Nano and Micro-Scale Energetic Materials E-Book

• Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH GmbH
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1334

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

Provides an up-to-date account of innovative energetic materials and their potential applications in space propulsion and high explosives

Most explosives and propellants currently use a small number of ingredients, such as TNT and nitrocellulose. In comparison to conventional materials, nano- and micro-scale energetic materials exhibit superior burning characteristics and much higher energy densities and explosive yields. Nano and Micro-scale Energetic Materials: Propellants and Explosives provides a timely overview of innovative nano-scale energetic materials (nEMs) and microscale energetic materials (µEMs) technology.

Covering nEMs and µEMs ingredients as well as formulations, this comprehensive volume examines the preparation, characterization, ignition, combustion, and performance of energetic materials in various applications of propellants and explosives. Twenty-two chapters explore metal-based pyrotechnic nanocomposites, solid and hybrid rocket propulsion, solid fuels for in-space and power, the sensitivity and mechanical properties of explosives, new energetic materials, and more.

• Explores novel energetic materials and their potential for use in propellants and explosives
• Summarizes the most recent advances of leading research groups currently active in twelve countries
• Discusses how new environmentally friendly, high-combustion energetic materials can best be used in different applications
• Explains the fundamentals of energetic materials, including similarities and differences between composite propellants and explosives

Nano and Micro-scale Energetic Materials: Propellants and Explosives is an important resource for materials scientists, explosives specialists, pyrotechnicians, environmental chemists, polymer chemists, physical chemists, aerospace physicians, and aerospace engineers working in both academia and industry.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Volume 1

Preface

Note

About the Editors

Part I: Fundamentals

1 Composite Heterogeneous Energetic Materials: Propellants and Explosives, Similar but Different?

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Structure and Composition

1.3 Performance

1.4 Sensitivity

1.5 Summary

References

Notes

2 High‐Pressure Combustion Studies of Energetic Materials

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Burning Rates as a Function of Pressure

2.3 Visual Observations of Burning Behavior as a Function of Pressure

2.4 Discussion

2.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Part II: New Energetic Ingredients

3 Cyclic Nitramines as Nanoenergetic Organic Materials

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Nanosized RDX

3.3 Nanosized HMX

3.4 Nanosized CL‐20

3.5 Conclusions and Future Outlook

References

4 Clathrates of CL‐20: Thermal Decomposition and Combustion

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Host–guest Energetic Material Based on CL‐20 and Nitrogen Oxides

4.3 Conclusion Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

5 HMX and CL‐20 Crystals Containing Metallic Micro and Nanoparticles

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Research on High‐Energy Cyclic Nitramines HMX and CL‐20

5.3 Production of Cyclic Nitramine Crystals with Metal Inclusions

5.4 Research on the Physicochemical and Explosive Characteristics of CL‐20 and HMX Crystals with Metal Inclusions

5.5 Research on the Combustion of Fuel Samples Based on CL‐20 Crystals with Metal Inclusions

5.6 Conclusions

Funding

Acknowledgments

References

6 Effects of TKX‐50 on the Performance of Solid Propellants and Explosives

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Physicochemical Properties of TKX‐50

6.3 Interactions Between TKX‐50 and EMs

6.4 Performance of Nano‐sensitized TKX‐50

6.5 Application in Solid Propellants

6.6 Application in Explosives

6.7 Conclusions

References

Part III: Metal‐based Pyrotechnic Nanocomposites

7 Recent Advances in Preparation and Reactivity of Metastable Intermixed Composites

7.1 Introduction

7.2 The Preparation and Reactivity Control of MICs

7.3 Conclusion and Suggestions

References

8 Nanothermites: Developments and Future Perspectives

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Nanothermites Versus Microthermites

8.3 Nanothermite‐friendly Oxidizers

8.4 Carbon Nanomaterials and Energetic Compositions

8.5 Future Challenges

8.6 Conclusion

References

9 Engineering Particle Agglomerate and Flame Propagation in 3D‐printed Al/CuO Nanocomposites

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Printing High Nanothermite Loading Composite Via a Direct Writing Approach

9.3 Agglomerating in High Al/CuO Nanothermite Loading Composite

9.4 Engineering Agglomerating and Propagating through Oxidizer Size and Morphology

9.5 Engineering Agglomeration and Propagating through Restraining the Movement of Agglomerations

9.6 Conclusions and Future Directions

Acknowledgments

References

Part IV: Solid Propellants and Fuels for Rocket Propulsion

10 Glycidyl Azide Polymer Combustion and Applications Studies Performed at ISAS/JAXA

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Combustion Mechanism

10.3 Application of GAP to Gas Hybrid Rocket Motor [2, 51-53]

10.4 Summary

References

11 Effect of Different Binders and Metal Hydrides on the Performance and Hydrochloric Acid Exhaust Products Scavenging of AP‐Based Composite Solid Propellants: A Theoretical Analysis

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Theoretical Background and Computation Procedure

11.3 Results and Discussion

11.4 Conclusion

References

12 Combustion of Flake Aluminum with PTFE in Solid and Hybrid Rockets*

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Aluminum Combustion in Composite Solid Propellant

12.3 Effect of Mechanical Activation in Composite Solid Propellants

12.4 Aluminum Combustion in Hybrid Rockets

12.5 Conclusions

References

Note

13 Effect of Nanometal Additives on The Ignition of Al‐Based Energetic Materials

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Thermal Behavior of Metal NPs and EM Compositions

13.3 Ignition Characteristics of EM

13.4 Kinetic Parameters of Ignition

13.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Volume 2

Part V: Solid Propellants and Fuels for In‐Space Propulsion and Power

14 Lithium and Magnesium Fuels for Space Propulsion and Power

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Metal‐CO

2

Propulsion for Mars Missions

14.3 Lithium and Magnesium Fuels for Power Generation in Space

14.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

15 Solid Propellants for Space Microthrusters

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Microscale Effects on Combustion

15.3 Primer Explosive Solid Propellants

15.4 Thermite Solid Propellants

15.5 Performance of Solid Propellant Microthrusters

15.6 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Part VI: Primary and Secondary Explosives

16 Interesting New High Explosives and Melt‐Casts

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

17 Pyrotechnic Alternatives to Primary Explosive‐Based Initiators

17.1 Initiation Theory

17.2 Pyrotechnics in Initiators

17.3 Nanomaterial Viability

17.4 Replacement of Primary Explosives

17.5 Future Green Developments

17.6 Environmental Friendly Energetics

References

18 Light Sensitive Energetic Materials and Their Laser Initiation

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Laser Initiation of Energetic Materials

