Nanocatalysis in Ionic Liquids E-Book
142,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Edited and written by renowned experts in the field, this is the first book to reflect the state of the art of nanocatalysis in ionic liquids.
Divided into two core areas, the first part of the book describes the different classes of metal nanoparticles as well as their synthesis in ionic liquids, while the second focuses on such emerging issues as the application of such systems to energy and biomass conversion.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 619
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
References
Foreword
Symbols and Abbreviations
Part I: Synthesis, Characterization, and Evaluation of Nanocatalysts in Ionic Liquids
Chapter 1: Fe, Ru, and Os Nanoparticles
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Synthesis of Fe, Ru, and Os NPs in ILs
1.3 Ionic Liquid Stabilization of Metal Nanoparticles
1.4 Applications of Ru, Fe, and Os Nanoparticles to Catalysis
1.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 2: Co, Rh, and Ir Nanoparticles
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Chemical Routes for the Synthesis of Metal NPs in ILs
2.3 Catalytic Application of Metal NPs in ILs
2.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 3: Ni and Pt Nanoparticles
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Synthesis and Characterization of Pt NPs in ILs
3.3 Catalytic Applications of Pt NPs in ILs
3.4 Synthesis and Characterization of Ni NPs in ILs
3.5 Catalytic Applications of Ni NPs in ILs
3.6 Summary and Conclusions
Symbols and Abbreviations
References
Chapter 4: Pd Nanoparticles for Coupling Reactions and Domino/Tandem Reactions
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Formation of Pd NPs in ILs
4.3 The Heck Coupling
4.4 The Suzuki Reaction
4.5 The Stille Coupling
4.6 The Sonogashira Coupling
4.7 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 5: Soluble Pd Nanoparticles for Catalytic Hydrogenation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Synthesis of Pd Nanoparticles in ILs
5.3 Pd Nanoparticles for Hydrogenation
5.4 Summary and Conclusions
Ionic Liquid Abbreviations
References
Chapter 6: Au, Ag, and Cu Nanostructures
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Au NPs in the Presence of ILs
6.3 Catalytic Applications of AuNP/IL Composites
6.4 Ag NPs in the Presence of ILs
6.5 Cu NPs in the Presence of ILs
6.6 Summary and Conclusions
Acronyms
References
Chapter 7: Bimetallic Nanoparticles in Ionic Liquids: Synthesis and Catalytic Applications
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Synthesis of Bimetallic Nanoparticles in Ionic Liquids
7.3 Applications in Catalysis
7.4 Summary and Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 8: Synthesis and Application of Metal Nanoparticle Catalysts in Ionic Liquid Media using Metal Carbonyl Complexes as Precursors
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Metal Carbonyls – Synthesis, Structure, and Bonding
8.3 Metal Carbonyls for the Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles (M-NPs)
8.4 Catalytic Applications of Metal Nanoparticles from Metal Carbonyls in ILs
8.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 9: Top-Down Synthesis Methods for Nanoscale Catalysts
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Sputter Deposition of Metals in RTILs
9.3 Thermal Vapor Deposition on RTILs for Preparation of Metal Nanoparticles
9.4 Laser-Induced Downsizing and Ablation of Materials
9.5 Preparation of Single Crystals by Vapor Deposition onto RTILs
9.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Electrochemical Preparation of Metal Nanoparticles in Ionic Liquids
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Basics of Electrodeposition
10.3 Electrodeposition of Silver and Formation of Silver Nanoparticles in Ionic Liquids
10.4 Electrochemical Formation of the Nanoparticles of Various Metals
10.5 Summary and Conclusions
References
Part II: Perspectives for Application of Nanocatalysts in Ionic Liquids
Chapter 11: Tailoring Biomass Conversions using Ionic Liquid Immobilized Metal Nanoparticles
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Cellulose
11.3 Lignin
11.4 Fatty Acid and Its Derivatives
11.5 Other Biomass Substrates
11.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Nanoparticles on Supported Ionic Liquid Phases – Opportunities for Application in Catalysis
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Synthesis of Supported Ionic Liquid Phases (SILPs)
12.3 Nanoparticles Immobilized onto Supported Ionic Liquid Phases (NPs@SILPs)
12.4 Catalytic Applications of NPs@SILPs
12.5 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 13: Photovoltaic, Photocatalytic Application, and Water Splitting
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Photovoltaic Cells
13.3 Photocatalytic Processes
13.4 Water Splitting
13.5 Summary and Conclusions
References
Index
End User License Agreement
Pages
xi
xii
xiii
xiv
xv
xvi
xvii
xix
xxii
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
Foreword
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: Fe, Ru, and Os Nanoparticles
Scheme 1.1 Summary of the synthetic schemes for accessing Fe, Ru, and Os NPs in ILs.
