required in disaster scenarios.

Chapter 03

Table 3.1 Components and effect of customization on cost of LTE devices for PPDR use.

Table 3.2 Cost analysis of building a nationwide network for PPDR in the United States.

Table 3.3 Costs of current dedicated TETRA networks.

Table 3.4 Comparison costs of the incentive-based partnership and stand-alone network deployment models.

Table 3.5 Number of cells and network costs of a PPDR-only network versus a joint-use network.

Table 3.6 Price paid in German and Spanish auctions for 4G spectrum.

Table 3.7 Transition roadmap towards BB PPDR communications in Europe.

Chapter 04

Table 4.1 LTE radio transmission overview information.

Table 4.2 E-UTRA operating bands [18].

Table 4.3 Standardized QCI characteristics [21].

Table 4.4 3GPP documents covering group communications system enablers and MCPTT over LTE.

Table 4.5 3GPP documents covering ProSe work.

Table 4.6 Isolated E-UTRAN scenarios [78].

Table 4.7 3GPP documents covering RAN sharing enhancements.

Chapter 05

Table 5.1 Key characteristics expected in an LTE network designed for PPDR use.

Table 5.2 Studies that cover the analysis of delivery options for mobile broadband PPDR networks and services.

Table 5.3 Main differences between the PPDR network and commercial network models.

Table 5.4 Examples of legal requirements that might be contractually imposed on the operator by the governmental authority.

Table 5.5 Network sharing solutions between MNOs.

Chapter 06

Table 6.1 Licensing regimes for the authorization of spectrum rights of use.

Table 6.2 Harmonized frequency bands/ranges established in ITU Resolution 646 (WRC-2003).

Table 6.3 Key reference documents from ITU-R since WRC-2003 with regard to PPDR spectrum harmonization.

Table 6.4 Example of the computation of spectrum needs for day-to-day operations scenarios as addressed in ECC Report 199.

Table 6.5 Studies addressing the assessment of spectrum needs for PPDR communications.

Table 6.6 Main bands available across European countries for PPDR communications.

Table 6.7 Candidate bands considered in the harmonization of mobile broadband PPDR solutions across European countries.

Table 6.8 Spectrum available in the United States for PS communications.

Table 6.9 Models based on the dynamic transfer or coordination of individual spectrum rights of use.

Table 6.10 Models based on primary–secondary sharing.

Table 6.11 Models based on a collective use of spectrum.

Table 6.12 Main characteristics of the US and UK regulatory frameworks for the use of TV white spaces.

Table 6.13 Summary of standardization initiatives related to TVWS.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01

Figure 1.1 Scope of PPDR and emergency communications.

Figure 1.2 Illustrative view of potential communications flows in a common incident command structure.

Figure 1.3 Components and reference points in PPDR communications.

Figure 1.4 Network architecture and standardized interfaces of a TETRA system.

Figure 1.5 Typical stages of a major incident and focus of Project HELP scenario.

Figure 1.6 Scenario map of the area and the emergency service resources available.

Chapter 03

Figure 3.1 Techno-economic drivers for future PPDR communications.

Figure 3.2 Comparative prices for mobile spectrum in different countries and bands.

Figure 3.3 High-level building blocks in future mobile broadband PPDR communications systems.

Figure 3.4 Public safety communications evolution by describing the long-term transition towards a desired converged future.

Figure 3.5 Roadmap and timescales based on practical implementation of a harmonized European solution.

Chapter 04

Figure 4.1 Features supported or being introduced in LTE specifications especially relevant for PPDR and critical communications.

Figure 4.2 Basic architecture of an LTE network.

Figure 4.3 Time and frequency dimensions of the LTE radio signal.

Figure 4.4 Illustrative view of the E-UTRAN architecture supporting RNs.

Figure 4.5 LTE service model: PDN connections and EPS bearer services.

Figure 4.6 QoS parameters in LTE.

Figure 4.7 PCC architecture.

Figure 4.8 Overview of the security functional areas defined for LTE systems.

Figure 4.9 Access security features in E-UTRAN.

Figure 4.10 3GPP NDS/IP architecture for IP network layer security.

Figure 4.11 Roaming architectures supported in LTE networks.

Figure 4.12 UE and network protocol stacks in VoLTE.

Figure 4.13 High-level architecture view of a group communications system over the 3GPP EPS.

Figure 4.14 Media traffic with unicast and MBMS on DL.

Figure 4.15 High-level functional entities and main reference points for the implementation of the MCPTT service in both (a) on-network scenarios and (b) off-network scenarios.

Figure 4.16 PoC service architecture.

Figure 4.17 Evolutionary view of the OMA PoC to 3GPP R13 MCPTT and beyond application standardization.

Figure 4.18 Illustration of the ProSe constituent capabilities ((a) Discovery and (b) Communication) and possible configuration options.

Figure 4.19 Operation of ProSe Discovery.

Figure 4.20 Possible configurations of ProSe Communication for PPDR and non-PPDR users.

Figure 4.21 Functional architecture for ProSe.

Figure 4.22 Protocol stack for the PC5 reference point between ProSe terminals. PDCP, Packet Data Convergence Protocol; RLC, Radio Link Control; MAC, Medium Access Control; PHY, Physical layer.

Figure 4.23 Constituent features for prioritization and QoS control in LTE.

Figure 4.24 Scenarios under scope for the isolated E-UTRAN operation features.

Figure 4.25 RAN sharing architectures: Multi-Operator Core Network (MOCN) and Gateway Core Network (GWCN).

Chapter 05

Figure 5.1 Separation of the PPDR service layer from the underlying IP network layer.

Figure 5.2 Different MVNO business models.

Figure 5.3 MVNO model for PPDR mobile broadband communications.

Figure 5.4 Different RAN sharing deployment options with MNOs.

Figure 5.5 Sharing of specialist networks deployed in specific areas and facilities.

Figure 5.6 Reference model for critical communications systems specified by ETSI.

Figure 5.7 Interworking approach between ETSI CCS and legacy PMR systems.

Figure 5.8 Interconnection solution based on private connectivity services (private APN).

Figure 5.9 Interconnection solution based on roaming services.

