Modern Measurements E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 680

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

This book is a collection of chapters linked together by a logical framework aimed at exploring the modern role of the measurement science in both the technically most advanced applications and in everyday life * Provides a unique methodological approach to understanding modern measurements * Important methods and devices are presented in a synthetic and easy-to-understand way * Includes end-of-chapter exercises and solutions

Leseprobe

IEEE Press

445 Hoes Lane

Piscataway, NJ 08854

IEEE Press Editorial Board

Tariq Samad, Editor in Chief

George W. Arnold

Vladimir Lumelsky

Linda Shafer

Dmitry Goldgof

Pui-In Mak

Zidong Wang

Ekram Hossain

Jeffrey Nanzer

MengChu Zhou

Mary Lanzerotti

Ray Perez

George Zobrist

Kenneth Moore, Director of IEEE Book and Information Services (BIS)

Technical Reviewers

Mihaela Albu, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Faculty of El. Engineering

Mary Yeary, University of Oklahoma

MODERN MEASUREMENTS

Fundamentals and Applications

Edited by

ALESSANDRO FERRERO DARIO PETRI PAOLO CARBONE MARCANTONIO CATELANI

Copyright © 2015 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. All rights reserved

Published simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, [phone], fax [phone], or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, [phone], fax [phone], or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available.

ISBN: 978-1-118-17131-8

CONTENTS

PREFACE

ACRONYMS

PART I FUNDAMENTALS

CHAPTER 1 MEASUREMENT MODELS AND UNCERTAINTY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 MEASUREMENT AND METROLOGY

1.3 MEASUREMENT ALONG THE CENTURIES

1.4 MEASUREMENT MODEL

1.5 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT

1.6 UNCERTAINTY DEFINITION AND EVALUATION

1.7 CONCLUSIONS

FURTHER READING

REFERENCES

EXERCISES

NOTES

CHAPTER 2 THE SYSTEM OF UNITS AND THE MEASUREMENT STANDARDS

2.1 Introduction

2.2 ROLE OF THE UNIT IN THE MEASUREMENT PROCESS

2.3 IDEAL STRUCTURE OF A UNIT SYSTEM

2.4 EVOLUTION OF THE UNIT DEFINITION

2.5 THE SI SYSTEM OF UNITS

2.6 PERSPECTIVES OF FUTURE SI EVOLUTION

2.7 REALIZATION OF UNITS AND PRIMARY STANDARDS

2.8 CONCLUSIONS

FURTHER READING

REFERENCES

EXERCISES

NOTES

CHAPTER 3 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING IN MEASUREMENT

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 SAMPLING THEORY

3.3 MEASUREMENT ALGORITHMS FOR PERIODIC SIGNALS

3.4 DIGITAL FILTERS

3.5 MEASURING MULTI-FREQUENCY SIGNALS

3.6 STATISTICAL MEASUREMENT ALGORITHMS

3.7 CONCLUSIONS

FURTHER READING

REFERENCES

EXERCISES

NOTE

CHAPTER 4 AD AND DA CONVERSION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 SAMPLING

4.3 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTERS

4.4 CRITICAL ADC PARAMETERS

4.5 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

4.6 DAC

4.7 CONCLUSIONS

FURTHER READING

REFERENCES

EXERCISES

NOTES

CHAPTER 5 BASIC INSTRUMENTS: MULTIMETERS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.2 HISTORY

5.3 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS

5.4 CONCLUSIONS

FURTHER READING

REFERENCES

EXERCISES

CHAPTER 6 BASIC INSTRUMENTS: OSCILLOSCOPES

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.2 TYPES OF WAVEFORMS

6.3 WAVEFORM MEASUREMENTS

6.4 TYPES OF OSCILLOSCOPES

6.5 OSCILLOSCOPE CONTROLS

6.6 MEASUREMENTS

6.7 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

6.8 OSCILLOSCOPE PROBES

6.9 USING THE OSCILLOSCOPE

6.10 CONCLUSIONS

FURTHER READING

REFERENCES

EXERCISES

CHAPTER 7 FUNDAMENTALS OF HARD AND SOFT MEASUREMENT

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 A CHARACTERIZATION OF MEASUREMENT

