Nanocarbons for Electroanalysis E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Nanocarbon Chemistry and Interfaces (NY)
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 579

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Beschreibung

A comprehensive look at the most widely employed carbon-based electrode materials and the numerous electroanalytical applications associated with them. A valuable reference for the emerging age of carbon-based electronics and electrochemistry, this book discusses diverse applications for nanocarbon materials in electrochemical sensing. It highlights the advantages and disadvantages of the different nanocarbon materials currently used for electroanalysis, covering the electrochemical sensing of small-sized molecules, such as metal ions and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), as well as large biomolecules such as DNA, RNA, enzymes and proteins. * A comprehensive look at state-of-the-art applications for nanocarbon materials in electrochemical sensors * Emphasizes the relationship between the carbon structures and surface chemistry, and electrochemical performance * Covers a wide array of carbon nanomaterials, including nanocarbon films, carbon nanofibers, graphene, diamond nanostructures, and carbon-dots * Edited by internationally renowned experts in the field with contributions from researchers at the cutting edge of nanocarbon electroanalysis Nanocarbons for Electroanalysis is a valuable working resource for all chemists and materials scientists working on carbon based-nanomaterials and electrochemical sensors. It also belongs on the reference shelves of academic researchers and industrial scientists in the fields of nanochemistry and nanomaterials, materials chemistry, material science, electrochemistry, analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, and biochemistry.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Series Preface

Preface

Chapter 1: Electroanalysis with Carbon Film-based Electrodes

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Fabrication of carbon film electrodes

1.3 Electrochemical performance and application of carbon film electrodes

References

Chapter 2: Carbon Nanofibers for Electroanalysis

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Techniques for the Preparation of CNFs

2.3 CNFs Composites

2.4 Applications of CNFs for electroanalysis

2.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 3: Carbon Nanomaterials for Neuroanalytical Chemistry

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Carbon Nanomaterial-based Microelectrodes and Nanoelectrodes for Neurotransmitter Detection

3.3 Challenges and Future Directions

3.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 4: Carbon and Graphene Dots for Electrochemical Sensing

4.1 Introduction

4.2 CDs and GDs for Electrochemical Sensors

4.3 Electrochemiluminescence Sensors

4.4 Photoelectrochemical Sensing

4.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 5: Electroanalytical Applications of Graphene

5.1 Introduction

5.2 The Birth of Graphene

5.3 Types of Graphene

5.4 Electroanalytical Properties of Graphene

5.5 Future Outlook for Graphene Electroanalysis

References

Chapter 6: Graphene/gold Nanoparticles for Electrochemical Sensing

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Interfacing Gold Nanoparticles with Graphene

6.3 Electrochemical Sensors Based on Graphene/Au NPs Hybrids

6.4 Conclusion

Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 7: Recent Advances in Electrochemical Biosensors Based on Fullerene-C60 Nano-structured Platforms

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Modification of Electrodes with Fullerenes

7.3 Conclusions and Future Prospects

References

Chapter 8: Micro- and Nano-structured Diamond in Electrochemistry: Fabrication and Application

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Fabrication Method of Diamond Nanostructures

8.3 Application of Diamond Nanostructures in Electrochemistry

8.4 Summary and Outlook

Acronyms

References

Chapter 9: Electroanalysis with C3N4 and SiC Nanostructures

9.1 Introduction to g-C

3

N

4

9.2 Synthesis of g-C

3

N

4

9.3 Electrocatalytic Behavior of g-C

3

N

4

9.4 Electroanalysis with g-C

3

N

4

Nanostructures

9.5 Introduction to SiC

9.6 Synthesis of SiC Nanostructures

9.7 Electrochemical Behavior of SiC

9.8 SiC Nanostructures in Electroanalysis

9.9 Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

Index

End User License Agreement

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Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Preface

Begin Reading

List of Tables

Chapter 1: Electroanalysis with Carbon Film-based Electrodes

Table 1.1 Fabrication of carbon film electrodes by pyrolysis process.

Table 1.2 Electroanalytical application of nitrogen containing carbon film electrodes.

Table 1.3 Surface properties of the O-nanocarbon and F-nanocarbon films.

Table 1.4

S

ummarization of the metal nanoparticle modified carbon electrode for electroanalysis.