Figure 5.10 Interconnection solution based on RAN sharing services.

Figure 5.11 IP-based Inter-System Interface (IP ISI) for TETRA and TETRAPOL networks.

Figure 5.12 Interworking solution to extend P25 services to LTE terminals.

Figure 5.13 Components and remote connectivity requirements of SoWs and CoWs.

Figure 5.14 Deployment of S1 interface over a satellite connection.

Figure 5.15 Generic architecture for Emergency Communication Cell over Satellite (ECCS).

Figure 5.16 GSMA IPX model.

Figure 5.17 Project HELP system architecture for the delivery of PPDR communications.

Chapter 06

Figure 6.1 Baseline structure of national legislation on the use of the radio spectrum.

Figure 6.2 The channelling arrangement for the 700-MHz band in Europe 25. (1) indicates that the usage of the guard bands and of the duplex gap of the paired band plan (733–758 MHz) may also be considered at national level for PPDR use and/or other possible applications (e.g. PMSE, M2M).

Figure 6.3 The channelling arrangement for the 700-MHz band in United States and PPDR allocations within this band.

Figure 6.4 Channelling arrangements for the 700 and 800 MHz in the Asia-Pacific region and main PPDR designation within these bands.

Figure 6.5 Actors and regulatory processes in the establishment of the LSA framework.

Figure 6.6 LSA Architecture Reference Model.

Figure 6.7 Illustrative scenario implementing the LSA architecture.

Figure 6.8 Framework for the operation of white space devices (WSDs).

Figure 6.9 Functional architecture for PPDR exploitation of TVWS.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

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MOBILE BROADBAND COMMUNICATIONS FOR PUBLIC SAFETY: THE ROAD AHEAD THROUGH LTE TECHNOLOGY

Ramon Ferrús and Oriol Sallent

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Spain

This edition first published 2015© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ferrus, Ramon 1971–Mobile broadband communications for public safety : the road ahead through LTE technology / Ramon Ferrus and Oriol Sallent.    pages  cm  Includes bibliographical references and index.

  ISBN 978-1-118-83125-0 (hardback)1. Long-Term Evolution (Telecommunications)  2. Emergency communication systems.  3. Telephone–Emergency reporting systems.  4. Public safety radio service.  I. Sallent, Oriol, 1969–  II. Title.  TK5103.48325.F47 2015  363.10028′4–dc23

          2015017270

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Cover Image: TheImageArea/iStockphoto

Preface

Nowadays, public protection and disaster relief (PPDR) agencies mainly rely on the use of private/professional mobile radio (PMR) technologies (e.g. TETRA, TETRAPOL and Project 25) that were conceived in the 1990s. While PMR systems offer a rich set of voice-centric services, with a number of features matched to the special requirements of PPDR, including push-to-talk and call priority, the data transmission capabilities of these PMR technologies are rather limited and lag far behind the technological advancements made in the commercial wireless domain. In this context, long-term evolution (LTE) technology for mobile broadband PPDR is increasingly backed as the technology of choice for future PPDR communications. Technical work is currently being undertaken within the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), the organization in charge of LTE standardization, to add a number of improved capabilities and features to the LTE standard that will further increase its suitability for PPDR and other professional users, by meeting their high demands for reliability and resilience. While the convergence to common technical standards for the PPDR and commercial domains offers significant opportunities for synergies and economies of scale, the delivery of PPDR broadband services demands new approaches in the way that network capacity is deployed and managed. The current paradigm for PPDR communications, based on ‘dedicated technologies, dedicated networks and dedicated spectrum’, is no longer believed to constitute the main approach for the provision of PPDR broadband data communications. On this basis, this book provides a comprehensive view of the introduction of LTE technology for PPDR communications. In particular, the following topics are covered in the book:

The fundamentals of PPDR services, their operational framework and associated communications systems

An overview of the main communications technologies and standards used nowadays by PPDR practitioners

The operational scenarios and emerging multimedia, data-centric applications in growing demand by PPDR practitioners due to their great potential to improve their operational efficiency

A discussion on the main techno-economic drivers that are believed to be pivotal for a cost-efficient delivery of mobile broadband PPDR communications, such as the use of common technical standards with the commercial domain, the consideration of infrastructure sharing and multi-network-based solutions as well as dynamic spectrum sharing

The formulation of a comprehensive system view for the delivery of mobile broadband communications for PPDR, including dedicated LTE-based wide area networks, roaming and priority access to commercial networks’ capacity, fast deployable equipment and satellite access as key components

An analysis of the capabilities and features of the LTE standard that are relevant for an improved support of mission-critical communications, such as group communications enablers and direct mode operation

A discussion on the different network implementation options to deliver mobile broadband PPDR communications services over dedicated or commercial LTE-based networks, including the applicability of the mobile virtual network operator (MVNO) model and other hybrid models

A description of the network architecture design and implementation aspects that are central to the realization of the different delivery models, including the interconnection with legacy networks and with deployables (e.g. cells on wheels and system on wheels) and satellite access

The estimation of spectrum needs for future broadband PPDR systems, a review of the allocated and candidate spectrum bands for PPDR communications and the consideration of dynamic spectrum sharing solutions intended to provide additional capacity to, for example, cope with a surge of PPDR traffic demand

The book is organized into six chapters:

Chapter 1 addresses the fundamentals of PPDR services, their operational framework and associated communications systems. First, the terminology and key definitions of PPDR, public safety (PS) and emergency communications are provided, identifying the scope of these terms and categorizing the different types of communications relationships found in emergencies. Next, the main functions and services delivered by PPDR organizations are introduced, providing a view on the so-called first responder agencies as well as on the role that other entities, such as utilities and telecom operators, could also play in an emergency response. On this basis, a description of the operational framework for PPDR operations is presented. Such a description covers a classification of PPDR operational scenarios, some generic organizational and procedural aspects in incident-response management and the communications’ reference points and key characteristics of the communications services demanded by PPDR practitioners. Following this, a review of the main communications technologies and systems currently in use for PPDR is provided. The review outlines the type of requirements usually bound to PPDR communications systems, describes a common classification of the technologies used within the PPDR sector and provides an overview of the most widely used digital radio communications standards for PPDR communications as of today (TETRA, TETRAPOL, DMR, and Project 25). The review also encompasses the identification of some of the major limitations found in today’s PPDR communications landscape through the analysis of an illustrative, hypothetical incident. Finally, the chapter concludes with a description of the regulatory and standardization framework for PPDR communications.