18.3 Conclusions

Funding

Acknowledgments

Conflict of Interests

Declaration of Originality

References

Part VII: Sensitivity and Mechanical Properties of Explosives

19 The Chemical Micromechanism of Energetic Material Initiation

19.1 Introduction

19.2 The Basic Mechanisms of the Thermal Decomposition of Organic and Some Important Ionic Energetic Materials

19.3 Thermal Decomposition and the Initiation of Detonation – What is Known About Their Relation

19.4 The Length of Trigger Bonds in EM Molecules and Their Initiation Reactivity

19.5 The Specification of Reaction Centers in EM Molecules

19.6 A Comparison of the Splitting of the Polynitro Compounds by Heat and by Shock

19.7 The Point of View of Chemical Physics or Physics of Explosion

19.8 The Initiation Reactivity and Energetics of EMs

19.9 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

20 Macro‐Micromechanics‐Based Ignition Behavior of Explosives Under Low‐Velocity Impact

20.1 Introduction

20.2 The Mechanical–Thermal–Chemical Coupling Model

20.3 The Simulation on Ignition of Confined Steven Test

20.4 The Stochastic Ignition Prediction

20.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

21 Mechanical and Ignition Responses of HMX and RDX Single Crystals Under Impact and Shock Loading

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Dynamic Responses Under Impact Loading

21.3 Drop‐weight Impact Ignition and Burning

21.4 Modeling Dynamic Responses for Single Crystals

21.5 Discussion and Summary

References

22 Dynamic Mechanical Properties of HTPB–IPDI Binders of Four PBX with Different HMX Contents and Energetic Particles Augmented Binder

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Samples

22.3 Measurement and Evaluation

22.4 Results

22.5 Discussion

22.6 Summary and Conclusions

List of Abbreviations

Acknowledgments

References

22.A Details on Congruence Between WLF and Modified Arrhenius Equation

22.B Special Consideration of Curing Agent IPDI

Note

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Typical compositions of composite propellants and explosives.

Table 1.2 PBX's developed as melt‐cast explosive replacements

a)

using propel...

Table 1.3 Composition of propellants and PBXs.

Table 1.4 Selection of SAM according to energetic system.

Table 1.5 FoI and standard score for Rafael explosives (RE) and Rafael Prope...

Table 1.6 Similarities and differences between propellants and explosives.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Properties of major reactants and products.

Table 2.2 Calculated major species in different regions near the condensed‐ ...

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 The sensitivity values of RDX‐based nanocomposite thermites and th...

Table 3.2 Comparison of mechanical sensitivities of HMX and HMX‐based core@d...

Table 3.3 Critical thermal explosion and impact sensitivity of raw and ultra...

Table 3.4 Effect of particle size on the sensitivity.

Table 3.5 Thermal behavior of bulk, micro‐ and nanoscale CL‐20.

Table 3.6 Sensitivities of raw and nano CL‐20.

Table 3.7 Sensitivities of raw, micro, and nano CL‐20 prepared by electrospr...

Table 3.8 Sensitivities of CL‐20‐based nanoscale composites produced by ultr...

Table 3.9 The size, friction, and impact sensitivities of RDX, HMX, and CL‐2...

Table 3.10 Mechanical properties of raw and nanoscale CL‐20 and PETN.

Table 3.11 Results of sensitivity test for NQ, CL‐20, 1 : 1 mixture, and CL‐...

Table 3.12 Mechanical and thermal sensitivity of raw CL‐20, raw RDX, CL‐20/R...

Table 3.13 Special height of raw material and nano CL‐20/HMX cocrystal prepa...

Table 3.14 Sensitivity of raw CL‐20, raw TNT, CL‐20/TNT mixture, and CL‐20/T...

Table 3.15 Impact sensitivity of CL‐20‐based composite and raw CL‐20.

Table 3.16 Impact sensitivity of CL‐20 based composite, sub‐micro CL‐20 and ...

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Kinetic parameters of decomposition of the host–guest materials un...

Table 4.2 Detonation Characteristics of Various CL‐20 Clathrates in Comparis...

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Structure and characteristics of cyclic nitramines used for resear...

Table 5.2 Composition, physical, and chemical characteristics of powders.

Table 5.3 The conditions for CL‐20 crystallization with metal inclusions.

Table 5.4 Results of comparative tests to determine electrical resistance an...

Table 5.5 Volume and composition of released gases according to ACM data.

Table 5.6 Sensitivity to friction (according to Russian standard 50874‐96)....

Table 5.7 Sensitivity to impact (according to Russian Standard B 84‐892‐74)....

Table 5.8 The components of high‐energy compositions with μAl.

Table 5.9 The components of high‐energy compositions with Fe

2

O

3

.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Physicochemical properties of TKX‐50.

Table 6.2 Characteristics of AP and TKX‐50 particles.

Table 6.3 Mechanical sensitivity data of TKX‐50 and of TKX‐50 coated with di...

Table 6.4 The mechanical sensitivity of various EMs as well as of related co...

Table 6.5 The impact and friction sensitivity of TKX‐50/GO and other composi...

Table 6.6 Detonation properties of TKX‐50 and four composites at 298 K.

Table 6.7 The melt cast explosive composition and properties of formulations...

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Summary of progress in studies on preparation, reaction mechanism ...

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Different applications and preparation methods for EMs based on gr...

Table 8.2 Different applications and preparation methods for EMs based on CN...

Table 8.3 Sensitivity and combustion characteristics of ATRZ‐1/thermite mixt...

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Tetra‐ol GAP physical properties [49].

Table 10.2 Heat release of R

1

and kinetic parameters of R

1

and R

2

[49].

Table 10.3 Comparison of residue mass fractions [49].

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Some properties of the investigated propellants ingredients.

Table 11.2 Optimal and maximal specific impulse of the investigated HTPB‐bas...

Table 11.3 Optimal and maximal specific impulse of the investigated GAP‐base...

Table 11.4 Optimal and maximal specific impulse of the investigated PGN‐base...

Table 11.5 Optimal and maximal specific impulse of the investigated PAMMO‐ba...

Table 11.6 Optimal and maximal specific impulse of the investigated PBAMO‐ba...

Table 11.7 Average mass molar of combustion products and adiabatic flame tem...

Table 11.8 Average mass molar of combustion products and adiabatic flame tem...

Table 11.9 Average mass molar of combustion products and adiabatic flame tem...

Table 11.10 Average mass molar of combustion products and adiabatic flame te...

Table 11.11 Average mass molar of combustion products and adiabatic flame te...

Table 11.12 Hydrochloric acid elimination from the investigated HTPB‐based p...

Table 11.13 Hydrochloric acid elimination from the investigated GAP‐based pr...

Table 11.14 Hydrochloric acid elimination from the investigated PGN‐based pr...

Table 11.15 Hydrochloric acid elimination from the investigated PAMMO‐based ...

Table 11.16 Hydrochloric acid elimination from the investigated PBAMO‐based ...

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Propellant loading, thrust, and required burn rate for an end‐bur...

Table 12.2 Variation of vacuum

I

sp

in the third stage of PSLV with the chamb...

Table 12.3 Source of various ingredients used for preparing solid propellant...

Table 12.4 The list of compositions prepared by varying PTFE fraction in com...

Table 12.5 Viscosity, density, and heat of combustion comparison.

Table 12.6 Comparison of agglomerate mass of the various components.

Table 12.7 Comparison of current Pegasus design with the proposed new design...

Table 12.8 Source of various ingredients used for preparing hybrid fuel.

Table 12.9 List of various hybrid fuel compositions prepared.

Table 12.10 Mechanical properties of the various compositions of hybrid rock...

