Multi-dimensional Imaging E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Wiley - IEEE
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 745

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

Provides a broad overview of advanced multidimensional imaging systems with contributions from leading researchers in the field

Multi-dimensional Imaging takes the reader from the introductory concepts through to the latest applications of these techniques. Split into 3 parts covering 3D image capture, processing, visualization and display, using 1) a Multi-View Approach and 2.) a Holographic Approach, followed by a 3rd part addressing other 3D systems approaches, applications and signal processing for advanced 3D imaging. This book describes recent developments, as well as the prospects and challenges in advances in imaging sciences and engineering such as 3D image sensing, 3D holographic imaging, imaging applications for bio-photonics and 3D image recognition. Advanced imaging systems incorporate knowledge from various fields. It is a complex technology that combines physics, optics, signal processing, and image capture techniques.

• Provides a broad overview of advanced multidimensional imaging systems with contributions from leading researchers in the field.
• Integrates the background, introductory material with new advances in 3D imaging and applications.
• Covers the most recent technologies such as high speed digital holography, compressive sensing, real-time 3D integral imaging, 3D TV, photon counting imaging.
• To be available as an enhanced ebook with added functionality of colour films showing the effects of advanced 3D applications such as 3D microscopy, 3D biomedical imaging and 3D for security and defense applications.
• Acts as a single source reference to the rapidly developing field of 3D imaging technology.
• Provides supplementary material on a companion website including video clips, examples, numerical simulations, and experimental results to show the theoretical concepts.

With contributions from leading researchers from across these fields, Multi-dimensional Imaging is a comprehensive reference for the imaging technology research community.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

About the Editors

List of Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgments

Part One: Multi-Dimensional Digital Holographic Techniques

Chapter 1: Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography

1.1 Chapter Overview

1.2 Introduction

1.3 Digital Holography and Phase-Shifting Digital Holography

1.4 Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography

1.5 Experimental Demonstration of Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography

1.6 High-Speed Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography System

1.7 Single-Shot Femtosecond-Pulsed Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography System

1.8 Portable Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography System

1.9 Functional Extension of Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography

1.10 Prospects and Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 2: Imaging and Display of Human Size Scenes by Long Wavelength Digital Holography

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Digital Holography Principles

2.3 Infrared Digital Holography

2.4 Latest Achievements in IRDH

2.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 3: Digital Hologram Processing in On-Axis Holography

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Model of Hologram Image Formation

3.3 DH Reconstruction Based on Back Propagation

3.4 Hologram Reconstruction Formulated as an Inverse Problem

3.5 Estimation of Accuracy

3.6 Fast Processing Algorithms

3.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 4: Multi-dimensional Imaging by Compressive Digital Holography

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Compressive Sensing Preliminaries

4.3 Conditions for Accurate Reconstruction of Compressive Digital Holographic Sensing

4.4 Applications of Compressive Digital Holographic Sensing

4.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 5: Dispersion Compensation in Holograms Reconstructed by Femtosecond Light Pulses

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Fundamental Features of the DCM

5.3 Holographic Applications of the DCM with Ultrafast Light Pulses

5.4 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Part Two: Biomedical Applications and Microscopy

Chapter 6: Advanced Digital Holographic Microscopy for Life Science Applications

6.1 Introduction

6.2 DHM Configurations

6.3 Automated 3D Holographic Analysis

6.4 Applications

6.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 7: Programmable Microscopy

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Optical Design Considerations and Some Typical Setups

7.3 Liquid Crystal Spatial Light Modulator

7.4 Aberration Correction

7.5 Phase Contrast Imaging

7.6 Stereo Microscopy

7.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 8: Holographic Three-Dimensional Measurement of an Optically Trapped Nanoparticle

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Experimental Setup

8.3 Experimental Results of 3D Position Measurement of Nanoparticles

8.4 Twilight Field Technique for Holographic Position Detection of Nanoparticles

8.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 9: Digital Holographic Microscopy: A New Imaging Technique to Quantitatively Explore Cell Dynamics with Nanometer Sensitivity

9.1 Chapter Overview

9.2 Introduction

9.3 Holographic Techniques

9.4 Cell Imaging with Digital Holographic Quantitative Phase Microscopy

9.5 Future Issues

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 10: Super Resolved Holographic Configurations

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Digital Holography

10.3 Metal Nanoparticles

10.4 Resolution Enhancement in Digital Holography

10.5 Field of View Enhancement in Digital Holography

10.6 Eliminating the DC Term and the Twin Images

10.7 Additional Applications

References

Part Three: Multi-Dimensional Imaging and Display

Chapter 11: Three-Dimensional Integral Imaging and Display

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Basic Theory

11.3 The Plenoptic Function

11.4 Methods for the Capture of the Plenoptic Field

11.5 Walking in Plenoptic Space

11.6 Reconstruction of Intensity Distribution in Different Depth Planes

11.7 Implementation of the Integral Imaging Display Device

11.8 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 12: Image Formats of Various 3-D Displays

12.1 Chapter Overview

12.2 Introduction

12.3 Multiplexing Schemes

12.4 Image Formats for 3-D Imaging

References

Chapter 13: Ray-based and Wavefront-based 3D Representations for Holographic Displays

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Ray-based and Wavefront-based 3D Displays

13.3 Conversion between Ray-based and Wavefront 3D Representations

13.4 Hologram Printer Based on a Full-Parallax Holographic Stereogram

13.5 Computational Holography Using a Ray-Sampling Plane

13.6 Occlusion Culling for Computational Holography Using the Ray-Sampling Plane

13.7 Scanning Vertical Camera Array for Computational Holography

13.8 Conclusion and Future Issues

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 14: Rigorous Diffraction Theory for 360° Computer-Generated Holograms

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Three-Dimensional Object and Its Diffracted Wavefront

14.3 Point-Spread Function Approach for Spherical Holography

14.4 Rigorous Point-Spread Function Approach

14.5 Conclusion

References

Part Four: Spectral and Polarimetric Imaging

Chapter 15: High-Speed 3D Spectral Imaging with Stimulated Raman Scattering

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Principles and Advantages of SRS Microscopy

15.3 Spectral Imaging with SRS

15.4 High-Speed Spectral Imaging

15.5 Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 16: Spectropolarimetric Imaging Techniques with Compressive Sensing