Chapter 2: Carbon Nanofibers for Electroanalysis

Table 2.1 A summary of CNFs-based non-enzymatic biosensors toward dopamine, hydrogen peroxide and glucose.

Table 2.2 A summary of enzyme-based biosensors fabricated by CNFs composites.

Table 2.3 A summary of immunosensors based on CNFs composites.

Chapter 5: Electroanalytical Applications of Graphene

Table 5.1 A selected non-exhaustive list of properties of graphene, the combination of which has excited scientists across the globe.

Table 5.2 Table listing some selected works using GF as an electrode material in electroanalytical applications.

Table 5.3 Table listing some selected works using solution-based graphene as an electrode material in electroanalytical applications.

Chapter 6: Graphene/gold Nanoparticles for Electrochemical Sensing

Table 6.1 Detection of several different organic and inorganic analytes.

Table 6.2 Protein sensing.

Chapter 7: Recent Advances in Electrochemical Biosensors Based on Fullerene-C60 Nano-structured Platforms

Table 7.1 Comparison of different fullerene-C

60

modified biosensors.

Chapter 8: Micro- and Nano-structured Diamond in Electrochemistry: Fabrication and Application

Table 8.1 Comparison between different diamond materials in literature.

Chapter 9: Electroanalysis with C3N4 and SiC Nanostructures

Table 9.1 Comparison of properties of graphite and g-C

3

N

4

.

Table 9.2 g-C

3

N

4

nanostructure used in electroanalysis.

Table 9.3 SiC nanostructure in electroanalysis.

Nanocarbon Chemistry and Interfaces

Series Editor

Nianjun Yang, Institute of Materials Engineering, University of Siegen, Germany

Titles in the Series

Nanocarbons for Electroanalysis

Sabine Szunerits, Rabah Boukherroub, Alison Downard, Jun-Jie Zhu

Forthcoming Titles

Carbon Nanomaterials for Bioimaging, Bioanalysis and Therapy

Huan-Cheng Chang, Yuen Yung Hui, Haifeng Dong, Xueji Zhang

Novel Carbon Materials and Composites: Synthesis, Properties and Applications

Xin Jiang, Zhenhui Kang, Xiaoning Guo, Hao Zhuang

Nanocarbon Electrochemistry

Nianjun Yang, Guohua Zhao, John S. Foord

Nanocarbons and their Hybrids

Jean-Charles Arnault, Dominik Eder

Nanocarbons for Electroanalysis

Edited by

Sabine Szunerits

Institute of Electronics Microelectronics and Nanotechnology (IEMN) Villeneuve d'Ascq France

Rabah Boukherroub

Institute of Electronics Microelectronics and Nanotechnology (IEMN) Villeneuve d'Ascq France

Alison Downard

Department of Chemistry University of Canterbury Christchurch, New Zealand

Jun-Jie Zhu

School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing, China

This edition first published 2017

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for

Names: Szunerits, Sabine, editor. | Boukherroub, Rabah, editor. | Downard, Alison (Professor of Chemistry), editor. | Zhu, Jun-Jie, 1960- editor.

Title: Nanocarbons for electroanalysis / edited by Sabine Szunerits, Rabah Boukherroub, Alison Downard, Jun-Jie Zhu.

Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2017. | Series: Nanocarbon chemistry and interfaces | Includes bibliographical references and index. |

Identifiers: LCCN 2017016745 (print) | LCCN 2017037312 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119243946 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119243953 (epub) | ISBN 9781119243908 (cloth)

Subjects: LCSH: Electrodes, Carbon. | Electrochemical analysis. | Nanostructured materials-Electric properties.

Classification: LCC QD572.C37 (ebook) | LCC QD572.C37 N36 2017 (print) | DDC 543/.40284-dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017016745

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: © adventtr/Gettyimages

List of Contributors

Mandana Amiri

University of Mohaghegh Ardabili

Iran

Craig E. Banks

Manchester Metropolitan University

Manchester

UK

Rabah Boukherroub

Institute of Electronics

Microelectronics and Nanotechnology (IEMN)