Chapter 2 describes the various types of data-centric, multimedia applications deemed critical for on-scene PPDR operations. Special attention is given to the ‘Matrix of Applications’ developed by the Law Enforcement Working Party/Radio Communication Expert Group (LEWP/RCEG) of the EU Council, which provides a characterization of technical and operational parameters of a list of PPDR applications agreed by a significant number of European PPDR organizations and recognized by CEPT administrations as being representative in terms of future PPDR applications. Next, the chapter presents various estimates of the throughput requirements for the mobile broadband data applications in demand, outlining typical peak data rates, mean session duration and number of transactions in the busy hour in normal conditions to sustain typical PPDR needs. Finally, the chapter concludes with a quantitative assessment of the overall data capacity needed in a number of representative PPDR operational scenarios within the categories of day-to-day operations, large emergency/public events and disaster scenarios.

Chapter 3 starts with a discussion on the idea that a paradigm change in the delivery of mobile broadband is needed with respect to the prevailing model used nowadays for the provision of voice-centric and narrowband data PPDR services, which is largely characterized by the use of dedicated technologies, dedicated networks and dedicated spectrum. Next, the key techno-economic considerations that are fuelling this paradigm change towards more cost-efficient PPDR communications delivery models are identified and discussed across the dimensions of technology, network and spectrum. Grounded on these techno-economic considerations, a comprehensive system view of the future mobile broadband PPDR communications systems is then described, identifying the key underlying principles and building blocks. Finally, the chapter concludes with a review of some relevant initiatives that are currently shaping the way forward towards the delivery of next-generation mobile broadband PPDR communications.

Chapter 4 provides a description of the new capabilities and features that are being added to the LTE standard. While the LTE standard is already a suitable technology to support a rich number of mobile broadband applications for the PPDR community, including video delivery, work is underway within the 3GPP to improve the standard and turn it into a full mission-critical communications technology. First, the chapter outlines the standardization roadmap established within 3GPP and other relevant standardization bodies in the area of PPDR communications and introduces some of the fundamentals on LTE technology and networks. Next, the enhancements being introduced to fulfil PPDR needs are described, including enhanced group communications enablers and mission-critical push-to-talk (MCPTT) functionality, device-to-device communications (referred to as proximity services in 3GPP specifications), isolated LTE network operation, support of higher transmit power terminals and prioritization and Quality of Service (QoS) control features to cope with capacity congestion. In addition, the enhancements being introduced to LTE with regard to radio access network (RAN) sharing are also described as another potential technology enabler that could facilitate the deployment of shared LTE network models for PPDR and other uses.

Chapter 5 describes the network implementation options to deliver mobile broadband PPDR communications services over dedicated and/or commercial LTE-based networks. First, a number of introductory remarks on the defining elements in current PPDR communications delivery models, the possibility enabled by LTE to provision separately the services from the underlying network and the characteristics expected from a ‘public safety grade’ LTE network design are discussed. On this basis, the different options that can be adopted for the implementation of LTE-based mobile broadband PPDR networks are categorized and described, emphasizing pros and cons of each option. In particular, the deployment of dedicated networks and the use of public networks as well as hybrid combinations are considered. Finally, the chapter delves into some network architecture design and implementation aspects that are central for the realization of the different delivery models. In particular, the reference model developed by ETSI for the overall system intended to provide critical communications services, the interconnection between commercial and dedicated networks, the interworking of broadband and narrowband legacy platforms, the interconnection of deployables and the use of satellite communications and the connectivity services and frameworks within the underlying IP-based backbones are addressed. Additionally, an overview of an MVNO-based solution, which is the approach currently under consideration as a viable short-term solution in some European countries, is presented.

Chapter 6 is focused on the diverse facets related to radio spectrum for PPDR communications. First, the main regulatory and legal instruments that currently govern the use and management of spectrum at global, regional and national levels are discussed, together with the models and evolution of spectrum management practices. Next, the existing provisions at international regulations with regard to harmonized frequency ranges for PPDR communications are presented, together with next key milestones expected in this area. On this basis, the chapter then delves into the characterization of spectrum needs for future broadband PPDR systems, describing the methodologies used for the computation of spectrum needs and gathering a number of estimates carried out from different organizations worldwide. Afterwards, the current spectrum availability for PPDR communications is presented focusing on existing assignments as well as on the candidate bands under consideration in some regions for the delivery of mobile broadband PPDR communications. Finally, the chapter addresses the issue of dynamic spectrum sharing for PPDR communications as a way to complement a dedicated assignment. A classification of the possible sharing models is given, identifying the key principles in each model and discussing on their suitability for PPDR use. On this basis, two possible spectrum sharing solutions are further described: one based on the applicability of the Licensed Shared Access (LSA) regime and the other exploiting secondary access to TV white spaces.

