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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Advances in Petroleum Engineering
- Sprache: Englisch
Written by a leading industry specialist, a must-have for drilling specialists, petroleum engineers, and field practitioners, this is the only book providing practical, rigorous and validated models for general annular flows, eccentric geometries, non-Newtonian fluids, yield stresses, multiphase effects, and transient motions and flow rates and includes new methods describing mudcake integrity and pore pressure for blowout assessment. Wilson C. Chin has written some of the most important and well-known books in the petroleum industry. These books, whose research was funded by the U.S. Department of Energy and several international petroleum corporations, have set very high standards. Many algorithms are used at leading oil service companies to support key drilling and well logging applications. For the first time, the physical models in these publications, founded on rigorous mathematics and numerical methods, are now available to the broader industry: students, petroleum engineers, drillers and faculty researchers. The presentations are written in easy-to-understand language, with few equations, offering simplified explanations of difficult problems and solutions which provide key insights into downhole physical phenomena through detailed tabulations and color graphics displays. Practical applications, such as cuttings transport, pressure control, mudcake integrity, formation effects in unconventional applications, and so on, are addressed in great detail, offering the most practical answers to everyday problems that the engineer encounters. The book does not stop at annular flow. In fact, the important role of mudcake growth and thickness in enabling steady flow in the annulus is considered, as is the role of (low) formation permeability in affecting mud filtration, cake growth, and fluid sealing at the sandface. This is the first publication addressing "the big picture," a "first" drawn from the author's related research in multiple disciplines such as drilling rheology, formation testing and reservoir simulation. A must-have for any petroleum engineer, petroleum professional, or student, this book is truly a groundbreaking volume that is sure to set new standards.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Contents
Cover
Title page
Copyright page
Preface
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1: Fundamental Ideas and Background
1.1 Background, industry challenges and frustrations.
1.2 Related prior work.
1.3 References.
Chapter 2: Steady Annular Flow
2.1 Graphical interface basics.
2.2 Steady flows – versatile capabilities.
2.3 References.
Chapter 3: Transient Single-Phase Flows
3.1 Validation runs, three different approaches to steady, Power law, non-rotating, concentric annular flow.
3.2 Validation run for transient, Newtonian, non-rotating, concentric annular flow.
3.3 Validation run for transient, Newtonian, non-rotating, eccentric annular flow.
3.4 Effect of steady rotation for laminar Power law flows in concentric annuli.
3.5 Effect of steady-state rotation for Newtonian fluid flow in eccentric annuli.
3.6 Effect of steady rotation for Power law flows in highly eccentric annuli at low densities (foams).
3.7 Effect of steady rotation for Power law flows in highly eccentric annuli at high densities (heavy muds).
3.8 Effect of mud pump ramp-up and ramp-down flow rate under non-rotating and rotating conditions.
3.9 Effect of rotational and azimuthal start-up.
3.10 Effect of axial drillstring movement.
3.11 Combined rotation and sinusoidal reciprocation.
3.12 Combined rotation and sinusoidal reciprocation in presence of mud pump flow rate ramp-up for yield stress fluid.
3.13 References.
Chapter 4: Transient Multiphase Flows
4.1 Single fluid in pipe and borehole system – calculating total pressure drops for general non-Newtonian fluids.
4.2 Interface tracking and total pressure drop for multiple fluids pumped in drillpipe and eccentric borehole system.
4.3 Calculating annular and drillpipe pressure loss.
4.4 Herschel-Bulkley pipe flow analysis.
4.5 Transient, three-dimensional, eccentric multiphase flow analysis for non-rotating Newtonian fluids.
4.6 Transient, 3D, eccentric multiphase analysis for non-rotating Newtonian fluids – simulator description.
4.7 Transient, 3D, eccentric multiphase analysis for general rotating non-Newtonian fluids – simulator description.
4.8 Transient, 3D, eccentric, multiphase analysis for general rotating non-Newtonian fluids with axial pipe movement – Validation runs for completely stationary pipe.