Villeneuve d'Ascq

France

Ying Chen

School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering

Nanjing University

China

Karolien De Waelt

AXES Research Group

Department of Chemistry

University of Antwerp

Belgium

Fang Gao

Fraunhofer Institute

Freiburg

Germany

Tomoyuki Kamata

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology

Tsukuba

Ibaraki

Japan

and

Chiba Institute of Technology

Japan

Dai Kato

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology

Tsukuba

Ibaraki

Japan

Libo Li

School of Agricultural Equipment Engineering

Institute of Agricultural Engineering

Jiangsu University

China

Lingling Li

School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering

Nanjing University

China

Musen Li

Key Laboratory for Liquid–solid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials

Shandong University

Jinan

China

Dong Liu

School of Agricultural Equipment Engineering

Institute of Agricultural Engineering

Jiangsu University

China

Christoph Nebel

Fraunhofer Institute

Freiburg

Germany

Osamu Niwa

Advanced Science and Research Laboratory

Saitama Institute of Technology

Japan

and

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology

Tsukuba

Ibaraki

Japan

Sanaz Pilehvar

AXES Research Group

Department of Chemistry

University of Antwerp

Belgium

Edward Randviir

Manchester Metropolitan University

Manchester

UK

Shunsuke Shiba

Advanced Science and Research Laboratory

Saitama Institute of Technology

Japan

and

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology

Tsukuba

Ibaraki

Japan

and

Chiba Institute of Technology

Japan

Sabine Szunerits

Institute of Electronics, Microelectronics and Nanotechnology (IEMN)

University of Lille

Villeneuve d'Ascq

France

Alina Vasilescu

International Center of Biodynamics

Bucharest

Romania

B. Jill Venton

Department of Chemistry

University of Virginia

Charlottesville

Virginia

USA

Qian Wang

Key Laboratory for Liquid–solid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials

Shandong University

Jinan

China

Cheng Yang

Department of Chemistry

University of Virginia

USA

Tianyan You

School of Agricultural Equipment Engineering

Institute of Agricultural Engineering

Jiangsu University

China

Jun-Jie Zhu

School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering

Nanjing University

China

Series Preface

Carbon, the 6th element in the periodic table, is extraordinary. It forms a variety of materials because of its ability to covalently bond with different orbital hybridizations. For millennia, there were only two known substances of pure carbon atoms: graphite and diamond. In the mid-1980s, a soccer-ball shaped buckminsterfullerene, namely a new carbon allotrope C60, was discovered. Together with later found fullerene-structures (C70, C84), the nanocarbon researcher was spawned. In the early 1990s, carbon nanotubes were discovered. They are direct descendants of fullerenes and capped structures composed of 5- and 6-membered rings. This was the next major advance in nanocarbon research. Due to their groundbreaking work on these fullerene materials, Curl, Kroto and Smalley were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In the beginning of the 2000s, graphene was prepared using Scotch tape. It is a single sheet of carbon atoms packed into a hexagonal lattice with a bond distance of 0.142 nm. For their seminal work with this new nanocarbon material, Geim and Novoselov were awarded the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics. As new members, carbon nanoparticles, such as diamond nanoparticles, carbon dots, and graphene (quantum) dots, have emerged in the family of nanocarbon materials. Although all these materials only consist of the same carbon atoms, their physical, chemical, and engineering features are different, which are fully dependent on their structures.

The purpose of this series is to bring together up-to-date accounts of recent developments and new findings in the field of nanocarbon chemistry and interfaces, one of the most important aspects of nanocarbon research. The carbon materials covered in this series include diamond, diamond nanoparticles, graphene, graphene-oxide, graphene (quantum) dots, carbon nanotubes, carbon fibers, fullerenes, carbon dots, carbon composites, and their hybrids. The formation, structure, properties, and applications of these carbon materials are summarized. Their relevant applications in the fields of electroanalysis, biosensing, catalysis, electrosynthesis, energy storage and conversion, environment sensing and protection, biology and medicine are highlighted in different books.

I certainly want to express my sincere thanks to Miss Sarah Higginbotham from Wiley's Oxford office. Without her efficient help or her valuable suggestions during this book project, the publication of this book series would not be possible.

Last, but not least, I want to thank my family, especially my wife, Dr. Xiaoxia Wang and my children Zimo and Chuqian, for their constant and strong support as well as for their patience in letting me finalize such a book series.