16.1 Chapter Overview

16.2 Single-Pixel Imaging and Compressive Sensing

16.3 Single-Pixel Polarimetric Imaging

16.4 Single-Pixel Multispectral Imaging

16.5 Single-Pixel Spectropolarimetric Imaging

16.6 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 17: Passive Polarimetric Imaging

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Representations of Polarized Light

17.3 Polarized Reflection and Emission

17.4 Atmospheric Contributions to Polarimetric Signatures

17.5 Data Reduction Matrix Analysis of Modulated Polarimeters

17.6 Fourier Domain Analysis of Modulated Polarimeters

17.7 Radiometric and Polarimetric Calibration

17.8 Polarimetric Target Detection

References

Index

End User License Agreement

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Guide

Table of Contents

Part One: Multi-Dimensional Digital Holographic Techniques

List of Illustrations

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2

Figure 1.3

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.6

Figure 1.7

Figure 1.8

Figure 1.9

Figure 1.10

Figure 1.11

Figure 1.12

Figure 1.13

Figure 1.14

Figure 1.15

Figure 1.16

Figure 1.17

Figure 1.18

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4

Figure 2.5

Figure 2.6

Figure 2.7

Figure 2.8

Figure 2.9

Figure 2.10

Figure 2.11

Figure 2.12

Figure 2.13

Figure 2.14

Figure 2.15

Figure 2.16

Figure 2.17

Figure 2.18

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.3

Figure 3.4

Figure 3.5

Figure 3.6

Figure 3.7

Figure 3.8

Figure 3.9

Figure 3.10

Figure 3.11

Figure 3.12

Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

Figure 4.4

Figure 4.5

Figure 4.6

Figure 4.7

Figure 4.8

Figure 4.9

Figure 4.10

Figure 4.11

Figure 4.12

Figure 4.13

Figure 4.14

Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

Figure 5.3

Figure 5.4

Figure 5.5

Figure 5.6

Figure 5.7

Figure 5.8

Figure 5.9

Figure 5.10

Figure 5.11

Figure 5.12

Figure 5.13

Figure 5.14

Figure 5.15

Figure 5.16

Figure 5.17

Figure 6.1

Figure 6.2

Figure 6.3

Figure 6.4

Figure 6.5

Figure 6.6

Figure 6.7

Figure 6.8

Figure 6.9

Figure 6.10

Figure 6.11

Figure 6.12

Figure 6.13

Figure 6.14

Figure 6.15

Figure 6.16

Figure 7.1

Figure 7.2

Figure 7.3

Figure 7.4

Figure 7.5

Figure 7.6

Figure 7.7

Figure 7.8

Figure 7.9

Figure 7.10

Figure 7.11

Figure 7.12

Figure 7.13

Figure 7.14

Figure 7.15

Figure 7.16

Figure 7.17

Figure 8.1

Figure 8.2

Figure 8.3

Figure 8.4

Figure 8.5

Figure 8.6

Figure 8.7

Figure 8.8

Figure 8.9

Figure 8.10

Figure 8.11

Figure 8.12

Figure 8.13

Figure 8.14

Figure 9.1

Figure 9.2

Figure 9.3

Figure 10.1

Figure 10.2

Figure 10.3

Figure 10.4

Figure 10.5

Figure 10.6

Figure 10.7

Figure 10.8

Figure 10.9

Figure 11.1

Figure 11.2

Figure 11.3

Figure 11.4

Figure 11.5

Figure 11.6

Figure 11.7

Figure 11.8

Figure 11.9

Figure 11.10

Figure 11.11

Figure 11.12

Figure 11.13

Figure 11.14

Figure 11.15

Figure 11.16

Figure 11.18

Figure 11.19

Figure 11.17

Figure 11.20

Figure 11.21

Figure 11.22

Figure 11.23

Figure 11.24

Figure 11.25

Figure 12.1

Figure 12.2

Figure 12.3

Figure 12.4

Figure 12.5

Figure 12.6

Figure 12.7

Figure 12.8

Figure 12.9

Figure 12.10

Figure 12.11

Figure 12.12

Figure 12.13

Figure 12.14

Figure 12.15

Figure 12.16

Figure 12.17

Figure 12.18

Figure 12.19

Figure 12.20

Figure 12.21

Figure 12.22

Figure 12.23

Figure 12.24

Figure 12.25

Figure 12.26

Figure 12.27

Figure 13.1

Figure 13.2

Figure 13.3

Figure 13.4

Figure 13.5

Figure 13.6

Figure 13.7

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Figure 14.1

Figure 14.2

Figure 14.3

Figure 14.4

Figure 14.5

Figure 14.6

Figure 14.7

Figure 14.8

Figure 14.9

Figure 14.10

Figure 14.11

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Figure 14.13

Figure 14.14

Figure 14.15

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Figure 15.2

Figure 15.3

Figure 15.4

Figure 15.5

Figure 15.6

Figure 15.7

Figure 15.8

Figure 15.9

Figure 15.10

Figure 15.11

Figure 15.12

Figure 15.13

Figure 16.1

Figure 16.2

Figure 16.3

Figure 16.4

Figure 16.5

Figure 16.6

Figure 16.7

Figure 16.8

Figure 16.9

Figure 16.10

Figure 16.11

Figure 17.1

Figure 17.2

Figure 17.3

Figure 17.4

Figure 17.5

Figure 17.6

Figure 17.7

Figure 17.8

Figure 17.9

Figure 17.10

Figure 17.11

Figure 17.12

Figure 17.13

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Figure 17.15

Figure 17.16

Figure 17.17

Figure 17.18

Figure 17.19

Figure 17.20

Figure 17.21

Figure 17.22

Figure 17.23

Figure 17.24

List of Tables

Table 6.1

Table 9.1

Table 16.1

Table 16.2

Table 16.3

Table 16.4

MULTI-DIMENSIONAL IMAGING

Edited by

Bahram Javidi

University of Connecticut, USA

Enrique Tajahuerce

University Jaume I, Spain

Pedro Andrés

University of Valencia, Spain

This edition first published 2014

© 2014 John Wiley and Sons Ltd

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 9781118449837

For Bethany, Ariana, Darius, and Vida

In memory of our friend and colleague, Dr Fumio Okano

About the Editors

Bahram Javidi is the Board of Trustees Distinguished Professor at University of Connecticut. He has been recognized by nine best paper awards, and major awards from professional societies, including fellowships of IEEE, OSA, EOS, and SPIE. In 2008, he received the Fellow Award from the John Simon Guggenheim Foundation. He has written over 870 publications, which have been cited 11 000 times according to the ISI Web of Knowledge (h index = 55). He has received the 2008 IEEE Donald G. Fink Prize Paper Award, the 2010 George Washington University's Distinguished Alumni Scholar Award, the 2008 SPIE Technology Achievement Award, and the 2005 SPIE Dennis Gabor Award in Diffractive Wave Technologies. In 2007, the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation awarded him the Humboldt Prize for Outstanding Scientists. He was the recipient of the (IEEE) Photonics Distinguished Lecturer Award in 2003–2005. He was awarded the Best Journal Paper Award from the IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology in 2002 and 2005. In 2003 he was selected, as one of the nation's top 160 engineers between the ages of 30–45 by the National Academy of Engineering (NAE), to be an invited speaker at The Frontiers of Engineering Conference. He is an alumnus of the Frontiers of Engineering of The NAE since 2003. He was a National Science Foundation Presidential Young Investigator and received The Engineering Foundation and the IEEE Faculty Initiation Awards. He is on the Editorial Board of the Proceedings of the IEEE journal (ranked number one in electrical engineering), and is on the Advisory Board of the IEEE Photonics journal. He was on the founding editorial board of the IEEE Journal of Display. In 2008, he was elected by the members to be on The Board of Directors of the SPIE. He received his BSc from George Washington University, and his PhD from the Pennsylvania State University.

