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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Sprache: Englisch
From an award-winning neuroscience researcher with twenty years of teaching experience, Multiple Pathways to the Student Brain uses educator-friendly language to explain how the brain learns. Steering clear of "neuro-myths," Dr. Janet Zadina discusses multiple brain pathways for learning and provides practical advice for creating a brain-compatible classroom. While there are an abundance of books and workshops that aim to integrate education and brain science, educators are seldom given concrete, actionable advice that makes a difference in the classroom. Multiple Pathways to the Student Brain bridges that divide by providing examples of strategies for day-to-day instruction aligned with the latest brain science . The book explains not only the sensory/motor pathways that are familiar to most educators (visual, auditory, and kinesthetic), it also explores the lesser known pathways--reward/survival, language, social, emotional, frontal lobe, and memory/attention--and how they can be tapped to energize and enhance instruction. Educators are forever searching for new and improved ways to convey information and inspire curiosity, and research suggests that exploiting different pathways may have a major effect on learning. Multiple Pathways to the Student Brain allows readers to see brain science through the eyes of a teacher--and teaching through the eyes of a brain scientist.
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Seitenzahl: 471
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014
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Table of Contents
Cover
More Praise for Multiple Pathways to the Student Brain
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Acknowledgments
Preface
Introduction
Three Types of Information
The Multiple Pathways Model
Content of This Book
Multiple Ways of Using This Information
Chapter 1: How the Brain Thinks and Learns
Plasticity
The Process of Learning
Setting the Stage for Achievement
Homework Options
The Purpose of Homework
Suggested Strategies
Reflect and Connect
Suggested Reading
Chapter 2: The Sensory Motor Pathway
Visual
Auditory
Speaking, Writing, and Movement: An Introduction
Speaking
Writing
Movement
Homework Menu
Suggested Strategies
Reflect and Connect
Suggested Reading
Chapter 3: The Emotion Pathway
Emotion, Anxiety, and Learning
High Stress or Trauma and Learning
Positive Emotion
Homework Menu
Suggested Strategies
Reflect and Connect
Suggested Reading
Chapter 4: The Reward Pathway
Homework Menu
Suggested Strategies
Reflect and Connect
Suggested Reading
Chapter 5: The Attention and Memory Pathways
Attention
Memory
Long-Term Memory
Homework Menu
Suggested Strategies
Reflect and Connect
Suggested Reading
Chapter 6: The Language and Math Pathways
Language and Second Language
Reading
Math
Homework Menu
Suggested Strategies
Reflect and Connect
Suggested Reading
Chapter 7: The Frontal Lobe Executive Function Pathway
Homework Menu
Suggested Strategies
Reflect and Connect
Suggested Reading
Chapter 8: The Social Pathway
Social Status and Social Rejection
Mirror Neurons
Technology
Conclusion
Homework Menu
Suggested Strategies
Reflect and Connect
Suggested Reading
Chapter 9: The Big Picture
Physiology
Curriculum and Assessment
Early Childhood
Conclusion
Reflect and Connect
Suggested Reading
Bibliography
Chapter 1: How the Brain Thinks and Learns
Chapter 2: The Sensory Motor Pathway
Chapter 3: The Emotion Pathway
Chapter 4: The Reward Pathway
Chapter 5: The Attention and Memory Pathways
Chapter 6: The Language and Math Pathways
Chapter 7: The Frontal Lobe Executive Function Pathway
Chapter 8: The Social Pathway
Chapter 9: The Big Picture
The Author
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 3.1
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 5.1
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Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
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Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.2
List of Tables
Table 5.1
Table 6.1
More Praise for Multiple Pathways to the Student Brain
“This groundbreaking ‘how-to manual’ for brain-compatible teaching applies solid neuroscience to real-life classroom situations and student learning, with hugely valuable practical insights into lesson planning and classroom teaching.”
—Dan Moody, professor, departments of English, reading, and ESL, Southwestern College, Chula Vista, CA
“Steeped in valid research, this practical guide provides a plethora of educational strategies to enhance students' learning experiences and accelerate academic achievement.”
—Cindy Lee Seiger, retired teacher, Lebanon, PA
Multiple Pathways to the Student Brain
Energizing and Enhancing Instruction
Janet Nay Zadina
Cover image: © Shutterstock
Cover design: Jeff Puda
Copyright © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by Jossey-Bass
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ISBN 978-1-118-56761-6 (pbk.); ISBN 978-1-118-58486-6 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-58488-0 (ebk)
FIRST EDITION
This book is dedicated to all the wonderful teachers who have attended my presentations, shared their feedback and expertise, and inspired me. Keep up the great work! and
To Jim Zadina, who has inspired and supported me in both careers—teaching and science.
Acknowledgments
Huge thanks to Marjorie McAneny at Jossey-Bass for inviting me to write this book. Margie, you have been a pleasure to work with and so supportive. Thanks also to Tracy Gallagher who was always helpful in answering questions along the way. Heartfelt appreciation goes to editor Bev Miller for her outstanding attention to detail and thoughtful queries.