February 2017

Nianjun Yang Siegen, Germany

Preface

Recent developments in materials science and nanotechnology have propelled the development of a plethora of materials with unique chemical and physical properties. Carbon-based nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes, carbon dots, carbon nanofibers, fullerenes and, more recently graphene, reduced graphene oxide and graphene quantum dots have gained a great deal of interest for different applications including electroanalytical applications. Diamond nanostructures as well as silicon carbide and carbon nitride nanostructures have to be added to the spectrum of carbon-based nanomaterials widely used nowadays for electrochemical sensing.

It is the objective of this book to present the most widely employed carbon-based electrode materials and the numerous electroanalytical applications associated with them. It seems that several elements underlie research in electroanalysis today. Advances made in nanotechnology and nanosciences have made the fabrication of novel carbon-based materials and their deposition onto electrical interfaces in the form of thin and 3D films possible. The different nanostructures of electrodes have led to a wealth of electrical interfaces with improvements in terms of sensitivity, selectivity, long-term stability and reproducibility together with the possibility for mass construction in good quantities at low cost. Besides the exceptional physico-chemical features of these materials, the presence of abundant functional groups on their surface and good biocompatibility make them highly suitable for electroanalysis. This has motivated a number of researchers over the last decade to explore different chemical and physical routes to obtain nanomaterials with superior electrochemical properties.

The first part of the book deals with the value of carbon nanomaterials in the form of fibres, particles and thin films for electroanalysis. Chapter 1 (by Osama Niwa) explores the properties of nanocarbon films for electroanalysis. Chapter 2 (by Tianyan You, Dong Liu and Libo Li) reviews electroanalytical application of carbon nanofibers and related composites. The state of the art of the fabrication of carbon nanofibers will be provided followed by an overview their applications for the construction of non-enzymatic and enzyme-based biosensors as well as immunosensors. The value of carbon nanomaterials for neuroanalytical chemistry is presented in Chapter 3 (by Chen Yang and Jill Venton). The high electrocatalytic activity of neurotransmitters such as dopamine on carbon surfaces allows for the development of highly sensitive direct neurotransmitter detection. The challenges towards implementing the electrodes routinely in vivo will be discussed furthermore. This first part will be concluded by Chapter 4 (by Junijie Zhu, Lingling Li and Ying Chen) on the use of carbon and graphene dots for electrochemical analysis.

The second part of the book considers the value of graphene for electroanalytical applications. Chapter 5 (by Edward Randviir and Craig Banks) gives an excellent insight into the use of graphene for electoanalysis. This chapter discusses the origins of graphene, the types of graphene available and their potential electroanalytical properties of the many types of graphene available to the researcher today. Chapter 6 (by Sabine Szunerits and Rabah Boukherroub) demonstrates that loading of graphene nanosheets with gold nanoparticles generates a new class of functional materials with improved properties and thus provides new opportunities of such hybrid materials for catalytic biosensing.

The use of the most recent applications of fullerene-C60 based electrochemical biosensors is presented in Chapter 7 (by Sanaz Pilehavar and Karolien De Wael) Taking into account the biocompatibility of fullerene-C60, different kind of biomolecules such as microoganisms, organelle, and cells can be easily integrated in biosensor fabrication making the interfaces of wide interest.

The third part of the book describes the value of diamond and other carbon-based nanomaterials such as carbon nitride (C3N4) and silicon carbide (SiC). Chapter 8 (by Christophe Nebel) is focused on the different aspects of diamond nanostructures for electrochemical sensing. Chapter 9 (by Mandana Amiri) is focused on the interest of carbon nitrides and silicon carbide nanoparticles for the fabrication of new electroanalytical sensing platforms.

It is hoped that this collection of papers provides an overview of a rapidly advancing field and are resources for those whose research and interests enter into this field either from sensing or material scientific perspectives. While many topics are presented here, there are many that were not able to be included but are also of current interest or are emerging. All of the contributors are thanked for their brilliant and valuable contributions.