List of Abbreviations

2G

second generation

3ES

three emergency services

3GPP

3rd Generation Partnership Project

3GPP2

3rd Generation Partnership Project 2

AC

access class

ACB

Access Class Barring

ACCOLC

Access Overload Control

ACELP

Algebraic Code Excited Linear Prediction

ACLR

adjacent channel leakage ratio

ACMA

Australian Communications and Media Authority

AES

Advanced Encryption Standard

AF

application function

AGA

air–ground–air

AH

Authentication Header

AI

air interface

AIE

air interface encryption

AMBR

Aggregate Maximum Bit Rate

AMR-WB

AMR Wideband

ANF

Additional Network Feature

ANPR

automatic number plate recognition

APCO

Association of Public-Safety Communications Officials

API

Application Programming Interface

APL

automatic personnel location

APN

Access Point Name

APN-AMBR

Access Point Name Aggregate Maximum Bit Rate

AppComm

Application Community

APT

Asia-Pacific Telecommunity

ARIB

Association of Radio Industries and Business

ARNS

aeronautical radio navigation service

ARP

Allocation and Retention Priority

ARQ

Automatic Repeat reQuest

AS

access stratum

ASA

Authorised Shared Access

ASMG

Arab Spectrum Management Group

ASP

application service provider

ATIS

Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions

ATM

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

ATU

African Telecommunications Union

AuC

authentication centre

AV

authentication vector

AVL

automatic vehicle location

BB

broadband

BBDR

broadband disaster relief

BM-SC

Broadcast Multicast Service Centre

BoM

bill of materials

BSO

beneficial sharing opportunity

BS

base station

BSSM

base station spectrum manager

BTOP

Broadband Technology Opportunities Program

BWT

broadband wireless trunking

CA

carrier aggregation

CAD

computer-aided dispatching

CAI

Common Air Interface

CAP

Compliance Assessment Program

CAPEX

capital expenditures

CATR

China Academy of Telecommunication Research

CBRS

Citizens Broadband Radio Service

CBS

Citizens Broadband Service

CCA

critical communications application

CCBG

Critical Communications Broadband Group

CCC

command and control centre

CCS

critical communications system

CCSA

China Communications Standards Association

CDIS

coexistence discovery and information server

CDR

charging data record

CE

coexistence enabler

CE

consumer electronics

cell ID

cell identity

CFSI

Conventional Fixed Station Interface

CGC

complementary ground component

CISC

Communications Interoperability Strategy for Canada

CITEL

Inter-American Telecommunications Commission

CM

coexistence manager

CO–CO

contractor owned and contractor operated

COP

common operating picture

COTM

communications on the move

COTS

commercial off-the-shelf

COW

cell on wheel

CR

cognitive radio

CRS

cognitive radio systems

CRS

control room systems

CS

circuit switched

CSFB

Circuit-Switched Fallback

CSSI

Console Subsystem Interface

CUS

collective use of spectrum

D2D

device to device

DAS

distributed antenna systems

dB

decibel

DeNB

donor eNB

DFT

discrete Fourier transform

DGNA

dynamic group number assignment

DHS

Department of Homeland Security

DL

downlink

DM

device management

DMO

direct mode operation

DNS

Domain Name Service

DP

delivery partner

DR

disaster relief

DSA

Dynamic Spectrum Arbitrage

DSATPA

Dynamic Spectrum Arbitrage Tiered Priority Access

DTT

digital terrestrial television

DWDM

dense wavelength-division multiplexing

DySPAN

Dynamic Spectrum Access Networks

E2EE

end-to-end encryption

EAB

Extended Access Barring

EC

European Commission

ECA

European Common Allocation

ECC

Electronic Communications Committee

ECC

emergency control centre

ECCS

Emergency Communication Cell over Satellite

ECG

electrocardiogram

ECN&S

electronic communications networks and services

ECO EFIS

European Communications Office Frequency Information System

ECS

electronic communications services

EEA

European Economic Area

EHPLMN

Equivalent HPLMN

EIRP

equivalent isotropic radiated power

EMA

externally mounted antennas

eMBMS

evolved MBMS

eMLPP

Enhanced Multi-Level Precedence and Pre-emption

EMS

emergency medical services

eNB

evolved Node B

ENISA

European Union Agency for Network and Information Security

ENUM

E.164 NUmber Mapping

EPC

Evolved Packet Core

EPL

Ethernet private lines

EPS AKA

EPS Authentication and Key Agreement

EPS

Evolved Packet System

ESMCP

emergency services mobile communications programme

ESN

Emergency Services Network

ESO

European Standards Organization

ESP

Encapsulating Security Payload

ETS

emergency telecommunications services

ETSI TC TCCE

ETSI Technical Committee on TETRA and Critical Communications Evolution

ETSI

European Telecommunications Standards Institute

EU

European Union

E-UTRAN

Evolved UMTS Radio Access Network

FBI

Federal Bureau of Investigation

FCC

Federal Communications Commission

FDMA

frequency division multiple access

FirstNet

First Responder Network Authority

FM PT 53

Frequency Management Project Team 53

FM PT49

Frequency Management Project Team 49

FNO

fixed network operator

FS_IOPS

Feasibility Study on Isolated E-UTRAN Operation for Public Safety

GB

gigabytes

GBR

Guaranteed Bit Rate

GCS AS

GCS Application Server

GCS CA

GCS Client Application

GCS

group communications services

GCSE

Group Communications System Enablers

GETS

Government Emergency Telecommunications Service

GIS

Geographic Information System

GLDB

geo-location database

GMDSS

Global Maritime Distress and Safety System

GO

government owned

GO–CO

government owned and contractor operated

GO–GO

government owned and government operated

GPRS

General Packet Radio Service

GSC

Global Standards Collaboration

GSMA

Global System for Mobile Association

GSM-R

GSM-Railway

GUTI

Globally Unique Temporary Identifier

GW

gateway

GWCN

Gateway Core Network

HD

high definition

HetNet

heterogeneous network

HO

Home Office

H-PCRF

Home PCRF

HR

high resilience

HSS

Home Subscriber Server

HTS

high-throughput satellite

HTTPS

HTTP Secure

HVAC

heating, ventilation and air conditioning

IC

Industry Canada

ICS

incident command structure

ICT

information and communications technology

IDA

Info-Communications Development Authority

IDRA

Integrated Dispatch Radio

IEEE

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IETF

Internet Engineering Task Force

IKEv1

Internet Key Exchange 1

IKEv2

Internet Key Exchange 2

IKI

Inter-Key Management Facility Interface

IM CN

IP Multimedia Core Network

IMS

IP Multimedia Subsystem

IMSI

International Mobile Subscriber Identity

IP ISI

IP-based Inter-System Interface

IP VPN

IP virtual private network

IPX

IP Packet Exchange

ISACC

ICT Standards Advisory Council of Canada

ISI

Inter-System Interface

ISP

Internet service provider

ISSI

Inter-RF Subsystem Interface

ITU

International Telecommunication Union

ITU-R

ITU Radiocommunication

JHA

Justice and Home Affairs

KCC

Korea Communications Commission

LAA

Licenced-Assisted Aggregation

LAN

local area network

LA-RICS