Figure 1.1
In situ
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of Ru NPs generated from the reduction of [Ru(COD)(2-methylallyl)
2
] by H
2
in (a) [C
4
C
1
Im][NTf
2
], (b) [C
10
C
1
Im][NTf
2
], (c) [C
4
C
1
Im][BF
4
], and (d) [C
10
C
1
Im][BF
4
].
Figure 1.2 TEM images of iron oxide (a) nanospheres, (b) nanocubes, and (c) nanorods synthesized in [C
4
C
1
Im][NTf
2
] by thermal decomposition of Fe(CO)
5
using oleic acid and/oleylamine as capping agent.
Figure 1.3 Study of Ru NPs prepared
in situ
in phosphonium and imidazolium-based ILs. (a) Correlation between IL ionicity and Ru recyclability under catalytic conditions. (b) Schematic representation of the stabilization mechanism of Ru NPs by phosphonium IL supramolecular aggregates. (TAP, tetraalkylphosphonium;
−
X, counter anion.)
Figure 1.4 Hcp crystalline 2 nm Ru NPs (hcp crystalline) within [C
4
C
1
im][Ntf
2
] simulated using DFT methods (a) [C
4
C
1
Im][Ntf
2
] IL structure, (b) Ru NPs, and (c) Ru NPs solvated in 828 ion pairs of [C
4
C
1
Im][Ntf
2
].
Scheme 1.2 Selected hydrogenation reactions catalyzed by Ru NPs in ILs: (a) hydrogenation of cyclohexene, (b) hydrogenation of conjugated diene, 1,3-cyclohexadiene, and (c) selective hydrogenation of benzene.
Scheme 1.3 Chemoselective hydrogenation of (a) aromatic ketones and (b) aromatic nitriles catalyzed by Ru NPs in ILs.
Scheme 1.4 Selective hydrogenation of alkynes with Fe NPs in ILs.
Chapter 2: Co, Rh, and Ir Nanoparticles
Figure 2.1 Examples of ILs used for the synthesis of Ir, Rh, and Co NPs.
Scheme 2.1 Synthesis of metal NPs by chemical reduction of metal salts and organometallic precursors in ILs.
Figure 2.2 TEM images of Rh and Ir NPs prepared from (a) [Rh(allyl)
3
]/[C
4
dmim][N(Tf)
2
] (Stratton
et al.
[79] Reproduced with permission of Elsevier), (b) [Rh(acac)(CO)
2
]/[N
6666
][Br] (Cimpeanu
et al.
[68] Reproduced with permission of Wiley), (c) RhCl
3
/[C
4
mim][BF
4
] (Mu
et al.
[35] Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society), (d) [IrCl(cod)]
2
/[C
4
mim][PF
6
] (Fonseca
et al.
[63] Reproduced with permission of Elsevier), (e) [IrCl(cod)]
2
/[C
2
mim][EtSO
4
] (Bernardi
et al.
[66] Reproduced with permission of Elsevier), and (f) [Ir(cod)
2
][BF
4
]/[C
4
mim][BF
4
]
Scheme 2.2 Thermal decomposition of metal carbonyls in ionic liquids.
Figure 2.3 TEM images of Co NPs (a, b), Ir NPs (c, d), and Rh NPs (e, f) synthesized from [Co
2
(CO)
8
], [Ir
4
(CO)
12
], and [Rh
6
(CO)
16
] in ILs.
Figure 2.4 Rh NP-catalyzed hydrogenation of arenes in [C
4
dmim][N(Tf)
2
] with a phosphine-functionalized IL as additional ligand.
Scheme 2.3 Benzene or cyclohexene hydrogenation promoted by a supported Rh NPs/CDG catalyst under solvent-free conditions.