I could never have made this book deadline without the amazing support of Pat Kidder. Pat worked diligently and expertly on the references, permissions, and lists of suggested reading at the end of every chapter—a huge task—while at the same time keeping me on track with my speaking schedule and the many other ways she enables me to devote so much time to the work that I do. Pat, I couldn't ask for a nicer, more enjoyable, or more talented assistant.
I am greatly indebted to the wonderful teachers who volunteered to review chapters as a kindness to me. Thanks to Maxine Anchondo, Ella Baccouche, Amy Baskin, Mary C. Belknap, Floyd Brigdon, Lainey Brottem, Desbra Canavan, Shirl Cook, Lacie Crone, Kathleen Gable, Amy Garcia, Sandra Graff, Wendy Hagman, Beverly Hearn, Dan Moody, Vicki Moulson, Grace Quagliariello, Darwin Risdon, Robert Searson, Cindy Seiger, Sue Selde, Karen Shipman, Zelda Smith, Ursula Sohns, Karen Solis, Jan Sundmark, Susan Szabo, Bill Thompson, Annette Wall, Donnell Wolff, Rosie Woodruff, and Telford Work. They thoughtfully provided perspectives from many content areas and grade levels. The book is much better thanks to their tough love and thoughtful insights. I thank the two anonymous reviewers provided by Jossey-Bass for their contributions.
I couldn't have devoted as much time to this book while engaging in my speaking schedule without the support of Rachel McLaughlin. Thanks to my friends, colleagues, and mentors for the wonderful discussions about teaching and learning, as well as their friendship: April Whatley Bedford, Renee Casbergue, Deborah Christie, Denise DeFelice, Judith Kieff, Marina Morbiducci, and Gayle Nolan. I also thank those who provide me with a welcome relief from work and much-needed support, including Karen and Tom Blanchard, Jim and June Blount, Percy Doiron and Marcia Warner, Ross and Claudine Foushee, Lisa Irwin, Jeff LaJess, Patti Vallee and Bob Schick, and Victor Vazquez (RIP).
A special thank-you goes to my family: Jason Nay, Alex Nay, Jeff and Kathy Nay, Anne and Steve Capes, and my husband, Jim, to whom I dedicate this book.
Preface
I believe I was born a teacher. One of my earliest memories was being in home quarantine in third grade with scarlet fever and receiving letters from my classmates. I got out a red pen and graded the letters, correcting all errors. Oh my! Playing school was my favorite pastime, and my mom recalls my favorite phrase as, “Now just think about that!” What else could I become?
One of the most common questions I get is how I went from being a high school teacher to a neuroscientist. It was an arduous and exhilarating journey of a lifetime.
Right after I earned my BS in education, I became a high school English teacher and was given the remedial classes (as they were called then). I discovered that my students couldn't read. I immediately started night school in a master's program and wanted to specialize in older learners with reading problems. However, no such program existed at the time. The reading professor in the master's program at the University of New Orleans (then part of Louisiana State University) allowed me to do independent study on reading difficulties in older children. After earning my master's in English education with a specialty in reading, I continued course work to earn a reading specialist certificate and taught high school for many years in varied demographics. I also taught adults in night classes.
As I continued to study dyslexia (reading difficulty), I became very discouraged. The research wasn't going anywhere, and students continued to struggle. I began teaching reading and English at a community college and engaging in course work beyond my master's. One day I saw a newspaper article about a scientist, Christiana Leonard, who did brain scans of college students with dyslexia and realized suddenly that there was a new window into this disorder. I recall standing in my living room and announcing that I was going to do that work. How? I didn't know.
That scientist came to speak at Tulane's medical school, and by some fluke in e-mail, I found out about it and showed up at the grand rounds to hear her speak. Afterward I approached her, and she and the local researcher, Anne Foundas, were happy to find out that I was a reading specialist. At lunch, we discussed an eventual possibility of my doing a dissertation on dyslexia in Dr. Foundas's lab, where she was investigating stuttering, another language disorder.
While the process of reaching that dream was long and arduous, in short, I enrolled in the University of New Orleans doctoral program where, at first, the professors were skeptical, thinking learning and the brain was old left brain/right brain discussions now seen as neuromyths. I persisted studying that on my own while pursuing a more traditional program and maintained connections with researchers in the medical school lab who were interested in allowing me to pursue my dissertation in conjunction with them if I proved myself. Eventually my education professors understood where I was going with my research and enthusiastically jumped on board. As a result of my literature review on scientific studies of dyslexia, the language lab in the Department of Neurology at Tulane Medical School allowed me to attend lab meetings.
I continued to take the steps toward a dissertation on the neuroanatomy of dyslexia, meeting the requirements of the education program, working alongside neuroscience graduate students at Tulane, and learning everything I needed to know about the brain, scans, and brain measurements. I was hired as a research assistant and moved from teaching to full-time lab and dissertation work. I gave brain scans to college students with and without dyslexia and measured regions of the brain related to language to look for neuroanatomical risk factors.