Los Angeles Regional Interoperable Communications System

LC

LSA controllers

LD/SC

liquidated damages/service credits

LEWP

Law Enforcement Working Party

LI

lawful interception

LIPA

Local IP Access

LMR

land mobile radio

LPG

liquid petroleum gas

LR

LSA repository

LSA

Licenced Shared Access

LTE

Long-Term Evolution

M2M

machine to machine

MAC

medium access control

MBMS

Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service

MBMS-GW

MBMS Gateway

MBR

Maximum Bit Rate

MCC

mobile country code

MCPTT NMO

MCPTT Network Mode Operation

MCPTT

mission-critical push-to-talk

MDM

mobile device management

MEF

Metro Ethernet Forum

MFCN

mobile/fixed communications networks

MIC

Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications

MIFR

Master International Frequency Register

MIMO

multiple-input/multiple-output

MME

Mobility Management Entity

MMI

man–machine interface

MNO

mobile network operator

MOA

memorandum of agreement

MOCN

Multi-Operator Core Network

MPLS

Multiprotocol Label Switching

MPS

Multimedia Priority Service

MPT

Ministry of Post and Telecommunication

MS

mobile service

MSC

mobile switching centre

MSS

mobile satellite service

MT

mobile termination

MTPAS

Mobile Telecommunication Privileged Access Scheme

MVNA

mobile virtual network aggregator

MVNE

mobile virtual network enabler

MVNO

mobile virtual network operator

NAS

non-access-stratum

NB

narrowband

NE

network entity

NEMA

National Emergency Management Agency

NeNB

nomadic eNB

NFV

network functions virtualization

NGN

next-generation network

NGO

non-governmental organization

NIST

National Institute of Standards and Technologies

NMS

network management system

NoI

Notice of Inquiry

NPSBN

National Public Safety Broadband Network

NPSTC

National Public Safety Telecommunications Council

NRA

national regulatory authority

NS/EP

national security and emergency preparedness

NSM

Network spectrum manager

NTFA

National Table of Frequency Allocations

NTIA

National Telecommunications and Information Administration

NTP

Network Time Protocol

OAM

operation, administration and maintenance

OCHA

Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

OCS

Online Charging System

OFCS

Offline Charging System

OFDM

orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing

OFDMA

orthogonal frequency-division multiple access

OMA DM

Open Mobile Alliance Device Management

OMA

Open Mobile Alliance

OOBE

out-of-band emission

OPEX

operational expenditures

OSI

Open Systems Interconnection

OTA

over the air

OTAR

over-the-air rekeying

OTN

Optical Transport Network

OTT

over the top

P25 PTToLTE

P25 PTT over LTE

P25

Project 25

PAS

Publicly Available Specifications

PAWS

Protocol to Access White Space

PCC

Policy and Charging Control

PCEF

Policy and Charging Enforcement Function

PCPS

Push-to-Communicate for Public Safety

PCRF

Policy and Charging Rules Function

PD

packet data

PDB

packet delay budget

PDN

packet data network

PEI

Peripheral Equipment Interface

PELR

packet error loss rate

PEP

performance-enhancing proxy

P-GW

PDN Gateway

PIM

personal information manager

PKI

public key infrastructure

PLMN

Public land mobile network

PMN

public mobile network

PMR

professional/private mobile radio

PMSE

programme making and special event

PoC

Push-to-Talk over Cellular

PP

public protection

PPDR

public protection and disaster relief

PRD

Permanent Reference Document

ProSe

proximity-based services

PS

public safety

PSAC

Public Safety Advisory Committee

PSAP

public safety answering point

PSA

public safety agency

PSC

Public Safety Communications

PSCR

Public Safety Communications Research

PSD

power spectral density

PSG

public safety grade

PSN

public safety network

PSS

Public Safety and Security

PSTN

public switched telephone network

PTIG

Project 25 Technology Interest Group

PTT

push to talk

PWS

Public Warning System

QCI

QoS Class Identifier

QoE

quality of experience

QoS

quality of service

QPSK

quadrature phase-shift keying

RAN

radio access network

RAS

radio astronomy service

RAT

radio access technology

RB

Resource Block

RBS

radio base stations

RCC

Regional Commonwealth in the Field of Communications

RCEG

Radio Communications Expert Group

RCS

Rich Communications Suite

REM

Radio Environment Map

RF

radio frequency

RFI

request for information

RFID

radio frequency identity

RFP

request for proposals

RN

relay node

ROHC

Robust Header Compression

RR

Radio Regulations

RRC

Radio Resource Control

RRS

Reconfigurable Radio System

RSC

Radio Spectrum Committee

RSE

RAN Sharing Enhancements

RSPG

Radio Spectrum Policy Group

RSPP

Radio Spectrum Policy Programmes

RTP

Real-time Transport Protocol

SAGE

Security Algorithms Group of Experts

SA

security association

SAS

spectrum access system

SC

service code

SC

spectrum coordinator

SC-FDMA

single-carrier frequency-division multiple access

SCI

Subscriber Client Interface

SCPC

single channel per carrier

SDH

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

SDK

software development kit

SDL

supplementary downlink

SDN

software-defined networking

SDO

standards development organization

SDP

service delivery platform

SDR

software-defined radio

SDS

short data service

SEG

Security Gateway

S-GW

Serving Gateway

SIB

System Information Block

SIM

Subscriber Identity Module

SIMTC

System Improvements to Machine-Type Communication

SIP

Session Initiation Protocol

SLA

service-level agreement

SLIGP

State and Local Implementation Grant Program

SMLA

Spectrum Manager Lease Agreement

SMS

Short Message Service

SN ID

serving network identity

SN

serving network

SONET

Synchronous Optical Networking

SOS

Spectrum Occupancy Sensing

SOW

system on wheel

SPR

Service Profile Repository

SPR

Subscriber Profile Repository

SPS

semi-persistent scheduling

SRDoc

system reference documents

SRVCC

Single Radio Voice Call Continuity

SSAC

Service Specific Access Control

SSAR

shared spectrum access right

STA

special temporary authority

SwMI

Switching and Management Infrastructure

TBCP

Talk Burst Control Protocol

TC

technical committee

TCCA

TETRA and Critical Communications Association

TCCE

TETRA and Critical Communications Evolution

TCO

total cost of ownership

TDM

time-division multiplexing

TDMA

time division multiple access

TE

terminal equipment

TEA

TETRA Encryption Algorithm

TEDS

TETRA Enhanced Data Service

TETRA ISI

TETRA Inter-System Interface

TETRA

Terrestrial Trunked Radio

TFA

Table of Frequency Allocations

TFT

Traffic Flow Template

TIA

Telecommunications Industry Association

TMGI

Temporary Mobile Group Identity

TMO

trunked mode operation

TRA

telecommunications regulatory authority

TTA

Telecommunications Technology Association

TTC

Telecommunication Technology Committee

TTI

Transmission Time Interval

TVBD

TV band devices

TVWS

TV white spaces

UAV

unmanned aerial vehicle

UAV

Unmanned aeronautical vehicle

UE-AMBR

UE Aggregate Maximum Bit Rate

UESM

UE spectrum manager

UL

uplink

UN

United Nations