June 2017

Sabine Szunerits Villeneuve d'Ascq France

Rabah Boukherroub Villeneuve d'Ascq France

Alison Downard Christchurch New Zealand

Jun-Jie Zhu Nanjing China

Chapter 1Electroanalysis with Carbon Film-based Electrodes

Shunsuke Shiba1,2,3, Tomoyuki Kamata2,4, Dai Kato2 and Osamu Niwa1,2

1Advanced Science and Research Laboratory, Saitama Institute of Technology, Japan

2National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Ibaraki, Japan

3Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan

4Chiba Institute of Technology, Japan

1.1 Introduction

As electrode materials for analytical applications, carbon-based electrodes have been widely employed as detectors for high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), capillary electrophoresis (CE) and various biosensors. Carbon materials usually shows wider potential window compared with those of novel metals such as platinum and gold electrode. These electrodes are chemically stable, highly conductive and low cost. A recent review article has well described the electrochemistry of certain carbon-based electrodes [1]. Glassy carbon (GC) and highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) have been traditionally utilized for various electroanalytical methods. Later, carbon paste electrodes have been used mainly to develop enzymatic biosensors because carbon paste is low cost and the electrode can be fabricated only by printing and various biomolecules can be modified only by mixing with carbon ink.

In the last 20 years, electrochemical measurements using boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes have become more intensively studied by many groups [2–4]. A BDD electrode shows extremely wider potential window due to its chemical stability and lower background noise level than other electrode materials. Due to such unique performances, BDD electrodes are advantageous in terms of detecting various species including heavy metal ions (Pb2+, Cd2+) [5], chlorinated phenols [6], histamine and serotonin [7, 8], and even nonmetal proteins [9]. The BDD electrodes have also been employed to fabricate modified electrodes including As3+ detection with iridium-implanted BDD [10], DNA modified BDD [11] and cytochrome c modified BDD [12]. In spite of excellent performance of BDD electrodes, high temperature between 400–700° C is needed for BDD fabrication, which limits the substrates only to inorganic materials such as silicon wafer, metals and glass plate.

More recently, nanocarbon materials including carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon nanofibers (CNFs) and graphene nanosheet have been more intensively studied with a view to using them as electrode materials for fuel and biofuel cells [13–15]. For electroanalytical application CNT and graphene have been employed to fabricate various biosensors because nanocarbon electrodes have large surface area suitable to immobilize large amount of enzymes and antibodies [16–20]. The surface area of such nanocarbon film with immobilizing large amount of biomolecules can achieve sufficient sensitivity and longer stability. More recently, the graphene was modified onto interdigitated array electrode and applied for electrochemical immunoassay [21].

In spite of some works using nanocarbons as film electrode, the nanocarbon materials have been mainly used by modifying them on the solid electrode and larger surface area of nanocarbons also show large capacitive and background currents and reduce signal to noise (S/N) ratio when detecting trace amount of analytes.

In contrast, carbon film electrodes have been used for direct measurement of electroactive molecules such as neurotransmitters and nucleic acids. Various kinds of carbon film materials have been developed using various fabrication processes including pyrolysis of organic films, sputter deposition, chemical vapor deposition. However, carbon film electrodes are needed to improve the electron transfer rate of analytes in order to retain diffusion-limited electrochemical reactions because their smooth surface has fewer active sites than the surfaces of nanocarbon materials. Therefore, it is required to fabricate carbon films with better electroactivity. Another important advantage is that carbon film can be patterned to any shape and size with high reproducibility for use as platforms for chemical or biochemical sensors by utilizing conventional photolithographic process [22]. In this chapter, the fabrication processes of carbon film electrodes are introduced. Then, we described structure and electrochemical properties of various carbon film electrodes. Finally, we describe the application of carbon film electrodes for electroanalysis of mainly biomolecules.

1.2 Fabrication of carbon film electrodes

In order to fabricate carbon film electrodes, the pyrolysis of organic films including various polymers and deposited aromatic compounds have been employed by many groups as summarized in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Fabrication of carbon film electrodes by pyrolysis process.

Carbon film

Procedures and properties

References

Pyrolysis of PTDA

1

PTDA is deposited in quartz tube and pyrolyzed at 850° C at 0.01 torrConductivity :250 S cm

–1

(Kaplan et al.)

Kaplan

et al

. 1980 [23],Rojo

et al

. 1986 [24]

Pyrolyzed poly-(phenylene vinylene) film

Microdisk electrode from pyrolyzed PPV films around 1100° C

Tabei et al., 1993 [26]

Pyrolysis of phenol-formaldehyde resin around 1000° C

Spin-coat with phenolic resin solution on the substrate and pyrolysis at 800 or 1050° C.Conductivity: from 2 × 10

–2

to 2 × 10

–3

Ω cm

Lyons

et al

. 1983 [27]

Pyrolysis of photoresist AZ4330 from 600 to 1100° C.Near atomic flatness <0.5 nm

Kim et al., 1998 [28]Ranganathan

et al

. 2001 [29]

Pyrolysis of photoresist AZ4620 at 1100° C.Conductivity comparable to GC

Brooksby

et al

. 2004 [30]

Pyrolysis of photoresist AZ4562 by rapidThermal process (140° C min

–1

to 1000° C.