Enrique Tajahuerce was born in Soria, Spain, in 1964. He received his PhD in Physics from the University of Valencia (UV), Spain, in 1998. Dr Tajahuerce was a researcher at the Technological Institute of Optics, Colour and Imaging (AIDO) in Paterna, Spain, from 1989–1992. Since 1992 he has been member of the Physics Department in the Universitat Jaume I (UJI), in Castelló, Spain, where he is an Associate Professor. He is currently Secretary of the Physics Department and Deputy Director of the Institute of New Imaging Technologies (INIT).

Dr Tajahuerce's research interests lie in the areas of diffractive optics, digital holography, ultrafast optics, computational imaging, and microscopy. He has co-authored more than 90 scientific publications, and over 140 communications in conference meetings (35 of them by invitation). He is member of the SPIE, OSA, EOS, and the Spanish Optical Society (SEDO). In 2008, Dr Tajahuerce received the IEEE Donald G. Fink Prize Paper Award.

Pedro Andrés was born in Valencia, Spain, in 1954. He earned a PhD in physics/optics from the University of Valencia (UV) in 1983. His thesis received the 1984 Special Distinction awarded by the UV. Dr Andrés has been full a Professor of Optics since 1994 at the UV. He acted as the UV's Head of the Department of Optics from 1998–2006. He was also the Director of both the PhD and the Masters Program in the Faculty of Physics (UV) from 2008–2010.

His current research interests include static and dynamic diffractive optical elements, advanced imaging systems, microstructured fibers, temporal imaging, and ultrafast optics. He has co-authored more than 130 peer-reviewed papers. Two of these articles have received more than 200 citations each. He also supervised 13 PhD works (four of them received a Special Distinction awarded by the University of Valencia).

Currently, Professor Andrés is an expert on the Board (Branch Science) for the Evaluation of Faculty Members of Spanish Universities, President of the Iberian-American Network for Optics, Fellow of the OSA, elected member of the Board of Directors of the European Optical Society (EOS), Past-President of the Imaging Committee of the Spanish Optical Society (SEDOPTICA), and Academic Mentor of the EOS Comunidad Valenciana Student Club.

List of Contributors

Pedro Andrés

, Department d'Òptica, Universitat de València, Spain

Yasuhiro Awatsuji

, Division of Electronics, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Japan

Michal Baranek

, Department of Optics, Palacky University Olomouc, Czech Republic

Vittorio Bianco

, CNR, Istituto Nazionale di Ottica, Sezione di Napoli, Italy

Pere Clemente

, GROC·UJI, Departament de Física, and Servei Central d'Instrumentació Científica, Universitat Jaume I, Spain

Vicent Climent

, GROC·UJI, Departament de Física and Institut de Noves Tecnologies de la Imatge (INIT), Universitat Jaume I, Spain

Loïc Denis

, Laboratoire Hubert Curien, Saint Etienne University, France

Christian Depeursinge

, Institute of Microengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland

Adrián Dorado

, Department of Optics, University of Valencia, Spain

Frank Dubois

, Microgravity Research Centre, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium

Vicente Durán

, GROC·UJI, Departament de Física and Institut de Noves Tecnologies de la Imatge (INIT), Universitat Jaume I, Spain

Michael T. Eismann

, Air Force Research Laboratory, USA

Mercedes Fernández-Alonso

, GROC·UJI, Departament de Física and Institut de Noves Tecnologies de la Imatge (INIT), Universitat Jaume I, Spain

Pietro Ferraro

, CNR, Istituto Nazionale di Ottica, Sezione di Napoli, Italy

Andrea Finizio

, CNR, Istituto Nazionale di Ottica, Sezione di Napoli, Italy

Thierry Fournel

, Laboratoire Hubert Curien, Saint Etienne University, France

Corinne Fournier

, Laboratoire Hubert Curien, Saint Etienne University, France

Javier Garcia

, Departamento de Óptica, Universitat Valencia, Spain

Eran Gur

, Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, Azrieli – College of Engineering, Israel

Tobias Haist

, Institute für Technische Optik, University of Stuttgart, Germany

Malte Hasler

, Institute für Technische Optik, University of Stuttgart, Germany

Yoshio Hayasaki

, Center for Optical Research and Education (CORE), Utsunomiya University, Japan

Esther Irles

, GROC·UJI, Departament de Física, Universitat Jaume I, Spain

Kazuyoshi Itoh

,Graduate School of Engineering, Department of Material & Life Science, Osaka University, Japan and Science Technology Entrepreneurship Laboratory (e-square), Osaka University, Japan

Bahram Javidi

, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Connecticut, USA

Boaz Jessie Jackin

, Center for Optical Research and Education, Utsunomiya University, Japan

Jesús Lancis

, GROC·UJI, Departament de Física and Institut de Noves Tecnologias de la Imatge (INIT), Universitat Jaume I, Spain

Chun-Hea Lee

, Industrial Design Department, Joongbu University, Korea

Daniel A. LeMaster

, Air Force Research Laboratory, USA

Anabel LLavador

, Department of Optics, University of Valencia, Spain

Massimiliano Locatelli

, CNR, Istituto Nazionale di Ottica, Largo E. Fermi, Italy

Ahmed El Mallahi

, Microgravity Research Centre, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium

Pierre Marquet

, Centre de Neurosciences Psychiatriques, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Département de Psychiatrie, Switzerland and Brain Mind Institute, Institute of Microengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland

Manuel Martínez-Corral

, Department of Optics, University of Valencia, Spain

Lluís Martínez-León

, GROC·UJI, Departament de Física and Institut de Noves Tecnologies de la Imatge (INIT), Universitat Jaume I, Spain

Amihai Meiri

, Faculty of Engineering, Bar-Ilan University, Israel

Omel Mendoza-Yero

, GROC·UJI, Departament de Física and Institut de Noves Tecnologies de la Imatge (INIT), Universitat Jaume I, Spain

Riccardo Meucci

, CNR, Istituto Nazionale di Ottica, Largo E. Fermi, Italy

Lisa Miccio

, CNR, Istituto Nazionale di Ottica, Sezione di Napoli, Italy

Christophe Minetti

, Microgravity Research Centre, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium

Gladys Mínguez-Vega

, GROC·UJI, Departament de Física and Institut de Noves Tecnologies de la Imatge (INIT), Universitat Jaume I, Spain

Vicente Micó

, Departamento de Óptica, University of Valencia, Spain

Wolfgang Osten

, Institute für Technische Optik, University of Stuttgart, Germany

Yasuyuki Ozeki

, Graduate School of Engineering, Department of Material & Life Science, Osaka University, Japan

Min-Chul Park

, Sensor System Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Korea

Melania Paturzo

, CNR, Istituto Nazionale di Ottica, Sezione di Napoli, Italy

Anna Pelagotti

, CNR, Istituto Nazionale di Ottica, Largo E. Fermi, Italy

Jorge Pérez-Vizcaíno

, GROC·UJI, Departament de Física and Institut de Noves Tecnologies de la Imatge (INIT), Universitat Jaume I, Spain

Pasquale Poggi

, CNR, Istituto Nazionale di Ottica, Largo E. Fermi, Italy

Eugenio Pugliese

, CNR, Istituto Nazionale di Ottica, Largo E. Fermi, Italy

Yair Rivenson

, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel

Joseph Rosen

, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel

Genaro Saavedra

, Department of Optics, University of Valencia, Spain

Yusuke Sando

, Center for Optical Research and Education, Utsunomiya University, Japan

Mozhdeh Seifi

, Laboratoire Hubert Curien, Saint Etienne University, France

Fernando Soldevila

, GROC·UJI, Departament de Física, Universitat Jaume I, Spain

Jung-Young Son

, Biomedical Medical Engineering Department, Konyang University, Korea

Wook-Ho Son

, Content Platform Research Department, Electronics and Communication Technology Research Institute, Korea

Adrian Stern

, Department of Electro-Optics Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel

Enrique Tajahuerce

, GROC·UJI, Departament de Física and Institut de Noves Tecnologies de la Imatge (INIT), Universitat Jaume I, Spain

Koki Wakunami

, Global Scientific Information and Computing Center, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan

Masahiro Yamaguchi

, Global Scientific Information and Computing Center, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan

Toyohiko Yatagai

, Center for Optical Research and Education, Utsunomiya University, Japan

Catherine Yourassowsky

, Microgravity Research Centre, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium

Zeev Zalevsky

, Faculty of Engineering, Bar-Ilan University, Israel

Preface

Imaging sciences and engineering are rapidly evolving in many ways by encompassing more sensing modalities, display media, digital domains, and consumer products. This field of research and development is frenetically active in multiple scientific, innovative disciplines including those of materials, sensors, displays, algorithms, and applications. Today, the term “optical image” refers not only to the concept of image formation and its multiple analysis, reconstruction, and visualization techniques, but also to computer vision, terahertz frequencies and electromagnetic imaging, medical imaging, algorithms for processing of images, and three-dimensional image sensing, among many others.

In the last two decades, research into advanced imaging systems has made great progress. There are many new procedures in microscopy that overcome the classical resolution limit. The field has benefited from the astonishing results of computational imaging techniques. The advances in imaging through turbid and scattering media allow the achievement of images with good resolution, either from deep layers of tissue in living beings, or the cosmos through telescopes on Earth's surface. Optics in the life sciences incorporates new methods for noninvasive imaging of in vivo biological material and the tools to translate that knowledge and procedures for the study, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases. Sources of entangled photons in quantum imaging can provide high-quality images at a very low level of illumination. To all this, we must add many other rapidly evolving areas such as modern adaptive optics, imaging in nuclear medicine, optical tweezers that are opening new avenues for the study of single cells, the role of spatial light modulators in advanced imaging, and so on.

Recently, there have been rapid advances in imaging systems because of the introduction of various multi-dimensional imaging techniques, including digital holography, integral imaging, multiview, light field, multispectral imaging, polarimetric imaging, temporal multiplexing; development of new algorithms, such as those used for compressive sensing or computational imaging; and the application of new light sources, such as ultrashort lasers, laser diodes, super-continuum sources, and so on. In parallel to the development of new imaging techniques, there has been a great advance in image resolution by increasing the number of pixels of different detector arrays and reducing pixel size. It has been recognized that, in many situations, it is also very important to measure not only the spatial intensity distribution of the object, but also other useful dimensions of an image, such as spectral, polarization, optical phase, or three-dimensional structure, leading to the development of multi-dimensional imaging. As a result, there have been substantial multidisciplinary activities in the development of polarimetric cameras, multispectral sensors, holographic techniques, three-dimensional visualization devices, and so on, integrated with special purpose algorithms to produce multi-dimensional imaging systems for a variety of applications, including medical, defense and security, robotics, education, entertainment, environment, and manufacturing.

Given the great interest in multi-dimensional imaging research, development, and education, this book, entitled Multi-dimensional Imaging aims to present an overview of the recent advances in the field by some of the leading researchers and educators. The book intends to educate and provide the readers with an introduction to some of the important areas in this multi-disciplinary domain. This broad overview is useful for students, engineers, and scientists who are interested in learning about the latest advances in this important field.

This book addresses a selection of important subjects in multi-dimensional imaging describing fundamentals, approaches, techniques, new developments, applications, and a relevant bibliography. It consists of 17 chapters and is divided into four parts that deal with multi-dimensional digital holographic techniques, multi-dimensional biomedical imaging and microscopy, multi-dimensional imaging and display, and spectral and polarimetric imaging. The chapters are written by some of the most prominent researchers and educators in the field.