After earning my PhD with a joint committee from the University of New Orleans College of Education and Tulane Department of Neurology, I was awarded a three-year postdoctoral fellowship in cognitive neuroscience at Tulane's medical school in the department of neurology. I continued to research dyslexia and began a major project on stuttering using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scans. Then Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans, destroying the scanners and scattering the lab across the country. We were seven brains short of finishing the three-year stuttering project. At the 2005 Society for Neuroscience conference that fall, I went from poster to poster begging for brains. Robert Dougherty, a scientist from Stanford who had conducted similar language tests on his volunteers, gave us the brains we needed to finish the project, enabling the doctoral students to finish and graduate.
With our lab in upheaval and MRI research at a standstill, I continued my speaking career as an educational neuroscientist seeking to bridge the gap between science and education. At this point the speaking engagements became full time and led to my eventually receiving a prestigious annual award given by the Society for Neuroscience: the Science Educator Award presented to “an outstanding neuroscientist who has made a significant impact in informing the public about neuroscience.” This huge honor mitigated my loss of research due to Hurricane Katrina.
This book stems from my decade of speaking to teachers all over the world about how the brain learns and what this means in the classroom. At the time I graduated, I was the only person, so far as I knew, using the term educational neuroscience. No programs existed to do what I had done: earning credentials and experience in both fields. The term used at that time was brain based, which had a bad reputation in the scientific field. Myths about the brain were being perpetuated, and presenters were training teachers by getting them excited with a few brain terms and presenting a mixture of credible and noncredible information. I set about to change that lack of credibility in my new field.
Because I had a background in reading extensively in the scientific literature, I was able to distinguish the credible from the noncredible. As a teacher, I could see how many of our practices were in line with what the research was showing. I wanted to be sure that we kept the valuable practices and discarded practices that seemed to fly in the face of the research.
As the dribble of research on learning turned into a flood, I looked for a simple and meaningful way to organize the information so that it could be discussed and used. Eventually I developed the multiple pathways model, which allows teachers to discuss pathways involved in learning and make sense of them in context.
Because teachers were craving credible information about the brain and strategies that align with what we are learning, I wrote this book. It is designed for all teachers at all levels—from elementary school through college—who want to learn the underlying science as well as for those who are interested solely in the strategies that would be in alignment with recent research.
To me, teaching is an art and a science. Good teachers have an instinct for learners, so you will find much of this information validating. I hope that you find this book inspiring, informative, and empowering. You have inspired and motivated me. Keep up the great work!
Introduction
I don't think there is a profession more noble than teaching. All teachers can think of students whose lives were changed as a result of their impact. In some cases, we know that we have even saved a life by altering the course of someone's life or changing his or her worldview. As if that were not enough, we now know that what we teachers do can change our students' brains, affecting the rest of their life in many ways.
As knowledge about the brain proliferates, educators look for ways to apply this information to their practice. Unfortunately, many myths about the application of brain research to education abound. These can be perpetuated by well-meaning but inadequately informed presenters repeating what they have heard, but making mistakes in the translation or not knowing how to evaluate the scientific literature or put it into perspective. Some well-meaning scientists who present to educators about the application of research to education have never been in a K–12 classroom or taught struggling learners, so the “What does it mean to us?” part is missing. What is needed is the ability to see research through the eyes of a teacher and teaching through the eyes of a researcher—experience and credentials in both fields to create a credible bridge between scientific research and educational practice. That is my aim in writing this book.
We are beyond the point where we ask whether neuroscience can inform education to the new position of blended information coming from multiple research sources that inform each other and education. This book addresses mind (metacognition), brain (neuroscience), and behavior (psychology, neuroscience, and education) to achieve the best possible practices based on new research. I call this new synthesis educational neuroscience. This integration of research and resources from multiple fields creates a synergy, with advances in one field contributing to an understanding in another field. Whereas neuroscience may enlighten us about an underlying process affecting reading, for example, education research may help us apply that information.
I wrote this book at the request of a multitude of teachers who have attended my presentations and asked for additional information about the brain and appropriate teaching strategies. To avoid untenable leaps from basic research to classroom application, I bridge the basic science (What does the research say?) to some general implications for the field of education (What does this mean for educators?). Then I make some leaps into classroom practices (what I refer to as leaping into the classroom) with strategies that align themselves with the literature and the implications. I do not assume a direct link between the research and the teacher strategies, as those generally have not been proven to be linked. I felt it was essential to discuss strategies in this book because teachers want this information. I also needed to provide examples to put the role of strategies in proper perspective to counteract the untenable links that were being made. We have to create a credible bridge between research and strategies. Therefore, I have divided the main topics in the chapters into three sections: “What Does the Research Say?” “What Does This Mean for Educators?” and “Leaping into the Classroom.”