Campo

et al

. 2011 [31]

Pyrolyzed polyimide film

IDA electrode fabricated by pyrolysis of thick polyimide films and photolithography on quartz substrates.

Morita

et al

. 2015 [32]

1 3, 4, 9, 10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride.

Kaplan et al. deposited 3, 4, 9, 10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTDA) films on the substrate, pyrolyzed them above 700° C and obtained conducting carbon film [23]. The conductivity was comparable to that of a GC electrode. Rojo et al. obtained carbon film using a similar method to Kaplan et al. and employed it for electrochemical measurements of catechol and catecholamines [24]. Tabei and Niwa et al. employed this process to microfabricate interdigitated array electrodes by lithographic technique [25].

The conducting polymers are also suitable to make highly conducting carbon film because the film already has π−conjugated structure. Tabei et al. used poly(p-Phenylene Vinylene):PPV coated on the substrate and prepared carbon film electrode by the pyrolysis at 1100° C, then fabricated to microdisk array electrode [26]. The carbon films have been fabricated by pyrolyzing conventional polymers. Positive photoresist, which mainly consist of phenol resin was used as precursor polymer and pyrolyzed the film at high temperature because positive photoresist can be easily spin-coated into uniform films [27]. The resistivity was between 2 × 10–2 to 2 × 10–3 Ω cm depending on the pyrolysis temperature. The electrochemical performance of pyrolyzed photoresist films (PPF) has been intensively studied by McCreery and Madou's groups [28, 29]. PPF film has a lower O/C ratio than a GC electrode and relatively larger peak separations were observed from the voltammograms of Fe3+/2+ and DA. The carbon film obtained by photoresist has very smooth surface. In fact, Ranganathan et al. observed that the average roughness is less than 0.5 nm by the atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurement of PPF carbon film. The modification of PPF film by diazonium reduction was performed by Brooksby et al. [30]. The modification of such carbon films is very important to use them as platforms of various electrochemical biosensors. More recently, the relationship between fabrication processes of PPF such as types of resists, and heating programs, and their resistivity and surface roughness, were well summarized by Compton's group [31]. Morita et al. carbonized polyimide (PI) film and fabricated IDA electrode [32]. The height of the electrode is ranging from 0.1 to 4.5 µm since PI is suitable to obtain thicker film.

On the other hand, carbon film electrodes have been developed by using various vacuum deposition techniques including magnetron or radio frequency (RF) or electron cyclotron resonance sputtering deposition, electron beam evaporation, plasma-assisted chemical vapor deposition (PACVD), radio-frequency plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (RF-PECVD). Most well known carbon film is diamond like carbon(DLC), which is very widely used for coating of drills and cutting tools because DLC is extremely hard. Smooth and inert surface of DLC is also suitable to improve biocompatibility and applied for the coating of medical devices. A Ternary phase diagram of amorphous carbons including DLC was reported by Ferrari et al. [33] .

As an electrode materials, DLC shows high S/N ratio and low capacitance [34]. Blackstock et al. reported ultraflat carbon film (~ 0.1 nm) whose electrochemical response is similar to that of GC [35]. Swains' group has been studied nitrogen-containing amorphous carbon films and their electrochemical performance as discussed in the later section [36]. Hirono et al. developed a very smooth and hard carbon film using electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) sputtering [37]. The film consists of sp2 and sp3 hybrid bonds with a nanocrystalline structure and the sp2 and sp3 ratio can be easily controlled by changing ion acceleration voltage from 20 to 85 V. Figure 1.1 shows surface image and line scan data of ECR sputtered carbon film obtained by AFM. The average roughness (Ra) is 0.07 nm, indicating atomic level flatness [38]. The film contains nanocrystalline graphite like structure different from amorphous carbon film, which contributes to improve electrochemical performance as described later. In fact, a parallel layered structure identified as a nano-order graphite crystalline structure can be observed at a low ion acceleration voltage, but a curved and closed nanostructure is dominant at a high ion acceleration voltage. More recently, Kamata et al. fabricated the carbon film with similar structure and electrochemical properties to those of ECR nanocarbon film by using unbalanced magnetron (UBM) sputtering [39]. Figure 1.1 shows schematic diagram of UBM sputtering equipment (Figure 1.2a) compared with conventional magnetron sputtering (Figure 1.2b).