We wish to thank the authors for their outstanding contributions, and the Wiley editors and staff for their support and assistance.

This book is dedicated to the memory of our departed friend, Dr Fumio Okano.

Bahram Javidi, Storrs, Connecticut, USAEnrique Tajahuerce, Castelló, SpainPedro Andrés, Valencia, Spain

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the authors, whom we have known for many years as friends and colleagues, for their outstanding contributions to this book. Special thanks go to John Wiley & Sons Editor, Ms Alex King, for her support and encouragement of this book from the initial stages to the end. We thank John Wiley & Sons production team Tom Carter and Genna E. Manaog, as well as Lynette Woodward and Sangeetha Parthasarathy, for their assistance in finalizing this book.

Be with those who help your being.Rumi

Part OneMulti-Dimensional Digital Holographic Techniques

Chapter 1Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography

Yasuhiro Awatsuji

Division of Electronics, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Japan

1.1 Chapter Overview

Parallel phase-shifting digital holography is a technique capable of not only instantaneously measuring the three-dimensional (3D) field but also motion picture measurement of time evolution in the 3D field. The recording and reconstruction flow of this technique are described. The technique has been experimentally demonstrated by a parallel phase-shifting digital holography system using a normal-speed camera, which lead to a high-speed camera being constructed and used so that 3D motion and phase motion picture capture were demonstrated at the rate of up to 262 500 frames per second (fps). As an ultrafast phase imaging technique, a parallel phase-shifting digital holography system using a femtosecond pulsed laser has been experimentally demonstrated. A portable parallel phase-shifting digital holography system will also be introduced here. Finally some function-extended parallel phase-shifting digital holography will be mentioned for the purpose of motion picture-measurement of 3D and color, 3D and spectral characteristics, 3D and polarization characteristics, and 3D motion picture microscopy.

1.2 Introduction

Holography is a technique for recording and reconstructing perfect wavefronts of objects [1]. The technique actively investigates not only three-dimensional (3D) displays but also 3D measurement of objects. In this technique, the complex amplitude distribution of an object is recorded as a form of an interference fringe image. The complex amplitude distribution consists of amplitude and phase distributions of objects, and can provide a 3D image. In conventional holography, a high-resolution photosensitive material, called the holographic plate, is used to record the interference fringe image. The medium in which the interference fringe image is recorded is the hologram.

Recently, there has been a great deal of progress in image sensors such as charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) image sensors, and such devices have been used in holography in place of holographic plates. Holography using image sensors is called digital holography [2, 3]. Digital holography has the following attractive features: it does not require a wet and chemical process for developing; quantitative evaluation is easy for 3D images of objects; and focused images of 3D objects at the desired depth can be instantaneously recorded without a mechanical focusing process. Also, this technique can quantitatively provide phase distribution of an object. Thus, digital holography can serve as a quantitative 3D and phase-imaging video camera. The technique is used in many fields such as shape and deformation measurement, particle measurement, microscopy, endoscopy, object recognition, information security, and so on.

Since the pixel size and pixel pitch of image sensors are too large to record fine interference fringes that would be recorded on a photographic plate, in-line digital holography is frequently applied. In in-line digital holography, the object and reference waves almost orthogonally irradiate the image sensor. Indeed, in-line digital holography allows instantaneous measurement of the object wave in principle, but the reconstructed image is degraded because the undesired images are superimposed on the desired object wave. To obtain just the object wave, phase-shifting digital holography has been proposed [4].

Although phase-shifting digital holography can only derive the complex amplitude of an object wave at an arbitrary depth, it needs multiple holograms to reconstruct the object wave free of undesired images. The multiple holograms are sequentially recorded by using reference waves with different phase retardations. Indeed phase-shifting digital holography allows reconstruction of a clear object wave, but is useless for instantaneous measurement of moving objects. To achieve a phase-shifting method that can perform instantaneous measurement, parallel phase-shifting digital holography has been investigated [5–27]. The technique uses an ingenious arrangement of image sensor pixels and a phase-shifting array device.

In this chapter, the basic concept and processing flow of parallel phase-shifting digital holography are explained. Three parallel phase-shifting digital holography experimental systems and their results are described [23–26]. Also, a portable system based on parallel phase-shifting digital holography is introduced [27]. Finally, some function-extended parallel phase-shifting digital holography techniques are mentioned [28–35].

1.3 Digital Holography and Phase-Shifting Digital Holography

Digital holography is a technique for recording the interference fringe image by an image sensor and reconstructing the complex amplitude distribution of an object by computer [2, 3]. A schematic of a system setup of digital holography is shown in Fig. 1.1. Generally, a laser is used as the optical source. A laser beam is divided into two beams. One beam illuminates the object and the beam scattered from the object is called the object wave. The object wave irradiates the image sensor. The other beam illuminates the image sensor directly and this beam is called a reference wave. An interference fringe image is generated by the object and reference waves and captured with the image sensor. The captured interference image is called a digital hologram. The complex amplitude distribution of the object is numerically reconstructed from the digital hologram by computer. Therefore, one instantaneous 3D image of an object can be reconstructed from a single hologram. By sequential capturing of holograms with a camera, a 3D motion picture image of the object can be recorded.

Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of digital holography

To reconstruct the image in digital holography, a diffraction integral is generally applied to the hologram recorded with the image sensor. Although the use of only the diffraction integral is the simplest calculation scheme used to reconstruct the image and allows instantaneous measurement, the reconstructed image is degraded because the undesired images, which are the non-diffraction wave and the conjugate image, are superimposed on the desired object wave, which forms the image of the object. To extract just the object wave, phase-shifting digital holography has been proposed [4].

Figure 1.2 shows the optical setup schematic for phase-shifting digital holography [4]. More than two holograms are sequentially recorded using reference waves with different phase retardations. A method of four-step phase-shifting of the reference wave, such as 0, π/2, π, and 3π/2, is frequently adopted for phase-shifting digital holography. Usually, the retardation is sequentially changed by using a piezoelectric-transducer (PZT) mirror or wave plates. Indeed phase-shifting digital holography can only derive the complex amplitude of an object wave and is useless for moving objects. To obtain a clear reconstructed 3D image of moving objects, parallel phase-shifting digital holography has been proposed [5–27].

Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram of phase-shifting digital holography

1.4 Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography

The essence of parallel phase-shifting digital holography [5–27] is a single-shot technique for implementing phase-shifting digital holography. The single-shot technique uses a single image sensor and space-division multiplexing of holograms. Figure 1.3 shows a schematic diagram of the principle of parallel phase-shifting digital holography. Multiple holograms needed for phase-shifting digital holography are stuffed into a single hologram by using space-division multiplexing of the holograms pixel by pixel. To implement the multiplexing of the holograms, several ideas have been proposed. A micro phase-retarder array such as the micro glass-plate array is inserted in the reference wave path and imaged onto the image sensor [5]. High light efficiency is achieved by this arrangement, but precise alignment of the optical system for imaging of the micro phase-retarder array onto the image sensor pixel by pixel is needed. To make alignment easy, a spatial light modulator (SLM) consisting of a liquid crystal is used in the micro phase-retarder array [17]. Also a micro polarization-element array was proposed to achieve the multiplexing of the holograms. In this arrangement, a micro polarization-element array is attached to the image sensor [6, 13, 16, 23–27]. The directions of the transmission axes of the micro polarizer array are alternately changed pixel by pixel. 2 × 2 configuration [5–7, 11] and 2 × 1 configuration [10, 11, 13, 14] of the unit of micro polarizer array have been reported for parallel four-step and parallel two-step phase-shifting digital holography, respectively. Light efficiency of this arrangement is lower than that using a micro phase-retarder array, but alignment of the optical element in the parallel phase-shifting digital holography system is quite easy.

Figure 1.3 Schematic diagram of principle of parallel phase-shifting digital holography

Figure 1.4 shows a schematic diagram of a flow for image reconstruction in parallel phase-shifting digital holography. This figure shows one example of the implementation of parallel four-step-phase-shifting digital holography [5–7, 11] and it uses four phase shifts. The pixels containing the same phase shift are extracted from the recorded single hologram. For each phase-shift, the extracted pixels are relocated in another 2D image at the same addresses at which they were located before being extracted. The values of blanked pixels in the 2D image are interpolated using the neighboring pixels. By this relocation and interpolation, multiple holograms, I(0), I(π/2), I(π), I(3π/2), are obtained. If the amplitude and phase distributions of the object are not drastic, Eq. (1.1), which is a calculation of the complex amplitude used in conventional sequential phase-shifting digital holography, gives almost the same distribution as the true complex amplitude distribution of the object wave on the image sensor plane u(x, y).

1.1

The complex amplitude of distribution of the object wave at where the object was positioned in the recording step U(X, Y), can be reconstructed by the diffraction integral of the derived complex amplitude. Fresnel transformation is one of the candidates for the diffraction integral as follows.

Figure 1.4 Schematic diagram of the principle of flow for image reconstruction in parallel phase-shifting digital holography

1.2

Here, λ and i are the wavelength of the laser beam and imaginary unit, respectively. Z is the distance between the image sensor and the plane on which the complex amplitude is calculated.

Two-step phase-shifting digital holography can also be applied to parallel phase-shifting digital holography [10, 11, 13, 14]. Equation (1.3), which is a calculation of the complex amplitude used in the case of −π/2 in the phase shift of Meng's two-step phase-shifting interferometry [36], gives the complex amplitude of the object wave at the image sensor plane u(x, y).

1.3

Here, a(x, y) is defined as follows.

1.4

1.5

1.6

Here, Ir is the intensity distribution of the reference wave. We know the I(0), I(−π/2), and Ir, so the complex amplitude distribution of the object wave can be reconstructed by the diffraction integral of u(x, y). Ir can be measured before or after the recording of the holograms. The space bandwidth product of parallel two-step phase-shifting digital holography is twice that of parallel four-step phase-shifting digital holography [15].

1.5 Experimental Demonstration of Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography

An experimental parallel phase-shifting digital holography system was constructed for the first time in study [23]. The system was based on parallel two-step phase-shifting digital holography. Figure 1.5 shows a schematic diagram and a photograph of the system. This system consisted of an interferometer and a polarization-imaging camera. Perpendicularly-polarized light is emitted from the laser and split into two beams by a beam splitter. One beam illuminates the objects. The scattered light from the objects passes through the polarizer and is changed to perpendicularly-polarized light. It then arrives at the image sensor of the original polarization-imaging camera and forms the object wave. The other beam passes through the quarter wave plate and then arrives at the image sensor. This wave is the reference wave.

Figure 1.5 Parallel phase-shifting digital holography system using a normal-speed polarization- imaging camera. (a) Schematic diagram, (b) photograph

A Nd:YVO4 laser operated at 532 nm was used as the optical source. The developed polarization-imaging camera consists of a normal-speed camera and a micro-polarizer array, and can detect orthogonal two-linear polarizations, both at 2 × 1 pixels, implementing a 90° phase shift of the reference wave. The photographs of the camera and image sensor with a micro-polarizer array are shown in Figs. 1.6(a) and (b). Figure 1.6(c) shows the transmission axis of each pixel. The number of pixels and pixel pitch of the image sensor are 1164(H) × 874(V) and 4.65 × 4.65 µm, respectively.

Figure 1.6 Polarization-imaging camera originally developed for a parallel two-step phase-shifting digital holography system. (a) Overview, (b) image sensor with a micro-polarizer array, (c) schematic diagram of the configuration of the transmission axis of the micro-polarizer array

Parallel two-step phase-shifting digital holography was experimentally demonstrated by the constructed system. Figure 1.7 shows the objects: an origami crane and a die, located 470 and 600 mm away from the image sensor plane, respectively. Figures 1.8(a) and (b) show the images reconstructed by the parallel phase-shifting digital system at those positions. The in-focus origami crane was clearly reconstructed; the spot of the die was defocused and blurred in Fig. 1.8(a), vice versa in Fig. 1.8(b). Thus, the 3D imaging capability of the constructed system was experimentally confirmed. Focused images of the objects were also reconstructed from the same hologram by conventional in-line digital holography that does not use phase-shifting digital holography but the diffraction integral alone for comparison, and is shown in Figs. 1.8(c) and (d). The focused images reconstructed by just the diffraction integral are degraded because of superposition of the zeroth-order diffraction and the conjugate images. Thus, it has been experimentally demonstrated that the zeroth-order diffraction and the conjugate images were successfully removed from the reconstructed image by the constructed parallel two-step phase-shifting digital holography system.