Three Types of Information
Because so many of you love learning about the anatomy and science of learning, I explore the topics in the chapters beginning with, “What Does the Research Say?” and present some basic brain anatomy and interactions relevant to the pathway. I then look at recent studies that exemplify some new directions and findings. Of course, since an entire book could be written on each pathway, this is not meant to be a comprehensive review of the fast-changing literature, but rather a sampling of interesting findings that illustrate the complexity of the learning process and suggest some new directions.
The next section, “What Does This Mean for Educators?” draws some general conclusions about the direction of education from the research. This is a broader look directed toward overall policy and curriculum in general.
Then we make a leap into the classroom in “Leaping into the Classroom.” In this section I draw on my teaching experience and that of my colleagues to suggest some sample strategies that align with the research. Let me stress that brain research does not “prove” that we should do this. However, if the research suggests, for example, a relationship between brain activation and finger representation, we may encourage educators to allow children to use their fingers when counting, or when research shows the effects in the brain on learning coming from a feeling of threat, we can remind teachers that sarcasm is not an appropriate tool to use with children. There is no proven direct link, but it just makes sense. We refine our practices based on what we are learning, just as we refine them based on our personal experience.
The Multiple Pathways Model
I developed the multiple pathways model as a means of making sense of this ever-increasing new research on learning. The model puts the research into arbitrary “pathways” involved in learning so that we can think and talk about various aspects of the research in an orderly way. Too often presentations about the brain consist of a list of bullet points of random information. This information needs to be placed in a bigger context related to other information about the brain and to education.
In order to think about, discuss, and apply large amounts of new information, the information needed to be categorized in a meaningful way. The challenge is that the brain is complex and processes are integrated across multiple brain areas. It was therefore very hard to talk about one process in depth without referring to other brain areas and processing pathways. How could I categorize this information in a simple and useful manner?
I began by listing some major pathways in the brain involved in learning as the major categories for the model. Many concepts could have been placed in any number of these pathways. For example, music is auditory, emotional, and, for some, a language. Stress is an emotion that affects working memory and higher-order thinking skills. We need a way to talk about these factors one at a time and have a simple schematic so that we can see if we are addressing as many pathways as possible in our curriculum and lessons.
I use the term pathway not to represent a single structure but rather as a network of activation. Sometimes the network has the strongest activation in one area, such as the frontal lobe “pathway” (the site of higher-order thinking skills), but it interacts with multiple other pathways in the brain. By discussing it as a pathway, we can talk about the functions and nature of a component of this network and how it integrates with other pathways and with learning theory and practice. This does not imply that only one pathway is active in a student at any time. Multiple pathways are active every moment. The goal of the multiple pathways model is to make us aware of the many pathways that are involved in learning and then to address as many as possible in one lesson plan.
The multiple pathways model, unlike the learning styles model, has a synergistic effect: learning one way to compensate may help a student, but learning multiple pathways of compensation will create a synergy, with the whole greater than the sum of its parts. For example, teachers often think of diversifying instruction as visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. That is only one pathway in this book—the sensory motor pathway. When designing lessons, we also want to think about developing the student's frontal lobe and improving memory and attention, making learning rewarding, and acknowledging the emotional component. We want to address multiple pathways.
The concept of multiple pathways has three components:
Multiple pathways in the brain:
We examine many brain processes powerfully involved in learning. For example, we examine the reward pathway in the brain to see how we can better motivate and engage students and examine the attentional network for helping students with this underlying process.
Multiple pathways of teaching:
We must diversify our instruction to reach diverse students. One way to do this is by thinking and talking about multiple pathways of instruction and offering students multiple pathways for practice and assessment.
Multiple pathways of knowledge about learning:
The research behind this book draws on multiple pathways of research: neuroscience, psychology, medicine, and education. These multiple pathways of research are blended into the information and strategies in this book.
Content of This Book
In order to orchestrate optimal learning, we must have an understanding of how the brain learns and what is required prior to the introduction of new information. Chapter 1 sets the stage for learning prior to the introduction of content. Understanding the difference in the brain between thinking and learning is critical to designing appropriate learning activities. Then we examine what students are bringing to the learning experience.
The next four chapters cover what I call the invisible pathways for learning. They underlie visible (“visible” meaning measured in the classroom) processes such as reading and math. Chapter 2 looks at sensory input and output, often referred to as visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. Students do not necessarily see and hear what we think they do; hence, these processes are invisible to us but greatly affect learning outcomes. How do students receive our content (sensory input)? Why do students seem to take it in but have a problem with expressing what they know (sensory output)?
Sensory input and output are affected by and in turn affect emotion, the topic of Chapter 3. You might think that emotion, for example, is a visible pathway because you see it expressed, say, in anger. However, perhaps it is fear that is acted out as anger. Perhaps it is trauma. Emotion is critical to learning, and this chapter explores the biology and impact of emotion, along with strategies for addressing emotions that have a negative impact on learning and increasing emotions that enhance learning.
Some behaviors are rewarding to the brain, providing a sense of pleasure and making it more likely that the behavior will persist—motivation. Chapter 4 explores the science of reward, along with suggestions for tapping into this powerful pathway in the brain.