UPS

uninterruptible power supply

USIM

Universal Subscriber Identity Module

UTC

Utilities Telecom Council

VC

virtual circuits

VIP

very important people

VoIP

Voice over IP

VoLTE

Voice over LTE

V-PCRF

Visited PCRF

VPN

virtual private network

VSAT

very small aperture terminal

WAN

wide area network

WB

wideband

WGET

Working Group on Emergency Telecommunications

WI

Work Item

WPS

Wireless Priority Service

WRAN

wireless regional area network

WRC

World Radiocommunication Conferences

WRC-03

World Radio Conference 2003

WS

white spaces

WSD

white space devices

WTDC

World Telecommunication Development Conferences

WTSA

World Telecommunication Standardization Assembly

XCAP

XML Configuration Access Protocol

XDMS

XML Document Management Servers

XML

Extensible Markup Language

1Public Protection and Disaster Relief Communications

1.1 Background and Terminology

The public protection and disaster relief (PPDR) sector brings essential value to society by creating a stable and secure environment to maintain law and order and to protect the life and values of citizens. PPDR services such as law enforcement, firefighting, emergency medical services (EMS) and disaster recovery services are pillars of our society organization. The protection ensured by PPDR services covers people, property, the environment and other relevant values for the society. It addresses a large number of threats both natural and man-made. The PPDR sector is for most nations intimately connected to the public sector of society, either directly as part of the governmental structure or as a function which is outsourced under strict rules and intensively monitored by government’s contracting ministry or department. Regulatory, organizational, operational and technical elements underpinning an effective PPDR preparedness can vary substantially from country to country, even between regions or municipalities in countries where local preparedness might be under the auspices of regional or local public authorities.

One important task of PPDR services is to deal with emergency and surveillance situations on land, sea and air. The most important part of this work is done in the field, so all the tools must match the needs accordingly. Radiocommunications are extremely important to PPDR organizations to the extent that PPDR communications are highly dependent upon it. At times, radiocommunication is the only form of communications available.

There are terminology differences between administrations and regions in the scope and specific meaning of PPDR and related radiocommunication services. PPDR is defined in ITU Radiocommunication (ITU-R) Resolution 646 in World Radio Conference 2003 (WRC-03) through a combination of the terms ‘public protection (PP) radiocommunication’ and ‘disaster relief (DR) radiocommunication’ [1]:

PP radiocommunication

. Radiocommunications used by responsible agencies and organizations dealing with maintenance of law and order, protection of life and property and emergency situations

DR radiocommunication

. Radiocommunications used by agencies and organizations dealing with a serious disruption of the functioning of society, posing a significant, widespread threat to human life, health, property or the environment, whether caused by accident, nature or human activity

A term also commonly used to refer to PPDR communications is public safety (PS) communications. These terms are often used interchangeably [2]. Another term related to PPDR communications is emergency communications. Broadly defined, emergency communications involves not only communications within and between PPDR agencies and public authorities involved in the management of an emergency case but also communications involving citizens. As illustrated in Figure 1.1, the generally agreed categories to be considered in the provision of emergency communications are [3]:

Communication between authorities/organizations

. Refers to communications within and among authorities/organizations. This is the category that fits with the scope of PPDR communications.

Communication from authorities/organizations to citizens

. Refers to communications from authorities/organizations with individuals, groups or the general public. Warning and information systems to alert the population are part of this category.

Communication of citizens with authorities/organizations

. Emergency call services (e.g. calls to emergency numbers such as 112 or 911 through public telephone networks) are part of this category.

Communication among citizens

. In case of a disaster, individuals may have a strong demand to communicate among themselves in order to ascertain/learn the state of relatives, property, etc., as well as coordinate actions of mutual interest. Particularly, new social media communications technologies can potentially enable citizens to more quickly share information, assist response and recovery in emergencies and mobilize for action in political crises.

In this context, it is also common to refer to PPDR organizations as emergency services or emergency response providers. In particular, an emergency service can be defined as an agency or service that provides immediate and rapid assistance in situations where there is a direct risk to life or limb, individual or public health or safety, private or public property, or the environment but not necessarily limited to these situations [4].

Figure 1.1 Scope of PPDR and emergency communications.

The focus of this book is on communications within and between PPDR organizations and authorities. In this regard, the terms PPDR, PS and emergency communications are used interchangeably within the book to refer to this type of communications.

1.2 PPDR Functions and Organizations

PPDR organizations or agencies are the ones responsible for the prevention and protection from events that could endanger the safety of the general public. The main functions and services provided by PPDR organizations are [5, 6]:

Law enforcement

. Law enforcement is the function to prevent, investigate, apprehend or detain any individual, which is suspected or convicted of offences against the criminal law. Law enforcement is a function usually performed by police organizations.

EMS

. The function of medical services is to provide critical invasive and supportive care of sick and injured citizens and the ability to transfer the people in a safe and controlled environment. Components of the EMS system include the following: medical first responders (people and agencies that provide non-transporting first aid care before an ambulance arrives on scene), ambulance services (basic and advanced life support), specialty transport services (helicopter, boat, snowmobile, etc.), hospitals (emergency, intensive, cardiac, neonatal care units, etc.) and specialty centres (trauma, burn, cardiac, drug units, etc.). The function of EMS includes also the function of ‘disaster medicine’, which is the provision of triage, primary aid, transportation and secondary care in major incidents. Doctors, paramedics, medical technicians, nurses or volunteers can supply these services.