Table 12.11 Various combustion parameters for different hybrid fuel composit...

Table 12.12 Mass of particulate matter collected from the exhaust plume of t...

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Average diameter, specific surface area of particles and active e...

Table 13.2 Temperatures of the onset, intensive and end of oxidation, the sp...

Table 13.3 Temperatures of the onset, intensive and end of decomposition for...

Table 13.4 Fitted constants and determination coefficient.

Table 13.5 Coefficient

K

ign

for the EM samples with Alex/Me and Alex/B NPs....

Table 13.6 Calculated kinetic parameters and temperatures of ignition of the...

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Characteristics and abilities of microthruster for micro/nano sat...

Table 15.2 Characteristics of solid propellants for microthrusters.

Table 15.3 Properties of ingredients in primer explosive propellant.

Table 15.4 Parameters of conventional chambers and microchambers.

Table 15.5 Combustion properties of promising stoichiometric thermites (in a...

Table 15.6 Ideal propulsion parameters of stoichiometric thermites for stand...

Table 15.7 Reaction heat of stoichiometric n‐Al/CuO analyzed by DSC.

Table 15.8 Heat of Al/CuO at different molar mass ration by sol–gel and ultr...

Table 15.9 Average burning time and specific impulse of Al/CuO/NC solid prop...

Table 15.10 Average burning time and specific impulse of Al/CuO/PVDF solid p...

Table 15.11 Performance of microthrusters with top ignition.

Table 15.12 Performance of microthrusters with bottom ignition.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Overview of advantages and disadvantages commonly observed on inc...

Table 16.2 Comparison of the properties relevant to energetic materials for ...

Table 16.3 Comparison of the energetic performance and sensitivity to extern...

Table 16.4 Overview of selected properties of the various hydroxylammonium s...

Table 16.5 Comparison of properties of ammonium salts containing the bi(nitr...

Table 16.6 Overview of important energetic properties of the most interestin...

Table 16.7 Overview of important properties with respect to use as a melt‐ca...

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Critical energy requirement for PETN initiation.

Table 17.2 Melting points and decomposition temperatures for pyrotechnic fue...

Table 17.3 Melting points and decomposition temperatures for different types...

Table 17.4 Examples of fast and or gas‐generating thermites studied by a var...

Chapter 18

Table 18.1 Threshold and ignition delay time depending on the charge density...

Table 18.2 Thresholds of initiation of aluminized explosives by laser pulse....

Chapter 20

Table 20.1 The Visco‐SCRAM parameters of the HMX‐based PBX.

Table 20.2 The thermodynamic properties of the specimen.

Table 20.3 The Johnson‐Cook parameters for steel.

Table 20.4 The plastic kinematic parameters for PTFE.

Table 20.5 The dimension of the region of the temperature rise (

v

 = 44 m s

−1

...

Table 20.6 The impact velocity threshold value prediction.

Table 20.7 the ignition prediction of different projectile shapes.

Table 20.8 First‐impact velocity and second‐impact velocity threshold in the...

Table 20.9 Parameters of the distribution of the microcrack length.

Table 20.10 Range of impact velocity for different microcrack distributions ...

Table 20.11 The thermodynamic properties of the specimen.

Chapter 22

Table 22.1 The characteristic data of the used HMX particles: mean particle ...

Table 22.2 HMX content and HMX type incorporated in the PBX formulations.

Table 22.3 The basic composition of three energetic materials is compared in...

Table 22.4 The characteristic data of the four PBX formulations: (i) HMX par...

Table 22.5 Characteristic data of two pure binder formulations used in the h...

Table 22.6 Results of the modeling of baseline corrected loss factor curves ...

Table 22.7 Results of the modeling of baseline corrected loss factor curves ...

Table 22.A.1 Data for the comparison of the two types of equation to descri...

Table 22.A.2 Used data sets of BV_HX481 with the corresponding reference pai...

Table 22.A.3 Result of the evaluation of the data set of Binder BV_HX481 wi...

Table 22.A.4 Result of the evaluation of the data set of Binder BV_HX481 wit...

Table 22.A.5 Result of the evaluation of the data set of Binder BV_HX481 wit...

Table 22.A.6 Results of the evaluation of data of BV_HX481 with direct appl...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1

Classification of composite energetics systems

(Gray shaded compo...

Figure 1.2 Response of a propellant (a) and an explosive (b).

Figure 1.3 Pressure history and mechanical effect of the basic modes of reac...

Figure 1.4 Multiple flame BDP propellant combustion model.

Figure 1.5 Micrographs of a composite energetics. (a) – propellant.. (b)...

Figure 1.6 Semi‐chronological development of oxidizers and explosive fillers...

Figure 1.7 Polymeric binders developed for propellants and explosives compos...

Figure 1.8 Nitrogen‐rich energetic polymers. (a): polytetrazole and polyphos...

Figure 1.9 MD simulations of fluoropolymer on TATB [001, 100] crystallograph...

Figure 1.10 Interaction between a fluoropolymer and HMX (distances given in ...

Figure 1.11 MD simulations of amorphous RDX–PE‐pressed PBX. (a) Atom-atom pa...

Figure 1.12 Dewetting of composite matrices by electron microscopy. (a) – HT...

Figure 1.13

ε

m

/

ε

f

(−40 °C) for collagen‐coated HMX and RDX.

Figure 1.14 Modes of interactions of SAM with filler in composite EM. PG – p...

Figure 1.15 TEPANOL, BA1 type SAM for AP propellants.

Figure 1.16 Acid‐activated aziridine wetting (WA2) and bonding agents (BA2)....

Figure 1.17 Homo‐polymerization of acyl aziridine (a) and crosslinking react...

Figure 1.18 Isocyanurates and hydantoin wetting (WA1) and bonding agents (BA...

Figure 1.19 Neutral polymeric bonding agents (NPBA's) for nitramine fillers ...

Figure 1.20 Dopamine polymerization and coating of explosives. (a): in situ ...

Figure 1.21 Bonding agents tested for TATB.

Figure 1.22 Scaled performance as function of oxygen balance for a propellan...

Figure 1.23 Sequence of events in an impact sensitivity test of a propellant...

Figure 1.24 Sequence of events in an impact sensitivity test of a PBX sample...

Figure 1.25 Sensitivity correlation for composites: ln[FoI(Impact)×FoI(Frict...

Figure 1.26 Standard score distribution of impact and friction figure of ins...

Figure 1.27

Effect of

S

/

V

and void content on propellant response.

(a): L

DDT

Figure 1.28 Time–distance description of a DDT process. p‐piston compression...

Figure 1.29

(A): Damaged PBX 9501 in a tube

. (a) Large view, (b) Micro‐CT

(B

...

Figure 1.30 Shape Charge Plasma Jet‐Induced DDT Experimental Configuration a...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 (a) HMX burning rate at ambient temperature; (b) RDX burning rate...

Figure 2.2 AP burning rate at ambient temperature.

Figure 2.3 (a) Experimental facility for pressurized counterflow strand burn...

Figure 2.4 Burning rates of two composite propellants consisting of AP/HTPB ...