Chapter 5 examines a pathway seldom discussed when addressing math deficits or reading comprehension difficulty, yet it is probably the culprit in most instances: attention and working memory. These invisible processes are critical to academic achievement. However, many instructional materials and tests fly in the face of what we know about this and create poor performance in many cases. This chapter explains the relationship of attentional mechanisms to working memory and the impact on learning. This is followed by an explanation of how the brain moves information from temporary storage in working memory to long-term storage—that is, learning.
Next we turn to the visible pathways—visible in the sense that we can measure the performance in these pathways in the classroom. These are the pathways that have long been understood, or I should say misunderstood, as the pathways—reading, writing, and arithmetic, for example. Yes, reading is an invisible process, but we see the visible production associated with it. However, what manifests as poor reading may stem from invisible pathways, such as attention or working memory capacity. Chapter 6 addresses the complexity of language, second language, reading, and math in the brain in order to provide an understanding of how we can diversify strategies to address the multiple way students can be impaired in any of these skills.
Chapter 7 addresses one of the most critical aspects of brain development for achievement: higher-order executive functions, such as planning, budgeting time, organizing, and thinking critically. A child's skill in this area in first grade can predict his or her achievement throughout academic life. This pathway is important for upper grades and college students, as the frontal lobe is still developing until around ages eighteen to twenty-five. This chapter discusses the role of the frontal lobe and how teachers can help students develop this part of the brain so critical to a quality life.
Education is a social activity, so it is critical that teachers understand the nature of the social brain, the topic of Chapter 8. Some social activities can impair learning while others can contribute to it. This chapter explores the science of social status, social threat, and social interaction on learning, along with strategies for reducing social threat and enhancing learning through positive social experiences.
In the final chapter, we zoom out to look at the whole person and the big picture of curriculum. We look at how lifestyle and physiology affect learning and how schools can use scientific knowledge to create a school environment that enhances achievement, including performance on standardized tests. We examine what research is revealing about certain courses that are scientifically validated to enhance achievement but are being cut in many school systems. We look at where it all begins, early childhood, with an eye to getting children the kind of start that will have an impact on their learning throughout their lifetime. Finally, we look at the role of technology and how it may be changing brains. What is the role in a brain-compatible environment and how can you use it to strengthen, not hinder, learning?
In addition, every chapter contains some helpful features. The first is “Homework Options,” which suggests many ways to diversify assignments relevant to that pathway. “Suggested Strategies” is a bulleted reference list of strategies explored in the chapter that are in alignment with the research. Finally, the “Suggested Reading” section lists books for further exploration of the topics covered in the chapter. Most of these are written for nonscientists and are entertaining as well as informative. Readers who are interested in delving more into the science can consult the references provided for each chapter at the end of the book.
Multiple Ways of Using This Information
You can use this book in multiple ways to serve your purpose at a given time. Some will want to read it completely through and then refer to the “Homework Menu” and “Suggested Strategies” sections when designing lessons. Others may want to skip right to the “Leaping into the Classroom” sections to jump-start their instruction and later return to “What Does the Research Say?” for an understanding of why the strategies work.
You can jump around in the chapters as a topic interests you. Since the brain is so complex and interactive, reading the chapters out of order should not pose a problem to understanding.
I hope all readers will use this book to inform their students about how their brain works and that they can change their brain. Chapter 1 should be sufficient for that purpose.
Education leaders may be particularly interested in the “What Does This Mean for Educators?” sections to inform their policy and curriculum decisions. The book is also designed to be used for teacher educators to train teachers in the science of learning. Although the questions in the “Reflect and Connect” section at the end of each chapter are useful for everyone to reflect and consolidate their learning, they can make excellent questions for assignments requiring teachers to increase their depth of understanding and apply what they have learned. This design is helpful for faculty book club reading and discussion as well.
The overriding purpose of the book is to inform you about the complexity of students' brains and, thus, the challenge and importance of teaching. Our daily choices as we orchestrate learning can make a significant impact on our students' brains and learning ability. The field of education is only going to get more exciting as we are at the beginning of this new frontier of inner space. I hope this book inspires and motivates you as you have me.
Chapter 1How the Brain Thinks and Learns
I just don't understand. For the last four weeks everything was ideal. I was really on top of my teaching game and the students were interested, engaged, answering questions in class, and turning in assignments. It couldn't have been better, I thought. Then I grade the exams and find that they didn't seem to have learned the material. What happened?
Making Connections
What is learning? How does it differ from thinking? Could poor reading comprehension, math disability, or apparent lack of effort actually be something else? What is the purpose of homework?
Because our purpose as educators is to enhance and energize learning, we must understand the nature of learning in the brain to enhance, not hinder, the process. Even if you are not particularly interested in the neuroscience behind learning and are only looking for strategies, it is important to understand a few basic and essential processes and concepts in order to design more effective lessons. So let's wade into the technical information, just deep enough to understand the concepts. (For those interested in more information, I suggest additional readings at the end of the chapter.) Then we will examine the implications for the field of education before leaping into classroom strategies.