Scheme 2.4 (a) Hydroformylation of olefins catalyzed by Rh NPs and (b) hydroformylation promoted by Rh NPs dispersed in a thermoregulated mixture of IL/organic solvent [60, 93].
Scheme 2.5 Borylation reactions promoted by Ir NPs [94, 95].
Scheme 2.6 Fischer-Tropsch reaction promoted by Co NPs.
Chapter 3: Ni and Pt Nanoparticles
Figure 3.1 XRD patterns of (a) 2D-patterned Pt nanostructures synthesized by K
2
PtCl
4
in 200 and 50 µl of EMIM.BF
4
and (b) Pt NPs synthesized by Pt
2
(dba)
3
in BMI·PF
6
.
Figure 3.2 X-ray diffraction pattern (a, b) and Rietveld's refinement (c, d) of the Pt NPs prepared in [C
4
mim][PF
6
] (a, c) and in [C
4
mim][BF
4
] ILs (b, d).
Figure 3.3 TEM micrograph (negative image, underfocus) of the Pt NPs in IL [C
4
mim][PF
6
] showing the contrast density fluctuation around the metal NPs.
Figure 3.4 (a) TEM image and (b) ED of Pt NPs.
Scheme 3.1 Schematic illustration of the proposed two-phase model: (a) corresponds to the correlation function and (b) to the interface distribution function. (a)
L
m
, the first minimum, is interpreted as the most probable distance between the center of gravity of a Pt(0) nanoparticle and its adjacent region. (b)
L
M
, the first maximum, can be estimated as disordered ionic-liquid-phase thickness. If X = BF
4
,
x
= 2, and if X = PF
6
,
x
= 3. (Scheeren
et al.
[8]. Reproduced with the permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 3.5 X-ray diffractogram of Ni NPs in IL [C
4
mim][N(Tf)
2
].
Figure 3.6 TEM micrographs and respective histograms showing the size distribution of Ni NPs prepared in ILs [C
4
mim][N(Tf)
2
] (a), [C
8
mim][N(Tf)
2
] (b), [C
10
mim][N(Tf)
2
] (c), [C
14
mim][N(Tf)
2
] (d), and [C
16
mim][N(Tf)
2
] (e).
Figure 3.7 TEM image of Ni NPs (5.4 ± 1.6 nm) synthesized from [Ni(COD)
2
] in IL (5) and the histogram of the NP size distribution, constructed from the measurement of 50 NPs.
Figure 3.8 TEM image of Ni NPs synthesized from [Ni(COD)
2
] in IL (1) (2.4 ± 0.8 nm) and the histogram of the NP size distribution (a) and IL (6) (3.4 ± 0.2 nm) and the histogram of the NP size distribution (b).
Figure 3.9 Results for aqueous-phase hydrogenation of cyclohexene with Ni NPs at different temperatures. Reaction conditions: 5 mmol cyclohexene, 0.05 mmol Ni NPs catalyst, 0.23 mmol [C
4
m
2
im][OAc], 2 ml water, P
H2
= 1.5 MPa,
t
= 5 h.
Figure 3.10 Recycling experiment with Ni NPs for the catalytic hydrogenation of cyclohexene. Reaction conditions: 5 mmol cyclohexene, 0.05 mmol Ni NPs catalyst, 0.23 mmol [C
4
m
2
im][OAc], 2 ml water, P
H2
= 1.5 MPa,
t
= 5 h,
T
= 60 °C.
Scheme 3.2 The micellar aggregates of block copolymer P123 and ILs stabilizing Ni NPs catalyze the selective hydrogenation of olefin in aqueous phase.
Chapter 4: Pd Nanoparticles for Coupling Reactions and Domino/Tandem Reactions
Figure 4.1 Homogeneous and heterogeneous reaction pathways in Pd-catalyzed reaction.
Figure 4.2 Effect of anion on the size of Pd NPs [43].
Figure 4.3 Synthesis of Pd NPs [44].
Figure 4.4 Effect of palladium precursor on the organization of Pd NPs [47].
Figure 4.5 Stabilization of Pd NPs with IL and NHC ligands [49].
Figure 4.6 Dispersion of Pd NPs under laser irradiation [53].
Figure 4.7 The Heck reaction.
Figure 4.8 Increase in the diameter of Pd NPs during the Heck reaction [59].