Figure 2.5 Burning rates of JA2 as a function of pressure.

Figure 2.6 Burning rates of nitromethane as a function of pressure.The l...

Figure 2.7 Burning rates at ambient temperature of 13 M HAN/water solution (...

Figure 2.8 Frame images from high‐speed photographs of liquid nitromethane b...

Figure 2.9 Combustion of liquid nitromethane as a function of tube diameter ...

Figure 2.10 ((A): top row) Combustion of 88 wt% HAN/4.6 wt% AN/7.4 wt% H

2

O (...

Figure 2.11 Images for combustion of 73.6 wt% HAN/3.9 wt% AN/6.2 wt% H

2

O/16....

Figure 2.12 Photographs of HAN/H

2

O/CH

3

OH burning at various pressures in gla...

Figure 2.13 Thick foam layer on burning surface of RDX at 0.17 MPa (10 psig)...

Figure 2.14 (a) Flame attachment to carbonaceous flakes on JA‐2 at 1.48 MPa ...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Molecular structures of cyclic nitramines used for the preparatio...

Figure 3.2 SEM micrographs of ND‐RDX particles obtained by antisolvent cryst...

Figure 3.3 SEM images for HMX, nano‐TATB, HMX@TATB, and their corresponding ...

Figure 3.4 Molecular structure of CL‐20 in 2D (left) and in 3D format (right...

Figure 3.5 SEM micrographs of (a) raw CL‐20 crystal, (b) raw PNCB crystal, (...

Figure 3.6 SEM images of explosive samples: (a) raw CL‐20; (b) raw HMX; and ...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Optical microscope image of CL‐20·¼N

2

O

4

solvate.

Figure 4.2 Optical microscope image of CL‐20·0.5N

2

O clathrate.

Figure 4.3 ESR spectrum of NO

2

in CL‐20 matrix.

Figure 4.4 Powder patterns of CL‐20·¼N

2

O

4

in comparison with α‐CL‐20 and ε‐C...

Figure 4.5 TG and DSC curves of CL‐20·¼N

2

O

4

solvate at a heating rate 10 °C/...

Figure 4.6 TG and DSC curves of CL‐20·0.5N

2

O clathrate at a heating rate 10 ...

Figure 4.7 Comparison of rate constants of decomposition of CL‐20·¼N

2

O

4

(red...

Figure 4.8 The vapor pressure over CL‐20·¼N

2

O

4

(red circles) and CL‐20·0.5N

2

Figure 4.9 Comparison of the burning rates of CL‐20·¼N

2

O

4

(circles), CL‐20·0...

Figure 4.10 Comparison of temperature profiles for combustion of ε‐CL‐20 and...

Figure 4.11 Comparison of pressure dependencies of surface temperatures for ...

Figure 4.12 Comparison of the rate constants of the leading combustion react...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Scheme of separation of solid‐propellant components.

Figure 5.2 Scheme of the distribution of metal particles with inclusion of m...

Figure 5.3 Microstructure of the crystals: CL‐20/μAl (a–c), CL‐20/nAl (d, e)...

Figure 5.4 Microstructure of CL‐20/B

amorphous

(a–c) and CL‐20/AlB

2

(d–f) cry...

Figure 5.5 Microstructure of CL‐20/TiB

2

crystals at magnifications ×300 (a) ...

Figure 5.6 HMX crystals produced according to method 1 (a) and method 2 (b)....

Figure 5.7 Microstructure of HMX/μAl crystals produced at stirring rates of ...

Figure 5.8 DTA curves for the CL‐20

raw

, CL‐20/B

amorphous

, and CL‐20/AlB

2

cry...

Figure 5.9 DTA curves for CL‐20

raw

, CL‐20/μAl, CL‐20/Alex, and CL‐20/Fe

2

O

3

c...

Figure 5.10 TG and DSC curves of HMX/μAl crystals.

Figure 5.11 Microstructure of sample №1‐2 surface.

Figure 5.12 Dependence of burning rates on pressure for samples of groups №1...

Figure 5.13 Microstructure and morphology of agglomerates created as a resul...

Figure 5.14 Dependence of burning rates on pressure for samples group №3.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Structure of TKX‐50.

Figure 6.2 SEM photograph of TKX‐50 crystal prepared by different methods. (...

Figure 6.3 SEM and particle size distribution of TKX‐50 after different mill...

Figure 6.4 SEM photographs of

ε

‐CL‐20, TKX‐50 and CL‐20/TKX‐50 co‐cryst...

Figure 6.5 DSC curves of

ε

‐CL‐20, TKX‐50, TKX‐50/CL‐20 mixture and CL‐2...

Figure 6.6 CED spectra and mechanical properties of TKX‐50/HMX co‐crystal....

Figure 6.7 SEM images of (a) raw PETN, (b) raw TKX‐50, (c) PETN/TKX‐50 co‐cr...

Figure 6.8 DSC curves of (a) raw PETN, (b) raw TKX‐50, (c) PETN/TKX‐50 mixtu...

Figure 6.9 SEM images of TKX‐50 and TKX‐50/GO. (a, b) Low‐magnification; (c,...

Figure 6.10 DTA curves of TKX‐50 and TKX‐50/GO at 10 °C m

−1

.

Figure 6.11 The impact and friction sensitivity of TKX‐50/GO composite.

Figure 6.12 CED versus temperature of TKX‐50 and of the four systems.

Figure 6.13 Mechanical properties of TKX‐50 and of TKX‐50/fluorine‐containin...

Figure 6.14 Mechanical properties (a), quotient K/G and Poisson's ratio of T...

Figure 6.15 Scheme showing the formation of nano‐sensitized TKX‐50.

Figure 6.16 SEM images of (a, b) raw TKX‐50, and (c–e) the nano‐sensitized T...

Figure 6.17 TG‐DSC curves of raw TKX‐50 (a) and nano‐sensitized TKX‐50 (b)....

Figure 6.18 Effect of TKX‐50 content on the energetic performance of HTPB pr...

Figure 6.19 Graphs showing the theoretical performance of HTPB/TKX‐50 (RDX) ...

Figure 6.20 Effect of TKX‐50 content on the energetic performance of GAP pro...

Figure 6.21 Effect of TKX‐50 content on the energetic performance of the NEP...

Figure 6.22 Effect of TKX‐50 content on the energetic performance of the CMD...

Figure 6.23 A comparison of burning rate

vs

. pressure dependencies for

ε

...

Figure 6.24 The burn rate of the HTPB composite propellant containing TKX‐50...

Figure 6.25 DSC (a) and TG–DTG (b) curves of TKX‐50.

Figure 6.26 Plots of pressure rise rate

vs

. pressure of TKX‐50 (a) and HMX (...

Figure 6.27 Evolution of the potential energy with time at various temperatu...

Figure 6.28 DSC curves of pure TKX‐50 and TKX‐50 mixed with different cataly...

Figure 6.29 SEM (a–c), TEM (d–f) and HRTEM (g–i) images of CoFe

2

O

4

(a, d, g)...

Figure 6.30 DSC and TG–DTG curves of TKX‐50 before and after being mixed wit...