The brain is highly complex. As you work through this book, you will learn about many structures and functions as they relate to the topic of the chapters. In this chapter, we take a look at some of the major structures and functions.
Figure 1.1 shows the four major sections of the brain, called lobes. The word cortex refers to brain matter, so in discussing the frontal lobe, for example, we might refer to the frontal cortex, meaning the brain matter in the frontal lobe. Describing the functions of each lobe is not straightforward, as each lobe has many functions and also interacts extensively with other lobes. You will learn more about the lobes as you go along. For now, a quick overview is sufficient:
Figure 1.1Major Areas of the Brain
Frontal lobe
: involved extensively with many regions of the brain and regulates such things as emotion and attention. It is associated with executive functions, that is, higher-order thinking processes. It is also involved in movement, reasoning, and metacognition. Chapter 7 is devoted to this complex lobe.
Temporal lobe
: processes language, hearing, memory, comprehension, and emotion.
Parietal lobe
: integrates sensory information and is active in spatial processing and navigation, perception, arithmetic, and reading.
Occipital lobe
: processes vision.
The most important fact is that the lobes work together. For example, reading can activate all lobes but some specific regions are more activated than others.
Plasticity
If you are over forty years old, there is a good chance that what you learned in school about the brain is wrong. Until the last few decades, scientists believed that the brain could not change except during critical periods in early childhood. After the critical window, the consensus was that you were stuck with the brain that you had. Worse, if the brain was injured, there wasn't much that could be done to fix it. We now know that the brain is plastic—it changes as a result of experience. The implications are huge for teaching and learning. Let's explore the science of plasticity.
What Does the Research Say?
Beginning in the 1960s, pioneer neuroanatomist Marian Diamond and her colleagues were the first to show that experience or training changes the brain. In this landmark study, rats that had richer environments had greater changes in their brain anatomy, chemistry, and behavior (learning). The enriched environment consisted of the addition of toys into the cages where rats were kept in groups, as opposed to those kept alone and without any toys or just in groups. The addition of the toys with social interaction led to better brain development—better problem solving and learning. However, the environment was not as rich as it would have been had they lived in a normal environment outdoors. The enriched environment created better brains compared to a deprived environment. We have seen the effects of this in children who grow up with very little stimulation in their environment, such as orphans in some institutions. They did not perform as well on educational tasks as those who had the stimulation of activities along with language and touch from caretakers.
In the 1970s, the well-known scientist Michael Merzenich found that animals' brains remapped themselves as a result of changes to the nerve structure in the hand. What happened to the hand changed the brain. But would this happen in humans?
Rewiring
As time went on, experiments in plasticity proved that the human brain can indeed rewire itself as a result of experience. In persons born deaf and using sign language, the auditory cortex, which processes sounds, recognized visual sign language as language and processed it where hearing and language would normally be processed instead of the visual cortex even though the language was visual. Other studies have shown that engaging in specific movements changes the size of the area in the brain associated with that movement or experience. For example, researchers found that guitar players' thumb representation in the brain was larger compared to nonguitar players since guitar players use their thumb a great deal.
A series of landmark studies led by Eleanor Maguire at University College London looked at the brains of London taxi drivers using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and found that the part of the brain that processes spatial information (the rear part of the hippocampus; see figure 1.2) was much larger than normal—there was more gray matter (the neurons that hold information). Further investigations revealed that it was because they spent more time navigating (more experience) that the area grew. Interestingly, the front part of the hippocampus became smaller as a result. (This makes me wonder what the GPS is doing to our brain.)
Figure 1.2 Hippocampus
Here is where it really gets exciting for teachers. In 2006 researchers led by Arne May studied the brains of medical students as they studied for exams. Brain scans using MRI were given three times during this process. In the first few months, students' brains increased in gray matter (figure 1.3) on both sides of their brain in the parietal lobe (see figure 1.1). The third scan was given three months after the exam during the semester break and found not much change at that time in parietal areas. However, another area, the rear part of the hippocampus (the same area that changed in the taxi drivers) increased in gray matter over time and actually grew more during the period after the exam. Researchers conclude that gray matter may change differentially in brain areas over time. Some kinds of learning may just take more time to process and change the brain.
Figure 1.3 Gray and White Matter
This plasticity is not limited to critical windows or to any age group. Although the brain is more easily changed early in life, it remains plastic throughout life. More evidence has corroborated plasticity to the point that now we are seeing amazing discoveries about just how much the brain can rewire itself.
What Does This Mean for Educators?
This discovery about plasticity means we are at the beginning of a new frontier in education. Not only do we have a deeper understanding of the importance of early childhood education, but for continuing education throughout life as well.