Figure 1.7 Objects used in the parallel phase-shifting digital holography system experiment using a normal-speed polarization-imaging camera. An origami crane and a die were located 470 and 600 mm away from the image sensor

Figure 1.8 Reconstructed images. Images (a) and (b) are those reconstructed by the parallel phase-shifting digital holography system at the positions 470 and 600 mm away, respectively. Images (c) and (d) were reconstructed by the diffraction integral alone at the positions 470 and 600 mm away, respectively

1.6 High-Speed Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography System

To demonstrate the high-speed 3D imaging capability of parallel phase-shifting digital holography, a high-speed parallel phase-shifting digital holography system was constructed [24, 25]. A schematic diagram and a photograph of the system are shown in Fig. 1.9. This system consisted of a Mach–Zehnder interferometer and a high-speed polarization-imaging camera. Dynamic objects or fast phenomena are set in the path of the reference wave. A Photoron FASTCAM-SA5-P was used as the high-speed polarization-imaging camera. The pixel pitch of the camera was 20 µm. In general, the available number of pixels in a high-speed camera is approximately inversely proportional to the frame rate. As typical of the high-speed polarization-imaging camera used, 1024 × 1024 pixels, 512 × 512 pixels, 128 × 128 pixels, and 64 × 64 pixels were available at the rate of 7000 frames per second (fps), 15 000 fps, 150 000 fps, and 300 000 fps, respectively. A Nd:YVO4 laser operated at 532 nm was used as the optical source.

Figure 1.9 Parallel phase-shifting digital holography system using a high-speed polarization-imaging camera. (a) Schematic diagram, (b) photograph

To demonstrate the imaging capability of the dynamic phase of the constructed system, compressed gas flow sprayed from a nozzle was set for a dynamic object shown in Fig. 1.10. The nozzle was positioned at 19 cm away from the high-speed polarization-imaging camera. The inner diameter of the nozzle was 1 mm. Holograms at a rate of 20 000 fps were captured when the number of the pixels in the holograms was 512 × 512. Figure 1.11 shows the phase images reconstructed from the recorded holograms. The pixel values in the phase images were normalized in the range of 0–255. The pixel value of 255 represents a phase of 2π. The images in Fig. 1.11 were obtained at t = 0, 10, 15, 20, 65, 80, 85, 90, 95, and 100 ms (a–j, respectively). The heads of the two nozzles are positioned in the right and left parts in each image. The abrupt transitions from white to black in each image were caused by phase wrapping from 2π to 0. Because the zeroth-order diffraction image and the conjugate image were eliminated by the use of phase-shifting digital holography, a clear and high-speed phase motion picture was obtained. First, the phase gradually increased as the flow rate of the compressed gas increased. Next, the phase increased from the opposite side of the sprayed nozzle, as shown in Fig. 1.11(f). After that, the phase of the background was changed by the gas, which was reflected by the left nozzle. Also, interesting spatially-periodic phase distributions appeared in the flow.

Figure 1.10 Object used in the parallel phase-shifting digital holography system experiment using a high-speed polarization-imaging camera. Compressed gas flow sprayed from a nozzle. (a) Photograph, (b) schematic

Figure 1.11 Phase images reconstructed from the recorded holograms at a frame rate of 20 000 fps. t = 0, 10, 15, 20, 65, 80, 85, 90, 95, and 100 ms (a–j respectively)

Figure 1.12 shows the phase images reconstructed from the holograms recorded at 180 000 fps. First, a mass of the compressed gas was sprayed from the nozzle and the gas flow was laminar. Next, the flow changed to turbulent as shown in Fig. 1.12(h). After that, the turbulent flow met the laminar one as shown in Fig. 1.12(i). Then, vortex-like phase distributions were observed in Fig. 1.12(j). Thus, a high-speed phase picture of a dynamic object was experimentally demonstrated by high-speed parallel parallel-phase shifting digital holography.

Figure 1.12 Phase images reconstructed from the recorded holograms at a frame rate of 180 000 fps. t = 0, 3.2, 4.0, 4.8, 5.6, 24, 67, 87, 95, and 120 ms (a–j respectively)

1.7 Single-Shot Femtosecond-Pulsed Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography System

To demonstrate the ultrafast 3D imaging capability of parallel phase-shifting digital holography, a system was constructed [26]. A schematic diagram and a photograph are shown in Fig. 1.13 (Plate 1). The system contained a Mach–Zehnder interferometer and a polarization-imaging camera. The ultrafast phenomenon was generated in the path of the reference wave. The polarization-imaging camera was almost the same as that used in the first demonstration system of parallel phase-shifting digital holography, but this one was optimized for a light wave with a 800 nm wavelength. A mode-locked Ti:sapphire laser with a regeneration amplifier (Solstice, Spectra-Physics Inc.) was used as the optical source generating a single-shot femtosecond light pulse. The center wavelength and duration of the light pulse were 800 nm and 96 fs, respectively.

Figure 1.13 (Plate 1) Schematic diagram of parallel phase-shifting digital holography system using a femtosecond pulsed laser.

Two fine electrodes made of stainless steel were set facing each other in the reference wave path. The diameter of the two electrodes and the distance between them were 1.2 and 1.8 mm, respectively. The electrodes were positioned 31 cm away from the camera, 10 kV was applied to the electrodes and a spark discharge was induced between them. The spark discharge in the air at 1 atm was recorded. Figure 1.14 shows a photograph of the spark discharge. Figures 1.15(a) and (b) (also Plate 2) show the reconstructed phase images with and without the phase-shifting method, respectively. The reconstructed images were represented by pseudocolors of 256 gradations, and the relations between pixel (or phase) values and colors are shown by the color bar in Fig. 1.15 (Plate 2). The phase distribution between the two electrodes changed by the spark discharge is clearly reconstructed in Fig. 1.15(a). On the other hand, the image in Fig. 1.15(b) is significantly degraded and the phase changes are unclear because the zeroth-order diffraction image and the conjugate image were superimposed on the desired image of the object. Therefore, the effectiveness of the parallel phase-shifting digital holography system using a single femtosecond light pulse is confirmed. Thus, an ultrafast phase image of a dynamic object has been experimentally demonstrated by parallel parallel-phase shifting digital holography using a single-shot femtosecond-pulsed laser.

Figure 1.14 Object used in the experiment of parallel phase-shifting digital holography system using a high-speed polarization-imaging camera. Spark discharge between two fine electrodes. (a) Photograph, (b) schematic

Figure 1.15 (Plate 2) Reconstructed images. (a) By parallel phase-shifting digital holography, (b) by a diffraction integral alone.