4.9 Transient, 3D, concentric, multiphase analysis for rotating Power law fluids without axial pipe movement.
4.10 Transient, 3D, eccentric, multiphase analysis for general rotating non-Newtonian fluids with axial pipe movement – Validation runs for constant rate rotation and translation.
4.11 References.
Chapter 5: Mudcake Formation in Single-Phase Flow
5.1 Flows with moving boundaries – four basic problems.
5.2 Characterizing mud and mudcake properties.
5.3 Complex invasion problems – numerical modeling.
5.4 References.
Chapter 6: Mudcake Growth for Multiphase Flow
6.1 Physical problem description.
6.2 Overview physics and simulation capabilities.
6.3 Model and user interface notes.
6.4 Detailed applications.
6.5 References.
Chapter 7: Pore Pressure in Higher Mobility Formations
7.1 Forward and inverse modeling approaches.
7.2 Preliminary ideas.
7.3 Inverse examples – dip angle, multivalued solutions and skin.
7.4 References.
Chapter 8: Pore Pressure Prediction in Low Mobility or Tight Formations
8.1 Low permeability pulse interference testing – nonzero skin.
8.2 Low permeability pulse interference testing – zero skin.
8.3 Formation Testing While Drilling (FTWD).
8.4 References.
Cumulative References
Index
About the Author
End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover
Copyright
Contents
Begin Reading
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Modern Borehole Analytics
Annular Flow, Hole Cleaning, and Pressure Control
Wilson C. Chin
This edition first published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA © 2017 Scrivener Publishing LLC For more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataISBN 978-1-119-28379-9
Preface
When I first joined the petroleum industry more than two decades ago, my exposure to field operations, or just about anything “oily,” was minimal or next to nothing. My supervisor at Schlumberger, Larry Leising, would preach incessantly about the need for “hole cleaning,” something that I, an M.I.T. Ph.D. firmly grounded in applied math, should focus on. Something important. Something that those new-fangled horizontal wells on the horizon died for. But no, that was impossible. My parents, who’d never made in past elementary school in China, I said, “paid good money” to send me to college. So explaining why I’m sitting next to a “rathole” or “dog house” on a drilling rig in the middle of nowhere cleaning holes would not go well with them. Or with my worthy ancestors. And so, annular flow and drilling safety would have to wait.
Some years later, I’d hear more “dirty stuff” about dirty stuff. Why mudcake was “bad” and responsible for differential sticking. Stuck drillstrings. Lost tools. Fishing jobs. Unimpressive things responsible for impressive hundreds of millions in damage each year. As for hole cleaning and cuttings transport, mudcake catastrophes were likewise “solved” by empirical “common sense” methods seemingly pulled from thin air. No one understood why they worked. Or why they probably didn’t. War stories proliferated in trade journals and at conferences. And then there were well logging folks running “formation testers.” Petrophysicists who curiously wanted good thick mudcakes. Cakes that would seal their pads well and enable the extraction of clean fluid samples. Thick ones that reduced invasion at the sandface so that pore pressure measurements actually measured formation (and not high borehole) values.
Like hole cleaning, what worked was anyone’s guess. No one really knew why mudcakes grew “like √t.” They just did, it seemed. But they really didn’t. Many drillers believed that formation type didn’t matter. But log analysts argued that formation permeabilities did. In fact, at really low mobilities, they could control the physics and dangerously reduce cake thickness. Along with pore pressure, of course. And pore pressure? In tight zones, such as those encountered in today’s unconventional applications, you couldn’t even measure pore pressure without waiting hours! So, one might ask, now what? What are our alternatives? What can we really solve as a hard-pressed industry?
Those who have read the author’s books over the years will appreciate that substantial personal efforts have been directed at annular flow modeling, cuttings transport, hole cleaning and pressure control. And that mudcake dynamics, and pore pressure and permeability prediction in tight formations, have also been the focus of extensive work in formation testing and real-time formation evaluation. And similarly with multiphase reservoir flow and mixing near to the wellbore. We’ve worked hard at many disciplines. A brief narrative of chronological developments appears in Chapter 1 in support of Chapters 2–8.