7.3 A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STRUCTURE OF MEASUREMENT

7.4 AN APPLICATION OF THE MEASUREMENT STRUCTURE FRAMEWORK: ASSESSING VERSUS MEASURING RESEARCH QUALITY

7.5 CONCLUSIONS

FURTHER READING

REFERENCES

EXERCISES

NOTES

PART II APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 8 SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION

8.1 INTRODUCTION

8.2 A FIRST EXAMPLE: THE RESISTIVE DIVIDER

8.3 A FIRST TRIAL OF ESTIMATORS

8.4 FROM TRIAL-AND-ERROR TO A GENERAL FRAMEWORK

8.5 PRACTICAL IDENTIFICATION FRAMEWORK FOR INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS

8.6 CONCLUSIONS

FURTHER READING

REFERENCES

EXERCISES

CHAPTER 9 RELIABILITY MEASUREMENTS

9.1 9.1 INTRODUCTION

9.2 BRIEF REMARKS ON THE CONCEPT OF QUALITY

9.3 RELIABILITY, FAILURE AND FAULT: BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

9.4 RELIABILITY THEORY

9.5 SYSTEM RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT

9.6 ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES FOR DEPENDABILITY

9.7 CONCLUSIONS

FURTHER READING

REFERENCES

EXERCISES

CHAPTER 10 EMC MEASUREMENTS

10.1 INTRODUCTION

10.2 DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

10.3 THE MEASURING RECEIVER

10.4 CONDUCTED EMISSION MEASUREMENTS

10.5 RADIATED EMISSION MEASUREMENTS

10.6 IMMUNITY TESTS

10.7 CONCLUSIONS

FURTHER READING

REFERENCES

EXERCISES

NOTES

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

SOLUTIONS FOR CHAPTER 1

SOLUTIONS FOR CHAPTER 2

SOLUTIONS FOR CHAPTER 3

SOLUTIONS FOR CHAPTER 4

SOLUTIONS FOR CHAPTER 5

SOLUTIONS FOR CHAPTER 6

SOLUTIONS FOR CHAPTER 7

SOLUTIONS FOR CHAPTER 8

SOLUTIONS FOR CHAPTER 9

SOLUTIONS FOR CHAPTER 10

INDEX

EULA

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1

Table 1.2

Chapter 2

Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 2.3

Chapter 4

Table 4.1

Chapter 5

Table 5.1

Table 5.2

Chapter 7

Table 7.1

Table 7.2

Table 7.3

Chapter 8

Table 8.1

Chapter 9

Table 9.1

Table 9.2

Table 9.3

Table 9.4

Chapter 10

Table 10.1

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Preface

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PREFACE

There are several books related to instrumentation and measurement that explain how measurement methods work and how instruments can be designed, selected, and used to implement the different measurement methods needed to obtain the desired measurement result with the desired accuracy. But no books are available, to our knowledge, that explain what “measuring” means and which essential activities must be performed to accomplish a measurement.

This is somehow surprising, because measurement has always been an important, and sometimes critical, activity that has developed with the humankind, becoming a significant part of its culture. Today everything is measured, and we are surrounded by instruments, often without being aware of their silent presence. Despite this pervasive presence of every kind of instruments and the many kinds of measurements we perform in our everyday life, measurement is probably the only relevant technical activity that is rarely grounded on a well-defined and widely known models. It is rather considered as a mere tool, not as an independent branch of science and technique, so that it is often confined to the role of appendix, sometimes not so relevant, of other subjects.

This book is aimed at filling this gap, and providing a unique framework, valid for any kind of measurement. So, do not expect too many technical details on how a specific instrument works, or a specific measurement method can be implemented. Many excellent books already cover these topics. Here you will find those fundamental bricks that are present in every modern instrument and are part of every modern measurement activity. You will also discover the importance of some “hidden” bricks, such as the primary standards, without which no universally recognized measurement would be possible.

You will discover the importance of digital signal processing in modern measurements, and how critical it may become if some specific mathematical issues are disregarded. Do not expect to find how modern oscilloscopes or multimeters are designed and developed, since this is the aim of many dedicated books and handbooks. On the contrary, you will find how the aforementioned fundamental bricks can be combined to implement two of the most popular and used instruments.