Firefighting

. This is the function of putting out hazardous fires that threaten civilian populations and property. Hazardous fires can appear in urban areas (houses or buildings) or rural areas (forest fires). Professional and volunteer fire protection agencies supply this service.

Protection of the environment

. This is the function to protect the natural environment of a nation or a regional area, including its ecosystems composed by animals and plants. This function is limited to the everyday operation of protecting the environment like monitoring of the water, air and land. Forest guards, firefighters, volunteer organizations or public organizations are usually responsible for this activity.

Search and rescue

. This function has the objective to locate, access, stabilize and transport lost or missing persons to a place of safety. Search and rescue is one of the activities performed by different PS organizations such as firefighters or EMS.

Border security

. Control of the border of a nation or a regional area from intruders or other threats, which could endanger the safety and economic well-being of citizens. Covers areas such as verification of illegal immigration, verification of the introduction of illegal substances and verification of introduction of goods in offence of customs laws. Border security is usually performed by police organizations or specialized border security guard. Coastal guard is a special case of border security.

Emergency management

. Emergency management, also referred to as civil protection, is the organization and management of resources and responsibilities for dealing with all aspects of major emergencies/disasters, in particular prevention, preparedness, response and rehabilitation. Emergency management provides central command and control of PPDR agencies during emergencies. Emergency management involves plans, structures and arrangements established to engage the normal endeavours of government, voluntary and private agencies in a comprehensive and coordinated way to respond to the whole spectrum of major emergency needs. Emergency management includes also the recovery of the essential flows related to food, health, transportation, building material, electrical energy supply, telecommunications and daily stuff, situation awareness and communication.

The distribution of the above functions and services among PPDR organizations is not homogeneous across countries and regions. In Europe, similar organizations may not perform exactly the same functions in different countries due to the non-homogeneous historical development of PPDR services in each nation. Also, the organization and standard operating procedures can differ significantly among PPDR organizations that could span from volunteer organizations, which have received limited training, to specialist paramilitary organizations (e.g. explosives, hazardous materials specialists). Common types of PPDR organizations in Europe are described in the following list, identifying which is the main function or functions provided by each:

Police

. The main objective of the police is law enforcement creating a safer environment for its citizen. Functions: law enforcement.

Fire services

. With variations from region to region and country to country, the primary areas of responsibility of the fire services include structure firefighting and fire safety, wild land firefighting, life-saving through search and rescue, rendering humanitarian services, management of hazardous materials and protecting the environment, salvage and damage control, safety management within an inner cordon and mass decontamination. Functions: law enforcement, protection of the environment and search and rescue.

Border guard (land)

. Border guard comprises national security agencies which perform border control at national or regional borders. Their duties are usually criminal interdiction, control of illegal immigration and illegal trafficking. Functions: law enforcement and border security.

Coast guard

. Coast guard services may include, but not be limited to, search and rescue (at sea and other waterways), protection of coastal waters, criminal interdiction, illegal immigration and disaster and humanitarian assistance in areas of operation. Coast guard functions may vary with administrations, but core functions and requirements are generally common globally. Functions: law enforcement, protection of the environment, search and rescue and border security.

Forest guards

. Type of police specialized in the protection of the forest environment. It supports other agencies in firefighting and law enforcement in rural and mountain environment. Functions: law enforcement, protection of the environment and search and rescue.

Hospitals and medical first responders

. These are the central components for the provision of EMS. They usually count on mobile units such as ambulances and other motorized vehicles such as aircraft helicopters and other vehicles. Functions: EMS and search and rescue.

Road transport police

. Transport police is a specialized police agency responsible for the law enforcement and protection of transportation ways like railroad, highways and others. Functions: law enforcement.

Railway transport police

. Railway transport police is a specialized police agency responsible for the law enforcement and protection of railways. In some cases, it is a private organization dependent on the railway service provider. Functions: law enforcement.

Custom guard

. An arm of a state’s law enforcement body, responsible for monitoring people and goods entering a country. Given the removal of internal borders in the European Union (EU), customs authorities are particularly focused on crime prevention. Functions: law enforcement.

Airport security

. Airport enforcement authority is responsible for protecting airports, passengers and aircrafts from crime. Functions: law enforcement.

Port security

. Port enforcement authority is responsible for protecting port and maritime harbour facilities. Functions: law enforcement.

Volunteers organizations for civil protection

. Volunteer organizations are civilian with training on a number of areas related to PS and environment protection. They voluntarily enter into an agreement to protect environment and citizens without a commercial or monetary profit. Functions: protection of the environment and search and rescue.

In addition to the above-mentioned types of PPDR organizations, public authorities at different levels (local, regional, national) can also be directly involved in PPDR operations, leading or supporting emergency management functions. Public authorities are responsible for the establishment of a set of preparedness and contingency plans to handle emergency situations. Public authorities can be at the core of the response to most serious emergencies to put in place the emergency plans as well as provide advice and assistance to businesses and voluntary organizations about business continuity management.

Moreover, emergency response may also involve other public or private organizations such as departments of transportation, public works, utility companies (water, gas, electricity) and telecom operators. In the case of telecom operators, the emergency management plans may include a listing of emergency telecommunications facilities that need to be prepared for use in the event of a major emergency/disaster. The telecom operators have to support these plans where special operational modes may be predefined in a policy-based network management scheme and invoked in emergency situations (e.g. invocation or priority access schemes, rerouting calls to specific answering points).

Military forces can also support PPDR operations during major national emergencies where military authorities provide manpower and equipment to supplement PS resources. These incidents are frequently in response to natural forces (e.g. flooding, earthquakes). Military units can also give pre-planned support in major events (e.g. Olympic Games) as well as specialist response to man-made emergencies (e.g. terrorist attacks) where specialist military skills or equipment are necessary and may form an integral part of the emergency response.