1.8 Portable Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography System

For practical use of a parallel phase-shifting digital holography system, it is necessary to make the system portable by miniaturization. To demonstrate miniaturization, a portable parallel phase-shifting digital holography system was constructed [27]. Figure 1.16 shows a schematic diagram and a photograph of the constructed portable system.

Figure 1.16 Schematic diagram of the portable parallel phase-shifting digital holography system. (a) Schematic, (b) photograph

A diode-pumped solid-state (DPSS) laser, which was developed for laser pointers, operated at 532 nm was used as the optical source because the laser is compact and the image sensor used is sensitive to green light. The camera in the portable system was the same as that used in the first demonstration system of parallel phase-shifting digital holography [23]. Optical components were bolted on to an aluminum board of a thickness of 3 mm in consideration of strength and weight. The size of the board was 400 × 200 mm. A black acrylic board 5 mm in thickness was used for the chassis. The size and weight of the constructed system were 450 (L) × 250 (W) × 200 mm (H) and 7 kg, respectively.

To verify the validity of the portable system, single-shot phase-shifting digital holography was experimentally demonstrated. Figure 1.17 shows the photograph of the objects. A bead of 5 mm diameter and a die of 7 mm at the sides were located 200 and 240 mm away from the image sensor, respectively. Figures 1.18(a) and (b) show the image reconstructed at the position from 200 mm and that from 240 mm by the constructed system, respectively. For comparison, the reconstructed image from a single hologram by the diffraction integral alone is shown in Fig. 1.18(c). As seen in Fig. 1.18, the zeroth-order diffraction wave and the conjugate image, which were not removed by the conventional in-line digital holography using diffraction integral alone, were successfully removed by the portable system. When the dot of the die was in focus the edge of the hole of the bead was not, and vice versa. Thus, the capability of single-shot phase-shifting interferometry has been experimentally verified by this portable system.

Figure 1.17 Photograph of the objects used in the experiment of the portable parallel phase-shifting digital holography system; A 5 mm diameter bead and a 7 mm sided die were located at the positions 200 and 240 mm away from the image sensor, respectively

Figure 1.18 Reconstructed images. Images (a) and (b) were reconstructed by the portable parallel phase-shifting digital holography system. Images (a) and (b) were focused at the positions 200 and 240 mm away from the image sensor, respectively. Image (c) was reconstructed by diffraction integral alone and was focused at the position 200 mm away from the image sensor

1.9 Functional Extension of Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography

Several functional extensions have been proposed in parallel phase-shifting digital holography [28–35].

1.9.1 Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography Using Multiple Wavelengths

When three laser beams of red, green, and blue light (corresponding to the three primary colors) are simultaneously used in parallel phase-shifting digital holography, 3D structure and color motion picture measurement for dynamic objects are possible [28, 29]. Also parallel phase-shifting digital holography using visible and near infrared laser beams has been reported for 3D motion picture measurement of visible and invisible information about a dynamic object. The simultaneous measurement of visible and invisible 3D information is valuable for simultaneous measurement of both inside and out of a living specimen [30]. If multiple wavelength laser beams are used in parallel phase-shifting digital holography, multi-spectral and 3D motion picture measurement are possible. This multiple-spectral and 3D motion picture enables us to measure the dynamics of 3D structures and analyze the chemical function of a dynamic object simultaneously.

1.9.2 Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography Using Multiple Polarized Light

When two linearly-polarized laser beams, which are orthogonal to each other and of the same wavelength, are used in parallel phase-shifting digital holography, two phase images corresponding with the linear polarizations can be acquired [31]. By using the two phase-image and phase-unwrapping techniques, the measurement range can be extended several thousand times in depth compared to that using only single polarization and a single wavelength of light.

By using linearly-polarized laser beams orthogonal to each other and of the same wavelength (used in an optical system of parallel phase-shifting digital holography), two parallel phase-shifting digital holography processes are simultaneously carried out [32]. This technique enables us to simultaneously measure 3D structure and 3D distribution of polarization characteristics of a dynamic object, and contributes to the simultaneous measurement of 3D structure and mechanical properties such as stress distribution and analysis of chemical composition of that object.

1.9.3 Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holographic Microscope

For 3D motion picture measurement of dynamic and micro objects, parallel phase-shifting digital holographic microscopy has been proposed [33–35]. A parallel phase-shifting digital holographic microscope was constructed by introducing optical microscope objectives into a parallel digital holography system, and was experimentally demonstrated by using the same polarization-imaging camera used in the first demonstration system [33]. A parallel phase-shifting digital holographic color microscope was also proposed [34]. The color microscope simultaneously uses three lasers emitting red, green, and blue light. After this, a high-speed parallel phase-shifting digital holographic microscope was reported. The high-speed microscope consisted of an interferometer and the high-speed polarization-imaging camera used in the high-speed parallel phase-shifting digital holography system [35]. A 3D motion picture recording of a living specimen was achieved at up to 150 000 fps by the high-speed microscope.

1.10 Prospects and Conclusion

Parallel phase-shifting digital holography has been introduced as a technique for 3D motion picture measurement. This technique is not only capable of high-precision 3D motion picture measurement but also one of robust interferometry against disturbance. A phase motion picture of up to 262 500 fps and a 96-fs temporal resolution phase-image were achieved by parallel phase-shifting digital holography systems. The maximum recording speed of a 3D motion picture and the temporal resolution of the 3D image are determined by the frame rate of the high-speed camera and the pulse duration of the laser beam used in parallel phase-shifting digital holography system, respectively. This technique will contribute to many fields requiring 3D measurement of dynamic objects such as fluidics, particle measurement, stress measurement, displacement and deformation measurement, biological microscopes, flow cytometry, evaluation of micro-machines, mechanical characterization of materials, production inspections, and others.

Acknowledgments

The author thanks Professor Emeritus Toshihiro Kubota, Professor Shogo Ura, Mr Kenzo Nishio, Mr Peng Xia, and Mr Motofumi Fujii at Kyoto Institute of Technology, Dr Tatsuki Tahara at Kansai University, Dr Takashi Kakue at Chiba University, and Professor Osamu Matoba for their technical support and helpful discussions.

This study was partly supported by the Industrial Technology Research Grant Program from New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) of Japan and by the Funding Program for Next Generation World-Leading Researchers GR064 from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS).

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