But it was not until the aftermath of the Deepwater Horizon incident that the underlying ideas for the present book developed. The author, at the time, served as Expert Witness in the Macondo litigation – an eye-opening event clearly highlighting the necessity for credible models of physical phenomena in support of operational safety. And it was during these activities that one key realization developed: that basic elements involving annular flow and pressure control, mudcake growth and dynamic coupling to the formation, and finally, permeability and pore pressure prediction in the reservoir, can be combined to provide an integrated software system for realistic well planning. One dictating how borehole flows are affected by mudcake and reservoir events, how annular flows can be manipulated, how mudcake growth can be controlled, and finally, how (once) elusive properties like permeability and pore pressure in tight reservoirs can be measured rapidly, economically and safely.
This objective forms the basis for the present book, appropriately entitled Modern Borehole Analytics for Annular Flow, Hole Cleaning and Pressure Control. But unlike the author’s previous works which emphasized mathematics, algorithms and physical validations, this volume builds upon prior work and focuses on applications and software models that are available for immediate industry use. Very few equations this time, just the facts. And so, the journey comes full circle … from utter initial confusion to, hopefully, something practical, useful and significant.
Wilson C. Chin, Ph.D., M.I.T.Houston, Texas and Beijing, China
Email: [email protected]: (832) 483-6899
Acknowledgements
This book is dedicated to Larry. Larry Leising, that is, fellow M.I.T. graduate and Schlumberger colleague who talked me into parting from a glamorous aerospace industry for petroleum endeavors unknown. His early insights on hole cleaning, horizontal wells and MWD telemetry, combined with practical experiences that he shared, made a significant difference in my research interests and modeling approaches over the years. Larry was forever helpful. At the time, I recall, “mud sirens” in MWD always jammed and downhole debris was blamed. I suggested simpler wind tunnel test methods to explore some “wild and crazy” ideas. Maybe jamming was a purely hydrodynamic effect. Maybe. Being the theoretician that I was then, I didn’t know the difference between a squirrel cage blower and a ceiling fan. Larry was instrumental in building our wind tunnel, in developing our test methods, and in the important discovery of the “downstream rotor, stable open” mud sirens now in routine use – a game-changing invention he rightfully shares but never took credit for.
As usual, the author is indebted to Phil Carmical, Publisher at Scrivener Publishing, for his support and encouragement in disseminating his highly technical research monographs, together with equations, cryptic Greek symbols, formal algorithms and more. Our fruitful collaboration goes back some twenty years, first with annular flow modeling, then with reservoir engineering, horizontal drilling, formation testing, Measurement While Drilling and other disciplines. Phil and I share one common goal – we approach real world problems with the best scientific tools available and turn over each and every stone. In times of uncertainty, such as the economic turmoil now facing all of us, it is even more important to “solve problems right” and work more productively. What our industry needs is more math and not less, more questioning and less acceptance, and it is through this latest volume that we hope to stimulate thought and continuing research in engineering endeavors central to the modern exploration for oil and gas.
Chapter 1Fundamental Ideas and Background
As suggested in our title Modern Borehole Analytics for Annular Flow, Hole Cleaning and Pressure Control and in our Preface, this book deals generally with the subject of borehole flow modeling. We build upon original research efforts documented in the author’s earlier monographs, (i) Borehole Flow Modeling in Horizontal, Deviated and Vertical Wells (Gulf Publishing, 1992), (ii) Computational Rheology for Pipeline and Annular Flow (Elsevier, 2001), and (iii) Managed Pressure Drilling: Modeling, Strategy and Planning (Elsevier, 2012).