Figure 1.1 AFM image of ECR sputtered carbon surface (a) and line profile (b).

Reprinted with permission from [38]. Copyright 2006 American Chemical Society.

Figure 1.2 Comparison of schematic diagram of UBM sputtering equipment (b) compared with conventional magnetron sputtering (a).

The plasma is only distributed near the target in case of conventional magnetron sputtering. In contrast, the plasma is distributed near the substrate and the ion irradiation occurs onto the substrate, which can widely control the structure of carbon film including sp3 and sp2 ratio.

1.3 Electrochemical performance and application of carbon film electrodes

When fabricating carbon film based electrode, other atoms such as nitrogen and oxygen or even metal nanoparticles can be contained. For example, nitrogen doping can be performed in the presence of small amount of N2 during vacuum process. Surfacetermination with other atoms such as hydrogen and nitrogen can be easily performed because the conducting carbon film contains certain amount of sp2 bonds, which is chemically reactive. Metal nanoparticles which usually show better electrocatalytic performance for analytes have been developed by pyrolysis and vacuum technique. In this section, the electrochemical performance and applications of pure, surface terminated and hybrid carbon films are summarized.

1.3.1 Pure and oxygen containing groups terminated carbon film electrodes

The carbon films prepared by pyrolyzing organic and polymer films usually contains graphite layers. Figure 1.3a is Raman spectra of the carbon film prepared by Niwa et al. [25] on the basis of the process reported by Rojo et al. [24].

Figure 1.3 (a) Raman spectrum of carbon film deposited on an oxldlzed silicon wafer. (b) Generation-collection voltammograms of 100 μM dopamine in pH 6 phosphate buffer at carbon-based IDA electrodes with different pretreatment conditions: (i) neither electrode pretreated; (ii) generator electrode pretreated; (iii) collector electrode pretreated; (iv) both electrodes pretreated. The collector potential was held at –0.2 V, and the generator potential was cycled at a scan rate of 50 mV s–1. The IDA bandwidth and gap are 3 and 2 µm, respectively. Adapted with permission from [25]. Copyright 1994 American Chemical Society.

The two relatively broad peaks were observed at 1590 and 1340 cm–1, and assigned to disordered graphite structure. As an electrode material, Rojo et al. reported that the electrochemical response of catechol is irreversible, but became ideal after electrochemical treatment at 1.8 V. Figure 1.3b compared voltammograms of 100 μM dopamine (DA) at the carbon-based IDA electrode before (1) and after (2) electrochemical treatment. Carbon film-based IDA was fabricated by photolithographic technique. After electrochemical treatment, the current increases more rapidly compared with that before treatment. The electrochemical pretreatment increases surface area caused by etching the surface and introduces oxygen containing groups.

In contrast, carbon films prepared by vacuum process have wide variety of the structure as described above. Figure 1.4 shows relationship between potential window and sp3 [sp3/(sp2+sp3)] concentration of the UBM sputtered nanocarbon film. The width of potential window increases with increasing sp3 ratio [39]. However, the peak separations of Fe(CN)64– and DA becomes larger when sp3 concentration is around 50%. The wide potential window of UBM sputtered nanocarbon film electrode is advantageous to measure biomolecules with high oxidation potential.

Figure 1.4 Relationship between potential window and sp3 [sp3/(sp2+sp3)] concentration of the UBM sputtered nanocarbon film.