Figure 6.31 SEM (a), TEM (b) images of MXene and DSC curves of TKX‐50 and MX...

Figure 6.32 DSC curves and solidified surface of CMDB propellant containing ...

Figure 6.33 SEM images of different composite explosives. (a) TKX‐50 60%, TN...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Schematics of typical microstructures of aluminum‐based MICs: Lef...

Figure 7.2 Schematic diagram of the core–shell geometry considered in the re...

Figure 7.3 (a) DSC/TG traces of Al/PTFE MICs in argon; (b) the dependence of...

Figure 7.4 (a) propellant sample (on left), the burning surfaces of samples ...

Figure 7.5 (A) Schematic of preparation of energetic multilayer thin film by...

Figure 7.6 Schematic diagrams shown for the reaction model of Al/CuO multila...

Figure 7.7 The reactivity control of multilayer structured MICs by adding di...

Figure 7.8 Schematic of the self‐propagation reaction and the resulting DSC ...

Figure 7.9 (A) TEM images taken on the morphology of core–shell structured A...

Figure 7.10 (A) TEM images of PDA interfacial layers with various thicknesse...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Schematic diagram of the reaction mechanism of Al/AgIO

3

nanotherm...

Figure 8.2 EDS characterization of a nanothermite based on 5% GO/Al/KClO

4

....

Figure 8.3 Raman spectra of neat GO and RGO powder and 5% GO/Al/KClO

4

.

Figure 8.4 XRD patterns of CNMs/thermite samples.

Figure 8.5 TGA thermogram for different percentages of GO over Al/KClO

4

nano...

Figure 8.6 DSC thermograms percentages of different % of GO nanothermites.

Figure 8.7 Suggested mechanism of tertiary nanothermites reaction.

Figure 8.8 Peak thrust and combustion duration of 5% GO/Al/KClO

4

with differ...

Figure 8.9 Thrust‐time curves for different GO/nanothermite samples at (A) 2...

Figure 8.10 Schematic of electrospinning formation of quaternary NC/GO/Al/KC...

Figure 8.11 Suggested reaction mechanism of quaternary nanothermites.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Different burning surfaces for solid propellant at 1 MPa with Al ...

Figure 9.2 Nanothermite materials heated in situ at ∼10

11

 K s

−1

showed...

Figure 9.3 Time‐resolved mass spectrum (a) and peak intensity (b) of gas spe...

Figure 9.4 (a) Schematic showing high‐speed microscope imaging of 3D‐printed...

Figure 9.5 Gelation process in 3D printing (upper); Cross‐sectional SEM and ...

Figure 9.6 Burning snapshots with normal exposure (a), low exposure (b), and...

Figure 9.7 Linear burn rate, flame temperature, and normalized heat flux of ...

Figure 9.8 (a) Series of reactive sintering and ignition snapshots of a grou...

Figure 9.9 (a) Two typical temperature map snapshots of flame front of Al/Cu...

Figure 9.10 Microstructure of a propellant model replicating an Oxidizer/Met...

Figure 9.11 Schematic illustrating the “pockets” of Al in Al/CuO composites ...

Figure 9.12 The evolution of agglomerations (a–c) with different size distri...

Figure 9.13 Coalescing, bubbling, and micro‐explosion processes were observe...

Figure 9.14 Optical image (a) and schematic showing (b) direct writing proce...

Figure 9.15 Macroscopic imaging snapshots of Al/CuO (Al/CuO is ∼82–90 wt%, v...

Figure 9.16 Microscopic imaging of Al/CuO composite prints without (a) and w...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Linear burning rates of GAP and GAP60PPG40.

Figure 10.2

T

s

and

T

f

as a function of pressure.

Figure 10.3 SEM images of quenched sample @2.3 MPa.

Figure 10.4 Schematic of the structure of GAP combustion.

Figure 10.5 Schematic of the microstructure of GAP combustion.

Figure 10.6 Three phase‐one dimensional GAP combustion model with respect to...

Figure 10.7 SEM image of HVR sphere.

Figure 10.8 Physical sketch of combustion residue formation: HVR + yellow po...

Figure 10.9 Comparison of temperature profile between experiment and simulat...

Figure 10.10 Comparison of linear burning rate between experiment and simula...

Figure 10.11 Conceptual scheme of gas hybrid rocket.

Figure 10.12

φ

80 mm rocket motor.

Figure 10.13 Comparison of the burning rate between small motors and strand ...

Figure 10.14

C

* efficiency of GAP gas generator.

Figure 10.15 Gas hybrid rocket motors with different length of secondary com...

Figure 10.16 Firing test of GAP gas hybrid rocket.

Figure 10.17

C

* efficiency as a function of secondary combustor

L

*.

Figure 10.18 Change in secondary combustor pressure when changing

O

/

F

.

Figure 10.19 Linear burning rates of GAP+PEG mixtures.

Figure 10.20 Experimental setup for the double layered grain GAP100 and GAP9...

Figure 10.21 Results from gas hybrid rocket test using double layered grain ...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Ideal specific impulse evolution versus ingredients mass fractio...

Figure 11.2 Ideal specific impulse evolution versus ingredients mass fractio...

Figure 11.3 Ideal specific impulse evolution versus ingredients mass fractio...

Figure 11.4 Ideal specific impulse evolution versus ingredients mass fractio...

Figure 11.5 Ideal specific impulse evolution versus ingredients mass fractio...

Figure 11.6 Ideal combustion characteristics of the investigated CSPs formul...

Figure 11.7 Volumetric specific impulse improvement of the investigated CSPs...

Figure 11.8 Energetic performance and chlorine scavenging effect of the inve...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Schematic of the hybrid rocket.

Figure 12.2 Particle size distribution of Pyral powder.

Figure 12.3 Schematic of Crawford bomb setup.

Figure 12.4 Pressure variation inside the Crawford bomb during the experimen...

Figure 12.5 Schematic of the propellant holder for burn rate measurement....

Figure 12.6 Various performance parameters versus PTFE fraction in solid pro...

Figure 12.7 TGA and DSC analysis of Pyral powder activated with 15% PTFE in ...

Figure 12.8 (a) SEM picture of the mechanically activated aluminum powder. (...

Figure 12.9 Burn rate versus pressure comparison of propellant with PTFE fra...

Figure 12.10 Variation of temperature sensitivity with pressure for the comp...

Figure 12.11 Schematic of the propellant holder for agglomerate collection....

Figure 12.12 Particle size distribution of agglomerates after quenching.

Figure 12.13 Schematic of a dog bone‐shaped fuel specimen (ASTM D638 standar...

Figure 12.14 Schematic of the experimental setup used for hybrid rocket stud...

Figure 12.15 Schematic of the hybrid rocket motor.

Figure 12.16

I

sp

versus O/F (a) and density specific impulse versus O/F (b) ...

Figure 12.17 Regression rate versus

G

ox

for fuel composition tabulated in Ta...

Figure 12.18 Pressure in the combustion chamber and settling chamber versus ...

Figure 12.19 Theoretically and experimentally obtained

C

*

versus O/F for...

Figure 12.20 Schematic of the setup used for collecting the particulate matt...