Neuroscientists have recently begun looking at interventions as well as basic processes underlying learning, and we are starting to see implications for classroom practices. For example, neuroscientists and educators have worked together on studies researching whether the brains of children with dyslexia can be rewired to reroute anomalous reading circuits in the brain to traditional reading routes, leading to improved reading. For example, Michael Merzenich at the University of California, San Francisco, developed a program called FastForward. It uses digitized sound to help children with dyslexia hear the sound correctly so that they can learn to sound out words. Merzenich and colleagues report success in enabling students who work extensively with this computer program to improve their phonological performance. Sally Shaywitz, codirector of the Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity, has also worked with what she calls rewiring the reading pathways in poor readers. Other new software attempts rewiring to improve attention and working memory. As the field of educational neuroscience develops, we can expect to see more software targeting specific interventions.
Leaping into the Classroom
There is nothing more important to teachers than the concept of plasticity. Learning is rewiring. You will learn more about how the brain changes throughout this book. The important point to keep in mind now is that what we do changes our brain. And who orchestrates what our learners do? You! Such responsibility! For example, when you design lessons and homework, ask yourself what changes you hope to see as a result of this work. Because what students do changes the brain, think in terms of the changes you desire.
The Process of Learning
Presenters about the brain say that “learning means growing dendrites.” This section looks at what that means. What makes dendrites grow or not grow, and how is that really involved in learning? Let's learn a little more science.
What Does the Research Say?
Now that we know that the brain changes as a result of experience and learning is an important experience, the next questions are: How does it change as a result of learning? and How can we as educators affect that? Understanding this process requires learning some technical information that is important to a clear understanding of the elements involved in the thinking and learning process itself.
Let's explore thinking before learning, because they are not the same to the brain. I am going to oversimplify here. Thinking means the transmission of information among relevant neurons in the brain. Neurons are the gray matter that hold information that you have stored. How is this information held in your brain? Words? Pictures? No. This information is stored in the form of chemicals. In order to think, the neurons in the brain must communicate with each other through electrical impulses that allow the exchange of chemicals. Because these chemicals transmit information from neuron to neuron, they are called neurotransmitters. Two important neurotransmitters for learning are dopamine and norepinephrine (also known as noradrenalin).
In order for any system to communicate, it must have an input (we have an ear) and an output (we have a mouth). The neuron has an output called an axon and many inputs called dendrites (figure 1.4). An axon is a long, slender protrusion from the main cell body of the neuron that looks similar to a large branch on a tree. It has an axon terminal on the end that conducts the outgoing electrical impulses and neurotransmitter chemicals. The dendrite is the input structure on the neuron that conducts the electrical impulses into the neuron. Each neuron has many of these dendrite branches with receptors for the incoming information. The word dendrite comes from the Greek word for tree, and they look similar to the many branches of a tree. When the cells—the neurons—communicate and exchange chemicals, electrical impulses send the information down a long axon and fire the chemicals across a gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite receptor of another neuron. This gap is called a synapse.
Figure 1.4Neurons, Axons, Dendrites, and Synapses
This firing of chemicals and communication between neurons enables thinking to take place. Thinking thus involves the communication of many neurons, with each neuron connecting to tens of thousands of dendrites on other neurons. But what is learning, and how does the brain process it differently from thinking?
Neuroscientists have a saying that “cells that fire together, wire together.” This is called the Hebbian law, named after Nobel Prize winner Donald Hebb. In 1949 he proposed the concept of Hebbian learning, which is still the way we understand the general nature of learning in the brain. This concept means that when cells persistently fire together, the synapses strengthen and the dendrites get more stable. Referred to as long-term potentiation, this means that the more a network of neurons fires together, the more likely they are to fire together again over the long term. You already have an expression for that: Practice makes perfect. (I should amend that to “practice makes permanent,” because wrong information can also be strengthened if it is continually reactivated.) The more a network fires, the stronger the network becomes, thus improving the ability of that network to fire again. Swiss neuroscientist Dominique Muller found that some synapses even double during learning. This ability to reactivate the network in the future is learning.
Think of the roots of a delicate young plant. If you don't strengthen them through watering and sunlight, they quickly wither and die. However, the roots of an oak tree that have been strengthened over time can take a great deal of neglect without damage. When you first learned to drive, you had very weak connections and had to do a great deal of conscious thinking about the process. Now that you have an “oak tree” network for driving, you do not forget how to drive no matter how long you might go without activating the network by driving. Furthermore, you no longer have to think as consciously about it, since the network is wired, which means you have brain resources left over to daydream, plan, and carry on conversations. You may ask why texting is so dangerous then. Texting is not automatic like driving; it requires thinking and uses a great deal of cognitive resources, such that not enough are left to respond well to driving conditions. (You will learn more about this cognitive load in Chapter 7.)
Learning literally strengthens and increases the connections between neurons and dendrites. As you learn, you grow more dendrites and synapses and increase your network of information.
What Does This Mean for Educators?
Experience is critical to learning. Learning changes the brain, and since educators orchestrate learning, they need to understand the importance of the activities we provide. The classroom must provide stimulating activities that create the desired activation in the brain, leading to desired change. This applies to early childhood through adult education.