The last book, which was translated into Chinese in 2016, presents major research results completed under Contract No. 08121-2502-01, sponsored by the United States Department of Energy – 2009 Research Partnership to Secure Energy for America (RPSEA), Ultra-Deepwater Exploration Program, for “Advanced Steady-State and Transient, Three-Dimensional, Single and Multi-phase, non-Newtonian Simulation System for Managed Pressure Drilling.”
The foregoing “MPD book” supersedes the prior two and focuses on validated analytical and mathematical models. As such, it does not discuss experimental results in detail, such as those cited in its references. Nor does it address the subjects of mudcake characterization and growth, which are considered in (i) Quantitative Methods in Reservoir Engineering, 2nd Edition – with New Topics in Formation Testing and Multilateral Well Flow Analysis (Elsevier, 2017) for single-phase flows and (ii) Formation Testing: Low Mobility Pressure Transient Analysis (with CNOOC, John Wiley, 2015) for multiphase flows.
The subject of formation permeability and pore pressure prediction, which is very relevant to mudcake growth and coupling to the formation, especially tight formations, is also omitted from the MPD reference. It was largely developed in the context of formation tester pressure transient and contamination modeling, treated extensively in two books, (i) Formation Testing Pressure Transient and Contamination Analysis (with CNOOC, John Wiley, 2014) and (ii) Formation Testing: Low Mobility Pressure Transient Analysis (with CNOOC, John Wiley, 2015).
As explained in our Preface, the present volume focuses on practical applications, and not theory, whose inclusion would have made this work unwieldy and difficult to read. The complete picture for borehole annulus, mudcake and formation is considered here. It goes without saying that modern algorithms are sophisticated and output intensive. Gone are the days of simple engineering models and algebraic formulas designed for “back of the envelope” answers. Real solutions now require complicated partial differential equation formulations, whose field solutions demand computer menus offering different numerical options, outputs with three-dimensional color graphics, and varied post-processing utilities. With the exception of Chapter 6, which deals with mudcake growth in single-phase flow, together with formulas and source code, all of our models are hosted by advanced software. However, our software models, validated and in use at major service companies, are affordable, easy to use, and aimed at mainstream audiences.
In this first chapter, we will outline the basic problems solved – for details, the reader is referred to the foregoing cited book references. Our capabilities are described in terms of specific problems and their solutions. To ensure clarity, we described the formulations in terms of input menus and our results in terms of output data listings and color graphics. Users desiring further explanation or examples are encouraged to consult our references, or even better, replicate and extend our computed results. Our explanations below, while oriented to laymen and non-specialists, are nonetheless rigorous and scientifically correct.
1.1 Background, industry challenges and frustrations.
In the following sections, we introduce annular flow modeling (subject of Chapters 2, 3 and 4), mudcake dynamics (Chapters 5 and 6), and permeability and pore pressure prediction (Chapters 7 and 8). Only brief overviews of the problems are provided, as details are available in the referenced books. Applications are considered in specific chapters.
1.1.1 Annular flow modeling issues and problem definition.
The fundamental problem in downhole applications is borehole flow modeling in the annulus. Real annuli are typified by varied geometries, e.g., refer to those sketched in Figure 1-1.
Figure 1.1. Real and idealized annular geometry models.
Figure 1-1c represents flow in a circular pipe. For many steady-state non-Newtonian flows, pipe solutions are available analytically, including closed form representations for the circular cross-section “plug flow” found at the center of the pipe in the case of yield stress fluids (plugs move as solid bodies and plug flows are convected downstream with constant speed). Some approaches to annular flow employ somewhat dubious notions related to “equivalent hydraulic radius,” where flow rates for given pressure gradients are computed from an “equivalent” pipe flow – a somewhat questionable and ill-defined concept at best. For concentric annuli, e.g., Figure 1-1b, numerical solutions are available for Power law fluids only; in the case of Bingham plastics and Herschel-Bulkley fluids, a concentric “ring plug” wraps around the inner body – here. concentricity arises from symmetry considerations, but simple solutions do not appear to be available. Real annuli are highly eccentric, as in Figure 1-1a, and numerical solutions for non-yield cases are available in bipolar coordinates. Very often, simpler “pie-slice” models (see Figure 1-1e) are used, consisting of crude solution “slices” extracted from concentric solutions. When eccentricity is small, the annulus is often “unwrapped” as in Figure 1-1d, resulting in multiple “slot flows” solved by simpler rectangular flow formulas.