Figure 4.9 Pd(II) complex with benzothiazole ligand [30, 61].
Figure 4.10 Tandem triple Heck and Heck/Heck/Suzuki reactions [64].
Figure 4.11 Pd-catalyzed tandem synthesis of nabumetone [65].
Figure 4.12 The Heck reaction in [N
4444
]Br with different Pd precursors [68].
Figure 4.13 Dissolution of Pd NPs stabilized by [N
4444
]Br under Heck reaction conditions [71].
Figure 4.14 Dispersion of Pd NPs in the presence of PhI and PhI + [N
4444
]Br [42].
Figure 4.15 Pd-catalyzed Heck reaction performed in [C
2
mim][MeHPO
3
] [73].
Figure 4.16 The Suzuki reaction.
Figure 4.17 OH-functionalized amine [52].
Figure 4.18 The Stille coupling.
Figure 4.19 Imidazolium-based polymer and nitrile-functionalized IL used in the Stille coupling [54].
Figure 4.20 CN-functionalized ILs [80].
Figure 4.21 The Sonogashira coupling.
Figure 4.22 The Sonogashira coupling in ILs [81].
Figure 4.23 Bis-imidazole Pd complex [82].
Figure 4.24 Carbapalladacycle Pd complex [85].
Chapter 5: Soluble Pd Nanoparticles for Catalytic Hydrogenation
Scheme 5.1 Schematic representation of electrostatic stabilization of metal colloid particles. (Pârvulescu and Hardacre [3] Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 5.1 Examples of imidazolium-, pyrrolidinium-, and pyridinium-based ILs.
Figure 5.2 Examples of functionalized imidazolium cations and functional anions.
Scheme 5.2 Hydrogenation of alkynes with Pd(0)-NPs in IL. Schematic representation of electrostatic stabilization of metal colloid particles. (Venkatesan
et al.
[2] Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Scheme 5.3 Formation of PFIL-stabilized palladium nanoparticles in [C
4
mmim][X].
Scheme 5.4 Preparation procedure for palladium nanoparticles entrapped into cross-linked polymeric ionic liquids.
Chapter 6: Au, Ag, and Cu Nanostructures
Figure 6.1 (a) Time-dependent UV-vis spectral monitoring of the oxidative etching of 2.5 mM Au NPs in P[6,6,6,14]Cl at 60 °C in air; plasmon band decay shown on right. (b) Demonstration of redispersion of larger Au NP aggregates into smaller Au NPs via oxidative etching, with TEM images of the initial large NPs (left) and redispersed NPs (right). (Banerjee
et al.
[43] Reproduced with the permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Figure 6.2 (A) UV-vis absorption spectra of Au nanorod solutions after reaction times of 2 (bottom), 5, 10, and 30 min (top), along with photographs of the particle solutions. The increase and red-shift of the longitudinal plasmon resonance (indicated by arrows) from λ = 725 nm (10 min) to λ = 749 nm (30 min) is characteristic for anisotropic particle growth. (B) Bright-field TEM image of Au nanorods in [C
2
mim][EtSO
4
] after different reaction times (
t
): (a)After
t
= 10 min, , and ; the inset shows seed nanocrystals . (b) After
t
= 30 min, , and . (Ryu
et al.
[48]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley.)
Figure 6.3 (a) TEM images of two Au NPs in IL droplets on a TEM grid during the fusion process. The insets are fast Fourier transform of the selected areas depicted as yellow rectangles in the corresponding images. Scale bars in the images are all 3 nm. (b) Final structure (136.1 s) of the coalesced Au NPs with its Fast Fourier Transform image. (c) Schematic illustration of the crystal showing the (111) twin plane. (Uematsu
et al.
[59]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 6.4 Grafting of imidazolium-based IL to graphene, followed by ion exchange with Au salts and reduction. (Mahyari
et al.
[83] Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Figure 6.5 TEM images of Ag NSs prepared at (a) [C
10
mim][PF
6
], (b) [C
10
mim][N(Tf)
2
], and (c) [C
10
mim][BF
4
]H
2
O interfaces, respectively, after different reaction times: (i) 30 min, (ii) 1 h, (iii) 2 h, and (iv) 3 h. (Yao
et al.