The nature of learning and the Hebbian law cause us to rethink how we rush through curriculum. The goal has become to cover a certain amount of content and then test the students for memory of that content. In fact, this flies in the face of what we know about real learning: that depth may be better than breadth. We have to not only fire the network; we have to wire it. That means working with material over a period of time and in a recursive nature rather than rushing through in a linear fashion. For example, math courses revisit previously covered material and continue to strengthen the network, resulting in knowledge that lasts and isn't forgotten over the summer. Repetition, repeated firing of networks, is a critical component of most learning.
As we move from the brain in general to the individual learner, we realize that the learner must make a connection from his or her existing neural network (background knowledge) to the new material. Cell biologist James Zull, in his wonderful book The Art of Changing the Brain, asserts that the single most important factor in learning is the learner's existing neural network; we should determine that and then proceed accordingly.
Educators already have terms for this existing neural network concept: schema, background, or prior knowledge. Neuroscience is supporting what educators have professed: that prior knowledge is critical. If a student has no prior knowledge on the topic, then not much is firing and not much can wire. It is not that a student is not good at, for example, math, but rather he or she has gaps in the existing network that need to be filled. This is a very different approach. We therefore should refer students to math or reading labs to “work on your network” without labeling these children as deficient or disabled.
However, we do not always provide for this prior knowledge in our curriculum or materials. We attempt to when we require prerequisites before taking a course, implying that certain prior knowledge is essential. Many times we introduce material without taking into account that achievement may be greatly affected by some students' prior experience as contrasted with those with different experiences. We have seen this bias in the past on standardized testing, and attempts have been made to rectify cultural and experiential gaps in knowledge. We still have more to do in this regard, which should be an important concern for administrators and curriculum specialists, as well as classroom teachers.
Culturally relevant materials can help students learn to read better because they contain relevant prior knowledge of these students. It is hard to have good reading comprehension when much of the material is unknown to such a degree that there is not sufficient context for vocabulary learning or comprehension. For example, in my work with teachers in Hawaii, I was told that when a teacher had requested culturally relevant reading materials, she was sent stories about Mexican children, with the assumption being that was “close enough” or somehow served the purpose. Obviously it did not. As our classrooms get more and more diverse, how we address students' cultural, experiential, and personal differences is an important topic.
Leaping into the Classroom
When students have learned material, they are able to fire up the network that connects that information in the brain and thus recall the information. However, the key point to keep in mind is that the network must be fired repeatedly and strongly enough that it is likely or able to be fired again. That is the difference between thinking and learning. It is not enough to fire it; you must wire it for learning to occur. Now let's think about the classroom. Let's say that you are doing your very best teaching and the students are doing their very best responding. Everything seems perfect, so the next day you move on, and then the next day, and so on. But when the test comes, the results show that the students don't know the material. The difficulty is that you fired it but you didn't wire it. You had great thinking, but for many, not great learning.
For learning to occur, the network must be wired. Networks must be created and information moved into long-term memory. Let's think about your learning process as you have just encountered this new information. Did you find any of the material exciting? If so, that is the easiest way to learn—through arousal. The body feels something and tells the brain to pay attention because this may be important. However, if you didn't find it exciting, then you have to learn it the hard way: fire it until you wire it. Think about it, talk about it, read about it, or use it. If you don't and the material is not reactivated, the brain can decide that it wasn't important and reabsorb the fragile new dendrites to be used for something that is important. Use it or lose it! Most students must activate the material (network) again and again for long-term memory or learning to occur.
If students have to fire it until they wire it, am I suggesting drill and kill? No. You are going to learn about multiple pathways that create more activation in each lesson. You may have heard that the more modalities by which you encode information, the easier it is to retrieve. Teachers may use visual, auditory, and kinesthetic methods (see it, say it, write it) to increase that activation. In this book, you will go beyond those pathways into other powerful pathways that can enhance and energize teaching and learning.
You might ask, “How much time does it take to wire it?” And the answer is, “As long as it takes.” The length of time varies from individual to individual depending on many factors within the individual. The more the network is fired, the stronger the network becomes. Yet another factor may create the most impact: the importance of the information to the learner, according to James Zull. If the information is very important, such as a new friend's phone number, information may immediately be stored. However, if a student's brain does not see the incoming information as important, it will take more frequency or time, or both. You will learn more about the power of importance in the reward pathway in Chapter 4.
Learning is effortful. Growing those new dendrites requires the synthesis of new proteins. It may require sustained attention and focus, which can be exhausting for the brain. If it were easy, then learners would just be firing what is already wired. That doesn't mean it can't be fun or engaging. The goal is to create new networks that fire together, a process that can take energy, time, and effort. K–12 English as a Second Language instructor Karen Solis concurs that learning can be challenging, but points out that when students are motivated and with a community of learners who are “in it to win it,” it is no longer about learning on their own, but learning and being a resource for others who get stuck. When I have to share what I've learned, I am building more dendrites and making more connections as I explain to someone else.