Last but not least, some individuals can also belong to entities and organizations that have a role to play in emergency situations [7]. In particular, professionals and/or volunteers in non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civic organizations may have a supporting role in handling emergencies. Their efficient involvement will highly depend upon their liaisons with the authorities organizing and steering the overall rescue plan. Providing them with tools to report their field observations or get the optimal information on the status of the crisis, they are involved in, can be crucial.

Also, the owners of the site, vessel, etc., where the emergency occurs, have certain obligations to fulfil. Site staff (or personnel) are supposedly fit to manage the site/plant and may participate in the rescue and clearance, as well as being affected individuals. Importantly, assistance in logistic coordination and utility provisioning may be also provided by providers of gas, electricity, electronic communications services and water supply. The utility owner, usually outside the emergency area, may represent control and control its action from a control centre. Utility staff may be directly working within the emergency area (or nearby) with the manual operations needed. Finally, the role of media (journalists, radio/TV news reporters) is also crucial in spreading information from the emergency scene and from the authorities to other affected individuals. Broadcasting can also be used for recruiting and coordinating new people to volunteer.

In this context, the term ‘first responder’ is commonly used to refer to law enforcement, emergency medical, firefighting and rescue services. In turn, the term ‘emergency responders’ is typically used with a wider scope than first responder, including in this case other entities such as electric, water and gas utilities; transportation; transit; search and rescue; hospitals; the Red Cross; and many others, which can be involved in diverse incident responses.

1.3 Operational Framework and Communications Needs for PPDR

PPDR organizations are required to manage emergencies and major incidents on a daily basis. These incidents may vary widely in terms of scale. The definitions of ‘major incident’, ‘emergency’ and similar terms are general in terminology and encompass significant degrees of latitude in their interpretation. Incidents may take on a greater degree of urgency or seriousness because of particular circumstances. For example, a public disorder incident in a town involving 500 people will be more serious in its potential when there are 5 officers to deal with it than where there are 50. Incidents may involve the interaction of multiple PPDR services (police, firefighters, ambulances, specialist units, etc.). In addition, since incidents do not respect administrative, regional and national or language boundaries, operational scenarios may include a variety of cross-border operational activities. According to Ref. [8], a ‘major incident’ is any emergency that requires the implementation of special arrangements by one or more of the emergency services and will generally include the involvement, either directly or indirectly, of large numbers of people. For example:

The rescue and transportation of large numbers of casualties

The large-scale combined resources of the emergency services

The mobilization and organization of the emergency and support services such as local or regional authorities, to deal with the threats of homelessness, serious injury or death involving a large number of people

The handling of a large number of enquiries generated from the citizen and the mass media, usually directed at the police

It is a strongly held view that requirements for incidents have a considerable degree of commonality. There will be issues of scalability, spatial and temporal considerations, as well as certain incident-specific demands such as cross-border governance procedures, operations to detect and capture offenders in terrorist or criminal incidents and so on.

Within the emergency services, it is both possible and indeed commonplace to develop contingency plans for known risks and where a significant number of values can be defined: counterterrorism plans for an attack on a VIP’s residence, evacuation plans for a hospital and a major fire at a large retail centre, for example. However, there are many major incidents which cannot be so clearly defined or prepared for: the cause, location, scale, impact and medium and long-term implications are indeterminate. For this reason, emergency services and other authorities must necessarily build a considerable degree of flexibility into their thinking and operational practices to attempt to build a set of responses to cover every conceivable eventuality and to avoid that these could rapidly become bureaucratic in the extreme, unwieldy and completely unmanageable.

There is a vast literature describing operational scenarios involving PPDR agencies and personnel with the purpose of establishing guidance and best practices as well as deriving organizational, functional and technological (including communications) requirements and standards (e.g. [1, 5, 6, 9–12]). Based on these references, the following subsections provide a comprehensive vision of operational aspects concerning PPDR communications that includes a categorization of PPDR operational scenarios, a description of a generic operational framework, the identification of main components and communications’ reference points and the identification of current and expected communications services that are central to PPDR operations.

1.3.1 Operational Scenarios

From the perspective of the use of radiocommunications means in PPDR operations, three distinct radio operating environments are usually defined that impose different requirements on the use of PPDR applications and their importance:

Day-to-day operations

. Day-to-day operations encompass the routine operations that PPDR agencies conduct within their jurisdiction. Typically, these operations are within national borders.

Large emergency and/or public events

. Large emergencies and/or public events are those that PP and potentially DR agencies respond to in a particular area of their jurisdiction. However, they are still required to perform their routine operations elsewhere within their jurisdiction. The size and nature of the event may require additional PPDR resources from adjacent jurisdictions, cross-border agencies or international organizations. In most cases, there are either plans in place, or there is some time to plan and coordinate the requirements. A large fire encompassing three to four blocks in a large city or a large forest fire are examples of a large emergency under this scenario. Likewise, a large public event (national or international) could include the G8 Summit, the Olympics, etc.

Disasters

. Disasters can be those caused by either natural or human activity. For example, natural disasters include an earthquake, a major tropical storm, a major ice storm, floods, etc. Examples of disasters caused by human activity include large-scale criminal incidences or situations of armed conflict. Given the large numbers of people that may be impacted by a disaster, the considerable potential for property damage and the risk to social cohesion in the aftermath of a disaster, effectiveness of cross-border PPDR operation or international mutual aid could be largely beneficial.

The above operational scenarios are found in one or a number of the following domains, which also have an impact on the definition of requirements for the equipment including communications systems [6]:

Urban environment

. Identifies an area in a city or a densely urbanized area. It has usually high density of people and buildings. Emergency crisis and other types of PS scenarios in an urban environment are often characterized by a limited area of operation (hundreds of meters to few km), presence of man-made obstacles and need for a high reaction speed. Urban environment may have many facilities, but traffic congestion may limit the mobility of PPDR responders.

Rural environment

. Identifies an area, which is not densely urbanized like countryside, mountains, hills or forest areas. There may be natural obstacles like mountains and hills. An emergency crisis in a rural area may be quite large for the geographical extension (tens of square kilometer). A rural environment does not have usually an extensive communications infrastructure.