Figure 12.21 SEM analysis (1500 times magnification) of particulate matter c...

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Micrographs of the initial metal and amorphous boron powders. (a...

Figure 13.2 TG (a) and DSC (b) lines of metal and boron powders in air.

Figure 13.3 TG (a) and DSC (b) lines of EM containing Alex/Me NP.

Figure 13.4 The schematic diagram of experimental setup based on CO

2

laser: ...

Figure 13.5 Ignition delay time on the heat flux density for the EM samples ...

Figure 13.6 High‐speed video frames of the EM ignition. (a) μAl‐EM, (b) Alex...

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 An artistic view of a ground‐effect vehicle with CO

2

‐breathing j...

Figure 14.2 Schematic diagram of a testing facility for the propulsion syste...

Figure 14.3 SEM image of the product obtained after combustion of an Mg part...

Figure 14.4 Equilibrium composition and heat release of Li–CO

2

system at 120...

Figure 14.5 Equilibrium composition of Li–CO

2

system (CO

2

/Li mole ratio in t...

Figure 14.6 Post‐test CT scan images of the reactors operated at temperature...

Figure 14.7 Schematic diagrams of reactors for (a) coflow and (b) counterflo...

Figure 14.8 SEM images of (a) an SLMP particle and (b) a broken edge of the ...

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Replaced services of micro/small satellite constellations.

Figure 15.2 Cubesat satellite dimensions (a) [1] and NUST's nanosatellite (2...

Figure 15.3 A Krypton ion thruster used in Starlink v1.0 microsatellite.

Figure 15.4 3 × 5 digital propulsion chip with sandwich structure in a 24‐pi...

Figure 15.5 Structure of an array of pyrotechnical thrusters (without pyrote...

Figure 15.6 Structure and condition of the MEMS thruster after ignition test...

Figure 15.7 A 10 × 10 solid‐propellant thruster chip and its control module....

Figure 15.8 Thirty‐two solid microrockets arrayed on a 22 mm × 22 mm substra...

Figure 15.9 Design of the planar silicon solid‐propellant microrocket and a ...

Figure 15.10 Single thruster structure and MEMS‐based solid‐propellant micro...

Figure 15.11 Structure of porous silicon thruster and three nozzle condition...

Figure 15.12 Combustion wave structure of solid propellant in a microtube.

Figure 15.13 Scheme of constant pressure burner.

Figure 15.14 Combustion image of B/KNO

3

in 0.1 MPa, 300 K and 1.0 mm ID crys...

Figure 15.15 Burning rate of B/KNO

3

along the displacement of burning surfac...

Figure 15.16 Burning rate of B/KNO

3

propellants.

Figure 15.17 Thrust of free‐nozzle thruster depending on the chamber diamete...

Figure 15.18 Impulse of free‐nozzle thruster depending on the chamber diamet...

Figure 15.19 Composites of thermite propellant.

Figure 15.20 Sketch of solid‐propellant microthrusters; the throat section a...

Figure 15.21 Closed bomb to measure pressure and burning time.

Figure 15.22 Measured normalized combustion parameters of Al/I

2

O

5

, Al/MoO

3

, ...

Figure 15.23 Dependance of burning time and specific impulse on equivalence ...

Figure 15.24 Micro images of Al/CuO thermites by electrostatic spray.

Figure 15.25 Combustion performance of Al/CuO/NC and Al/CuO/PVDF solid prope...

Figure 15.26 Configuration of a solid‐propellant microthruster with bottom i...

Figure 15.27 Testing apparatus of solid‐propellant microthruster array.

Figure 15.28 Flame images of thruster with top ignition (a) and with bottom ...

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Summary of functional groups commonly observed in recent example...

Figure 16.2 Structures of the highly promising TKX‐50 (bishydroxylammonium 5...

Figure 16.3 Examples of high explosive triazole, tetrazole, tetrazine, and a...

Figure 16.4 Examples of the effect of

N

‐oxidation on the densities and deton...

Figure 16.5 Four‐step synthetic route for the preparation of MAD‐X1 – an

N

‐o...

Figure 16.6 Crystal structure of the salt dihydroxylammonium 3,3′‐dinitro‐5,...

Figure 16.7 Synthetic route used for the formation of 1‐hydroxy‐5

H

‐tetrazole...

Figure 16.8 Solid‐state structure of 1‐hydroxy‐5

H

‐tetrazole showing the slig...

Figure 16.9 Crystal packing of hydroxylammonium 1‐oxido‐5

H

‐tetrazolate (a) a...

Figure 16.10 Crystal structure of packing of bis‐(1‐hydroxytetrazol‐5‐yl)tri...

Figure 16.11 Two examples of recently prepared

N

‐oxide containing energetic ...

Figure 16.12 Nitrogen‐ring fused heterocycles combined with the nitroamide a...

Figure 16.13 Nitrogen‐containing fused heterocycle 1,2,4‐triazolo[4,3‐

b

][1,2...

Figure 16.14 Crystal structure of 6‐aminotetrazolo[1,5‐

b

][1,2,4,5]tetrazine ...

Figure 16.15 Structure of the large energetic molecule 6,6′‐{1,2,4,5‐Tetrazi...

Figure 16.16 Structures of tetrazino‐tetrazine‐1,3,6,8‐tetroxide (TTTO, DTTO...

Figure 16.17 Structure of 1,2,9,10‐tetranitrodipyrazolo[1,5‐

d

:5′,1′‐

f

][1,2,3...

Figure 16.18 Eight‐step synthetic procedure for the synthesis of 1,2,9,10‐te...

Figure 16.19 Synthetic route for the preparation of dinitrobis(1,2,4‐triazol...

Figure 16.20 Crystal structure of dinitrobis(1,2,4‐triazolo)tetrazine showin...

Figure 16.21 Solid‐state crystal structure of 1,3‐

bis

(trinitromethyl)‐1,2,4‐...

Figure 16.22 Synthetic route used for the preparation of the various hydroxy...

Figure 16.23 Synthetic route used for the preparation of the hydroxylammoniu...

Figure 16.24 Synthetic route used for the preparation of the hydroxylammoniu...

Figure 16.25 The four isomers of the oxadiazole ring, from (a)–(d): 1,2,4‐, ...

Figure 16.26 Solid‐state structures of the ammonium salts of the bi(nitramin...

Figure 16.27 Solid‐state structure of 2,5‐Bis(trinitromethyl)‐1,3,4‐oxadiazo...

Figure 16.28 Synthetic strategy for the preparation of the neutral 2,5‐bis(t...

Figure 16.29 Synthetic strategy for the preparation of the hydroxylammonium ...

Figure 16.30 Original synthetic route used to prepare the highly sensitive 3...

Figure 16.31 The four‐step synthetic strategy for the preparation of the dia...

Figure 16.32 The four types of stacking generally observed for aromatic ener...

Figure 16.33 Modifying the group attached to one of the nitrogen ring atoms ...

Figure 16.34 Modifying the group attached to one of the nitrogen ring atoms ...

Figure 16.35 Using the RDX six‐membered ring with alternating –CH

2

‐N(NO

2

)– m...