The flat surface of nanocarbon film also contributes to suppress the fouling of electrode surface. With a conventional electrode such as a GC electrode, the relatively rougher surface adsorbs the molecules. In contrast, the molecules easily desorbed from the nanocarbon film electrode surface after electrochemical reaction because of its flat and chemically stable surface. For example, we achieved much better reproducibility and detection limit compared with GC when measuring 8-OHdG which is known as oxidative stress marker [40]. The suppression of fouling can be enhanced at hydrophilic surface. The electrochemical treatment simply introduces oxygen containing groups, which can be confirmed by reduction of contact angle and XPS measurements [41]. The electrochemical treatment of the carbon electrodes such as GC often make the surface very rough, but nanocarbon film still maintain smooth surface after electrochemical treatment. The electrochemical response of serotonin and thiol was greatly improved after electrochemical treatment at ECR nanocarbon film electrode. This performance is particularly advantageous when measuring biomolecules with large molecular weight since large biomolecules often strongly adsorb on the electrode surface and interfere with the electron transfer between the analytes and electrode. Simple electrochemical DNA analysis techniques such as DNA methylation [42] and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) [43] detection have been reported based on the quantitative measurement of all the bases by direct electrochemical oxidation. Figure 1.5 shows background-subtracted differential pulse voltammograms (DPVs) of 3 μM of oligonucleotides (1: 5'-CAG-CAG-CAG-3', 2: 5'- CAG-CAA-CAG -3', 3: 5'- CAA-CAA-CAG -3', 4: 5'- CAA-CAA-CAA-3', the underline base represents a mismatch base) at the nanocarbon film electrode.

Figure 1.5 Background-subtracted differential pulse voltammograms (DPVs) of 3 mM of oligonucleotides (1: 5'-CAG-CAG-CAG-3', 2: 5'- CAG-CAA-CAG -3', 3: 5'- CAA-CAA-CAG -3', 4: 5'- CAA-CAA-CAA-3') at the (a) ECR nanocarbon film, GC, and BDD electrodes in 50 mM pH5.0 acetate buffer.

The peaks assigned by G oxidation decreases and A oxidation increases with increasing number of A in the oligonucleotide. However, the oxidation of C cannot be observed at GC electrode due to narrower potential window compared with those at ECR nanocarbon film and BDD electrodes. We also observed that oxidation current of oligonucleotide reduced rapidly by continuous measurement at GC, but not at ECR nanocarbon films due to their flat and hydrophilic surface. The response of each base is sharper at ECR nanocarbon film compared with BDD, indicating relatively rapid electron transfer. Furthermore, we also measured each base content of longer oligonucleotides (60mers) that constitute a non-methylated and a methylated CpG dinucleotide with some different methylation ratios [44].

1.3.2 Nitrogen containing or nitrogen terminated carbon film electrodes

It has been reported nitrogen containing carbon materials shows interesting electrocatalytic performances, particularly oxygen reduction reaction(ORR). Ozakis' group developed carbon alloy which enhances oxygen reduction activity by simultaneous doping of boron and nitrogen into carbon materials [45]. In particular, nitrogen doped carbon materials have been studied by many groups to apply as electrodes for fuel cell. In 2009, Dai et al. reported nitrogen-doped carbon nanotube arrays which show high ORR activity and long time stability [46]. Their group also developed nitrogen-doped graphene by thermally annealed with ammonia and realized n-type field-effect transistor at room temperature [47]. More recently, Uchiyama et al. observed hydrogen oxidation wave using glassy carbon electrode fabricated by stepwise electrolysis in ammonium carbamate aqueous solution and hydrochloric acid [48]. At holding the electrode at 0 V (vs Ag/AgCl), the oxidation current increases by bubbling hydrogen gas and decreases after stopping hydrogen gas supply.

Beside such bulk carbons and nanocarbon materials, nitrogen containing carbon film electrodes have been studied by many groups because the films have a wide variety of structure such as sp2/sp3 ratio and show improved electrocatalytic activity. Yoo et al. reported that nitrogen-incorporated tetrahedral amorphous carbon electrode shows more active charge transfer properties on a variety of systems relative to the H-terminated BDD and excellent stability [49]. Swain's group reported the nitrogen-doped nanocrystalline diamond thin-film deposited by Gruen and co-workers using microwave-assisted chemical vapor deposition (CVD) from C60/argon and methane/nitrogen gas mixtures consisted of hemispherical features about 150 nm in diameter with a height of 20 nm [50]. The film is active for redox species such as Fe(CN)63–/4– and Ru(NH3)62+/3+ without any conventional pretreatment and shows semimetallic electronic properties between 0.5 and –1.5 V (vs. Ag/AgCl). The same group also fabricated similar film electrode by plasma-enhanced CVD, which also shows high electrochemical activity [51]. Tanaka et al