[92]. Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Figure 6.6 Catalytic data for Ag NPs stabilized in tetraalkylphosphonium chloride ILs for the reduction of Eosin Y with NaBH
4
. (a) The catalytic effect of the Ag NPs on the rate of reduction. (b) The first-order kinetics with and without Ag NPs present. (c, d) The effect of thermal sintering of the Ag NPs on the catalytic rates, followed by redispersion of the Ag NPs via oxidation in air followed by re-reduction of the Ag salts. (Banerjee
et al.
[95]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
Figure 6.7 Production of superoxide and chloride ions from plasmonic excitation of Ag/AgCl NSs in a [C
8
mim][Cl] IL. (Xu
et al.
[109]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 6.8 (a, b) TEM images of Cu NPs in the IL [C
4
mim][PF
6
]. Scale bars: 40 nm. (c) Particle size distribution of the as-prepared copper particles. (d) Photographs of pure [C
4
mim][PF
6
] (left) and of [C
4
mim][PF
6
] after Cu deposition (right). (e) UV–vis spectra of the copper colloids in [C
4
mim][PF
6
]. Inset: color change during air oxidation of the Cu particles. (Richter
et al.
[130]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley.)
Scheme 6.1 1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition reaction of phenyl azide and phenyl acetylene. (Reprinted from [136], Copyright (2009), with permission from Elsevier.)
Scheme 6.2 Condensation of thiazolidine-2,4-dione with aromatic aldehydes. (Reproduced with permission from [137]. Copyright 2008, Elsevier.)
Scheme 6.3 Cu NP-catalyzed Biginelli reaction [140].
Figure 6.9 CN coupling using tetraalkylphosphonium acetate IL-stabilized Cu
2
O NPs. (Keßler
et al.
[142]. Reproduced with the permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Chapter 7: Bimetallic Nanoparticles in Ionic Liquids: Synthesis and Catalytic Applications
Figure 7.1 Structural arrangements for bimetallic nanoparticles (black and red spheres represent atoms of two different elements).
Figure 7.2 Publications per year containing the words “metallic or bimetallic, nanoparticles, and catalysis” in the title, keywords, or abstract.
Scheme 7.1 Co-decomposition of Ru(0) and Cu(I) organometallic precursors to give RuCu core-shell NPs [41, 42].
Figure 7.3 Schematic representation of the atomic rearrangement induced during the H
2
/H
2
S treatment of bimetallic CoPt
3
@Pt-like NPs (left). XPS spectra (right) of these NPs before (black trace) and after hydrogenation followed by sulfidation (grey trace).
Figure 7.4 A schematic representation for the synthesis of Pd
4
Au NPs in a H
2
O/Triton X-100/[C
4
mim]
+
[PF
6
]
−
microemulsion from (NH
4
)
2
[PdCl
6
] and H[AuCl
4
]·4H
2
O.
Figure 7.5 Pathway to synthesize supported bimetallic PdAu NPs on cross-linked polymer.
Scheme 7.2 Co-decomposition of Cu and Zn amidinates under microwave irradiation.
Figure 7.6 SEM (a–d; scale bar: 200 nm) and enlarged SEM (e–h; scale bar: 100 nm) images for Pt
x
Cu
y
alloys, including the corresponding histograms of the size distributions: Pt
23
Cu
77
(a,e); Pt
51
Cu
49
(b,f); Pt
74
Cu
26
(c,g); and Pt
83
Cu
17
(d,h).
Figure 7.7 Plausible mechanism of metallic nanoparticle formation by sputter deposition of metal atoms or clusters into an ionic liquid phase.
Figure 7.8 Hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates catalyzed by Pd
y
Au
x
NPs stabilized by PVP in [C
4
mim]
+
[PF
6
]
−
(a). TOFs for different Au/Pd bimetallic systems (b).
Scheme 7.3 Hydrogenation/dehalogenation reactions catalyzed by AuPd-based nanoparticles.
Scheme 7.4 Oxidation of
cis
-cyclooctene catalyzed by PdAu BMNPs [84].
Figure 7.9 Schematic illustration for PdAu alloy NPs giving high activity for
cis
-cyclooctene oxidation (Pd/Au ratio = 1/2) (left) and high activity for 4-nitrophenol reduction (Pd/Au ratio = 1/1) (right) depending on the relative metal composition.