Most importantly, and maybe surprisingly for those readers who are not yet familiar with this field, you will discover that every measured value is “wrong” in the sense that, due to a number of different factors that influence any measuring activity, we are never able to know the so-called “true value” of the measurand. But you will also discover that we know how to quantify how “wrong” our measurement result is. This is achieved by providing the so-called measurement uncertainty, which tells us how good and reliable the obtained measurement result is. This information is essential when we use a measurement result as the input element of a decision-making process and we wish to quantify the risk of a wrong decision.

To accomplish our goal, we have organized this book into two parts. Part I (Fundamentals) presents a model of the modern measurement activity and the already recalled fundamental bricks. It starts (Chapter 1) with a general model that introduces these bricks and the uncertainty concept, provides an overview of these bricks in the following chapters, and finishes (Chapter 7) with a more general and complex model that encompasses both traditional (hard) measurements and soft measurements, aimed at quantifying nonphysical concepts, such as quality, satisfaction, and comfort.

Part II (Applications) is aimed at showing how the concepts presented in Part I can be usefully applied to design and implement measurements in some very important and broad fields. We cover system identification (Chapter 8), reliability (Chapter 9), and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) (Chapter 10) not only for their importance in many application areas, from manufacturing to health and safety, but also because their intrinsic complexity is the perfect test bench to prove the usefulness of the concepts introduced in Part I.

We sincerely hope that this book may provide a new, systematic insight into such an important field as instrumentation and measurement, and can help both experts and beginners, with a useful analysis tool, to understand the essential meaning of the measuring activity, regardless of its specific application.

The Editors

ACRONYMS

AC

Alternate Current

ACF

Antenna Calibration Factor

ADC

Analog to Digital Converter

AMN

Artificial Mains Network

BAAS

British Association for the Advancement of Science

BCI

Bulk Current Injection

BIPM

Bureau International des Poids et Mesures

BLA

Best Linear Approximation

BW

Bandwidth

CF

Crest Factor

CGPM

Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures

CIPM

Comité International des Poids et Mesures

CM

Common Mode

CODATA

Committee on Data for Science and Technology

DAC

Digital to Analog Converter

DC

Direct Coupling or Direct Current, depending on the specific context

DFT

Discrete Fourier Transform

DM

Differential Mode

DMM

Digital Multimeter

DNL

Differential Non-linearity

DSP

Digital Signal Processing

DTFT

Discrete-Time Fourier Transform

EFT

Electrical Fast Transient

EM

Electromagnetic

EMC

Electromagnetic Compatibility

EMI

Electromagnetic Interference

EUT

Equipment Under Test

EV

Errors in Variables

FFT

Fast Fourier Transform (algorithm implementation of the DFT)

FIR

Finite Impulse Response (digital filter)

FRF

Frequency Response Function

FSR

Full Scale Range

GUM

Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement

I&M

Instrumentation and Measurements

IEC

International Electrotechnical Commission

IEV

International Electrotechnical Vocabulary

IF

Intermediate Frequency

IIR

Infinite Impulse Response (digital filter)

IL

Insertion Loss

INL

Integral Non-linearity

IV

Instrumental Variable

JCGM

Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology

LP

Local Polynomial

LS

Least Squares

LTI

Linear Time Invariant

MA

Moving Average (digital filter)

ML

Maximum Likelihood

NSA

Normalized Site Attenuation

pdf

Probability Density Function

PEM

Prediction Error Method

PRBS

Pseudo Random Binary Signal

PUMA

Procedure for Uncertainty Management

PWM

Pulse–Width Modulated

RF

Radio Frequency

RMS

Root Mean Square

SA

Site Attenuation

SFDR

Spurious-Free Dynamic Range

SHA

Sample and Hold Amplifier

SI

Système International d'unités

SINAD

Signal to Noise and Distortion Ratio

SML

Sample Maximum Likelihood

SVSWR

Site Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

THD

Total Harmonic Distortion

UFA

Uniform Field Area

VIM

International Vocabulary of Metrology

VSWR

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

WCSL

Worst-Case Scalloping Loss

ZOH

Zero-Order Hold

PART IFUNDAMENTALS