Figure 16.36 Synthetic routes used for the synthesis of the polynitro dipyra...

Figure 16.37 Structures of Bis(1,2,4‐oxadiazole)bis(methylene) dinitrate (BO...

Figure 16.38 Optimized synthetic procedure for the synthesis of bis(1,2,4‐ox...

Figure 16.39 Crystal structure of bis(1,2,4‐oxadiazole)bis(methylene) dinitr...

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Chemical delay detonator. (a) Seal, (b) shock tube, (c) anti‐sta...

Figure 17.2 DDT initiator consisting of, an electrical ignitor (a), a delay ...

Figure 17.3 Differential thermal analysis (DTA) responses for two stoichiome...

Figure 17.4 Core volume fraction as a function of particle size.

Figure 17.5 Projectile‐based design of Glavier, Nicollet [66]. (a) Wires for...

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 1‐

H

‐5‐Hydrazinotetrazole mercury(II) perchlorate, HTMP,

1.

Figure 18.2 Chemical formula of PVMT polymer (

n

,

m

– coefficients).

Figure 18.3 Alkaline salts 4,4′,5,5′‐tetranitro‐2,2′‐biimidazole (TNBI), X =...

Figure 18.4

N

‐amino‐substituted tetrazoles and triazoles as ligands of light...

Figure 18.5 Polynitrophenols.

Figure 18.6

N

‐akyl substituted tetrazoles as ligands of light‐sensitive high...

Figure 18.7

N,N

‐ditetrazolylalkanes as ligands of light‐sensitive high‐energ...

Figure 18.8 3‐Amino‐1

H

‐1,2,4‐triazole‐5‐carbohydrazide (ATCA) as ligand of l...

Figure 18.9 5,6‐Bis(ethylnitroamino)‐

N

′2,

N

′3‐dihydroxy‐pyrazine‐2,3‐bis‐(car...

Figure 18.10 Light‐sensitive high‐energy copper complex

61

.

Figure 18.11 Tetraammine‐bis‐(5‐nitrotetrazolato‐N

2

) cobalt(III) perchlorate...

Figure 18.12 Pentaammine(5‐nitrotetrazolato‐N

2

) cobalt(III) perchlorate, NCP...

Figure 18.13 Structural model of graphene's sheets with terminal hydroxyl gr...

Figure 18.14 Graphene oxide sheet, GO (Structural model of Hoffman – Wikiped...

Figure 18.15 Сarbohydrazide, CHZ.

Figure 18.16 Structural model of the CHZ‐M‐GO (M = Cu, Ni, and Co) coordinat...

Figure 18.17 Internal structure of a detonator laser analog with an explodin...

Figure 18.18 Pentaerythritol tetranitrate, PETN.

Figure 18.19 Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine, RDX.

Figure 18.20 Benztrifuroxan, BTF.

Figure 18.21 Cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine, HMX.

Chapter 19

Scheme 19.1 The trinitrotoluene mechanism of the primary thermal decompositi...

Scheme 19.2 A possible mechanism of the primary fission of 2,2′,4,4′,6,6′‐he...

Scheme 19.3 The mechanism of the primary thermal decomposition of aliphatic ...

Scheme 19.4 The thermal decomposition of TKX‐50 passes through very reactive...

Scheme 19.5 A possible mechanism of the triazole‐ring opening, constructed o...

Figure 19.1 The modified Piloyan method of DTA‐curve treatment: (a) exotherm...

Figure 19.2 Graphic presentation of Eq. (19.5).Here the code designation...

Figure 19.3 Graphic representation of Eq. (19.7) for polynitramines.With...

Figure 19.4 The modified Evans–Polanyi–Semenov equation (19.9) for: (a) Poly...

Figure 19.5 The logarithmic relationship between the rate constants of the m...

Figure 19.6 Logarithmic relationships on the basis of the specific rate cons...

Figure 19.7 A simple comparison of impact sensitivity (expressed as drop ene...

Figure 19.8 Supramolecular architecture for the “dimer” of 1,3,5‐trinitro‐1,...

Scheme 19.6 The lengths of the C—N bonds (in pm) in 1,3,5‐trinitrobenzene‐2,...

Figure 19.9 Relationships based on

15

N NMR chemical shifts: (a)

15

N NMR chem...

Figure 19.10 The semilogarithmic relationship between the impact sensitivity...

Figure 19.11 The semilogarithmic relationship between the impact sensitivity...

Figure 19.12 The relationship between the friction sensitivity and

15

N NMR c...

Figure 19.13 The mutual dependence of the electric‐spark sensitivity, expres...

Figure 19.14 The relationship between the activation energies of thermal unc...

Figure 19.15 The relation between the slopes of the Kissinger relationship (...

Figure 19.16 The relationship between the impact sensitivity, expressed as t...

Figure 19.17 The relationship between the electric‐spark sensitivity (spark ...

Figure 19.18 A modified Evans–Polanyi–Semenov equation (19.9) for azides and...

Figure 19.19 A comparison of TNT splitting by heat, shock wave, and detonati...

Scheme 19.7 One of the possible ways of TNT methyl‐group participation in re...

Scheme 19.8 A verbally expressed chemical decomposition of RDX in detonation...

Figure 19.20 Relationships with square detonation velocities (modified versi...

Figure 19.21 Relationships with the volume energy of detonation (

Q

det

·

ρ

Figure 19.22 The relationship between the volume heat of explosion,

ρQ

m

...

Figure 19.23 A mutual semilogarithmic comparison of impact sensitivity, expr...

Figure 19.24 The relationship between the relative explosive strength and th...

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1 The constitutive material model: Visco‐SCRAM model.

Figure 20.2 The Steven test simulation model.

Figure 20.3 The pressure history of the element at the center of the base of...

Figure 20.4 The temperature distribution of the specimen when the impact vel...

Figure 20.5 The temperature distribution of the specimen at time

t

 = 0.246 m...

Figure 20.6 The temperature history at different positions of the specimen: ...

Figure 20.7 Ignition time predictions.

Figure 20.8 The schematic of the definition of the symbols in Table 20.5....

Figure 20.9 The temperature rise distribution as the time of different radia...

Figure 20.10 The temperature rise distribution of different thickness specim...

Figure 20.11 Different projectile shapes.

Figure 20.12 The temperature rise region with respect to different projectil...

Figure 20.13 Crack distribution (a) at the end of the first impact with diff...

Figure 20.14 Temperature rise distribution in multiple‐ and single‐impact ca...

Figure 20.15 Difference in second impact velocity threshold between intermit...

Figure 20.16 Ignition impact velocity threshold under different numbers of i...

Figure 20.17 The distribution of initial microcrack size: (a) Uniform distri...

Figure 20.18 Ignition probability as a function of impact velocity for diffe...

Figure 20.19 Different unimodal normal distributions of the microcrack densi...

Figure 20.20 The ignition probability with the impact velocity under differe...

Figure 20.21 Different bimodal normal distributions of microcrack density nu...

Figure 20.22 The ignition probability with the impact velocity under differe...

Figure 20.23 The impact velocity for 50% ignition probability: (a) with diff...