Of course, the general problem is represented by Figure 1-1f, where a highly eccentric annulus is shown, which may possess non-flat cuttings beds, irregularly shaped washouts, and so on. This general problem, and all of the simpler prior flows, have been solved by the author and are documented in his three annular flow books for Newtonian, Power law, Bingham plastic and Herschel-Bulkley fluids, for example, as schematically described by Figure 1-2 in terms of constitutive relations.
Figure 1.2. Constitutive relations for basic rheologies.
Plug flows, as we have noted, arise from yield stress effects; in a circular pipe, the plug is always circular and situated at the center of the pipe. For concentric annuli, by virtue of symmetry considerations, the plug is a concentric ring that wraps around the centerbody. Plug flows introduce nontrivial changes to velocity and stress patterns in the annular cross-section, and are associated with dynamic attributes important in hole cleaning and mud displacement in cementing applications.
For the general annulus in Figure 1-1f, the shape, size and location of the plug have long represented unresolved modeling challenges. Authors typically assume that a plug ring exists which wraps around the centerbody or drillpipe, although it will not form a perfect circle. A macroscopic “pie slice” view of the annulus is taken, and within each slice of the pie, a plug segment roughly parallel to the local outer annular contour is assumed. The cumulative effect of all such slices is a “wrap around plug ring” with variable azimuthal thickness. This seems to be reasonable, providing an implementable “recipe” or algorithm.
However, the logic is flawed. Consider a highly eccentric example where the inner pipe diameter is continuously reduced. At some point, one expects to find an oval or elliptical plug in the wide part of the annulus, as in the far right of Figure 1-3 – much like that of a circular pipe, although it will neither be circular in cross-section nor centered (however, the left two plug flows are reasonable). How its shape, size and location vary with geometric details, and in fact, with flow rate and non-Newtonian rheology, have been open questions until now. The problem is solved numerically in Managed Pressure Drilling (2012) and we refer readers to the book for the detailed theory and applications.
Figure 1.3. Different plug zone configurations.
The general borehole flow problem considered in the present book is defined in part by Figure 1-4. Here we have an arbitrary pumping schedule where different non-Newtonian fluids are pumped at different volume flow rates for different time durations down a circular drillpipe (or casing), through the drillbit, and finally, up the annulus. The annular geometry may be quite general, as noted earlier; in addition, the borehole axis may be curved (so that centrifugal forces enter the flow description). Furthermore, the pipe (or casing) may rotate and move axially as arbitrary functions of time, to be defined through computer menus to the user’s discretion. Finally, the pump pressure gradient may be completely transient. In a typically eccentric annulus, plug flows are accurately calculated as noted above. This general annulus flow problem is treated in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 and in greater mathematical detail in the author’s Managed Pressure Drilling (2012, 2016). However, these chapters consider only those situations where the sandface is perfectly sealed, that is, fluid flow into and from the formation is disallowed – the mudcake, we emphasize, is impermeable to flow.
Figure 1.4. Eccentric flow model and general problem definition.
1.1.2 Mudcake growth, dynamic coupling and reservoir interaction.
Despite the apparent generality of our annular flow modeling algorithms, they have not included provision for flow into or out of the reservoir. Mudcake is assumed to exist, but in practice, its integrity may be degraded by excessive reservoir pressures. In this book, we consider weak-to-strong overbalanced flow into the formation. Solid particulates carried by drilling mud will leave a cake at the sandface that grows with time – the higher the filtration rate into the Darcy formation, the higher the cake growth rate and the stronger the mudcake barrier to flow.