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1 A schematic of plate impact experiments for HMX crystals.

Figure 21.2 HMX/PMMA interface velocity profiles for shock loading parallel ...

Figure 21.3 (a) Shock wave velocity versus particle velocity and (b) plastic...

Figure 21.4 (a) Shock wave velocity versus particle velocity and (b) plastic...

Figure 21.5 (a) A schematic of quasi‐isentropic compression experiment. (b) ...

Figure 21.6 Measured HMX/LiF interface velocity profiles for (a) (010) and (...

Figure 21.7 Experimental [28] and calculated [29] histories of interface par...

Figure 21.8 Histories of interface particle velocity and inelastic strains f...

Figure 21.9 Histories of tested and simulated particle velocity at the inter...

Figure 21.10 Histories of (a) pressure and (b) elastic and inelastic strain,...

Figure 21.11 Principle scheme of the modified drop‐weight apparatus integrat...

Figure 21.12 Recorded images of RDX and salt crystals with 10 cm‐drop‐height...

Figure 21.13 Recorded images of HMX and salt crystals with 10 cm‐drop‐height...

Figure 21.14 Recorded images of one HMX crystal with 5 cm‐drop‐height.

Figure 21.15 Recorded images of one HMX crystal with 15 cm‐drop‐height.

Figure 21.16 Recorded images of one RDX crystal with 20 cm‐drop‐height.

Figure 21.17 Recorded images of one RDX crystal on a piece of waxed paper wi...

Figure 21.18 Microscopic images of the unreacted crushed RDX crystal.

Figure 21.19 Recorded images of one RDX crystal on a piece of tissue paper w...

Figure 21.20 Recorded images of one HMX crystal on a piece of tissue paper w...

Chapter 22

Figure 22.1 Loss factor tan

δ

versus measurement temperature of HEC HX1....

Figure 22.2 Loss factor tan

δ

versus measurement temperature of CRP1, in...

Figure 22.3 Baseline corrected loss factor tan

δ

versus temperature for ...

Figure 22.4 Comparison of the storage shear moduli G′. HX 497‐pdb has signif...

Figure 22.5 Comparison of the loss shear moduli G″. As with G′, HX 497‐pdb s...

Figure 22.6 Loss factor curves (tan

δ

 = G″/G′) of the formulations witho...

Figure 22.7 Baseline corrected loss factor curves of the four formulations. ...

Figure 22.8 Baseline corrected loss factor of HX 479‐tdb (with energetically...

Figure 22.9 Baseline corrected loss factor of HX 481‐nb (with normal binder)...

Figure 22.10 Baseline corrected loss factors of HX 497‐nb (normal binder) as...

Figure 22.11 Baseline corrected loss factors of HX 497‐pdb (pseudo “dirty” b...

Figure 22.12 Pure binder BV_HX497, which is the binder type in the HEC (high...

Figure 22.13 EMG and Gauss modeling of the baseline corrected loss factor of...

Figure 22.14 EMG and Gauss modeling of the baseline corrected loss factor of...

Figure 22.15 EMG and Gauss modeling of the baseline corrected loss factor of...

Figure 22.16 EMG and Gauss modeling of the baseline corrected loss factor of...

Figure 22.17 EMG and Gauss modeling of the baseline corrected loss factor of...

Figure 22.18 EMG and Gauss modeling of the baseline corrected loss factor of...

Figure 22.19 Gauss modeling of the baseline corrected loss factor of binders...

Figure 22.20 Parameterizing the frequency shift of GRT temperature of loss f...

Figure 22.21 Parameterizing the frequency shift of GRT temperature of loss f...

Figure 22.22 Parameterizing the frequency shift of GRT temperature of loss f...

Figure 22.23 Glass–rubber transition temperatures of the four formulations, ...

Figure 22.24 Activation energies Ea

f

from the temperature parameterization o...

Figure 22.25 Comparison of EMG‐parameters from the four formulations: area

A

Figure 22.26 Activation energies Ea

0M

from the temperature parameterization ...

Figure 22.27 Zero‐mobility or mobility freezing temperatures (MFT)

T

0M

of th...

Figure 22.28 Comparison of several characteristic temperatures of the four f...

Figure 22.A.1 Comparison of three data descriptions with Tr fixed: (i)

a

T

‐v...

Figure 22.A.2 Comparison of three data descriptions with Tr as fit parameter...

Figure 22.B.1 Four conformers of IPDI (isophorone diisocyanate) resulting fr...

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

About the Editors

Begin Reading

Index

End User License Agreement

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Nano and Micro‐Scale Energetic Materials

Propellants and Explosives

Volume 1

Edited by Weiqiang Pang and Luigi T. DeLuca

Nano and Micro‐Scale Energetic Materials

Propellants and Explosives

Volume 2

Edited by Weiqiang Pang and Luigi T. DeLuca

Editors

Prof. Weiqiang PangXi'an Modern Chemistry Research InstituteScience and Technology on Combustion and Explosion LaboratoryNo. 168 Zhangba East Road710065 Xi'anChina

Prof. Luigi T. DeLucaPolitecnico di MilanoSpace Propulsion Laboratory (RET)via G. La Masa 3421056 MilanItaly

Cover Image: © djero.adlibeshe yahoo.com/Shutterstock

All books published by WILEY‐VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.

Library of Congress Card No.: applied for

British Library Cataloguing‐in‐Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche NationalbibliothekThe Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.

© 2023 WILEY‐VCH GmbH, Boschstraße 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany

All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.

Print ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐35206‐7ePDF ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐83532‐4ePub ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐83533‐1oBook ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐83534‐8

Editors

Prof. Weiqiang PangXi'an Modern Chemistry Research InstituteScience and Technology on Combustion and Explosion LaboratoryNo. 168 Zhangba East Road710065 Xi'anChina

Prof. Luigi T. DeLucaPolitecnico di MilanoSpace Propulsion Laboratory (RET)via G. La Masa 3421056 MilanItaly

Cover Image: © djero.adlibeshe yahoo.com/Shutterstock

All books published by WILEY‐VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.

Library of Congress Card No.: applied for

British Library Cataloguing‐in‐Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche NationalbibliothekThe Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.

© 2023 WILEY‐VCH GmbH, Boschstraße 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany

All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.

Print ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐35207‐4ePDF ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐83532‐4ePub ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐83533‐1oBook ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐83534‐8

Preface

An accidental explosion somewhere in China, during the Chin (221 BCE–207 BCE) or Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), probably in the far 220 BCE, marked the beginning of the solid energetic materials (EMs) development on our planet. Chinese alchemists had discovered black powder (or something very close, according to historians1): a mixture of potassium nitrate (KNO3, also known as saltpeter), sulfur, and charcoal. For centuries, the development of fireworks or firecrackers to scare evil spirits was the fortuitous driving force for pyrotechnics, solid propellants, and solid explosives as well. Primordial solid rocket motors (SRMs) were built, particularly in India in the late 1700s (cast‐iron tubes), with gravimetric specific impulse (Is) reaching at most ≈80 seconds under standard operating conditions.

Only after the discovery of liquid nitroglycerin (NG