Chapter 8: Synthesis and Application of Metal Nanoparticle Catalysts in Ionic Liquid Media using Metal Carbonyl Complexes as Precursors
Figure 8.1 Schematic representation of the increase in surface area (a) with fragmentation of a macroscopic object into nanoobjects or the increase of surface atoms (b) relative to inner atoms with decreasing size of a nanoparticle [12].
Figure 8.2 Stabilization of metal nanoparticles (M-NPs) in ionic liquids (ILs) (middle) or through protective ligands (right).
Figure 8.3 Cations and anions of common ILs. [C
4
mim]
+
is also abbreviated as [BMIm]
+
, [BMI]
+
or [C
4
C
1
Im]
+
; [CF
3
SO
3
]
−
as [OTf]
−
.
Figure 8.4 Molecular structures for the binary metal carbonyl examples. Rh
6
(CO)
16
where the Rh
6
atoms form an octahedra is not shown.
Figure 8.5 Frontier orbital section of the qualitative molecular orbital (MO) diagram for the OC → metal donor σ-bond and the M → CO π-acceptor or back bond in the metal-carbonyl bond (HOMO , highest occupied molecular orbital; LUMO, lowest unoccupied molecular orbital). For clarity only one of the M → CO π-bonds is depicted.
Figure 8.6 Synthesis and stabilization of metal nanoparticles from metal carbonyl precursors in ionic liquids.
Figure 8.7 Examples of transmission electron microscopy, TEM images of metal nanoparticles obtained from metal carbonyl precursors in ionic liquids. (a) Os-NPs from Os
3
(CO)
12
by MWI in [C
4
mim][BF
4
], Ø 2.5 ± 0.4 nm and (b) Ru-NPs from Ru
3
(CO)
12
by thermal decomposition in [C
4
mim][N(Tf)
2
], Ø 2.0 ± 0.5 nm [36]. Image in (a) from [36] (Figure S14 in Supp. Info.). Image in (b) unpublished work by Krämer, Redel, Thomann and Janiak.
Figure 8.17 Conversion of glucose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) by Cr-NPs (obtained from Cr(CO)
6
in IL) [99].
Figure 8.8 Raman spectra of W(CO)
6
and Mn
2
(CO)
10
in [C
4
mim][BF
4
] before and after microwave irradiation (MWI for 3 min at 10 W). Boxes highlight the characteristic carbonyl and metal carbonyl bands. [BMIm]
+
= [C
4
mim]
+
.
Figure 8.9 Correlation between the molecular volume of the ionic liquid anion and the observed W (a) and Rh (b) nanoparticle diameter with standard deviations as error bars [42, 98, 100].
Figure 8.16 Cyclohexenone hydrogenation mostly to cyclohexanone with Fe-, Ru-, or FeRu-NPs obtained from (mixtures of) Fe
2
(CO)
9
and Ru
3
(CO)
12
in IL [102].
Figure 8.13 Schematic hydrogenation reaction of cyclohexene to cyclohexane with Ru-, Rh-, and Ir-NPs/IL dispersions (from metal carbonyls, see above) [42, 55, 98]. The activity or turnover frequency (TOF) increases with the hydrogenation run (reuse). The hydrogenation reaction with Ru was run at 90 °C and 10 bar H
2
to 95% conversion [55]. It was suggested that this activity rise with each recycle could be due to surface restructuring and/or the formation of active Ru-N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) [103] surface species [104]. Rh/[C
4
mim][BF
4
] catalyst yielded an activity of 400 mol product × (mol Rh)
−1
× h
−1
with quantitative conversion (75 °C, 4 bar H
2
, 2.5 h). With the homologous Ir/[C
4
mim][BF
4
] catalyst even higher activities up to 1900 mol cyclohexane × (mol Ir)
−1
× h
−1
could be obtained under the same conditions owing to a shorter reaction time of 1 h for near quantitative conversion [55].
Figure 8.11 TEM images of Ru-NPs (a), Rh-NPs (b), and Ir-NPs (c) supported on thermally reduced graphite oxide obtained upon decomposition of Ru
3
(CO)
12
, Rh
6
(CO)
16
, and Ir
4
(CO)
12
, respectively, by means of microwave irradiation in [C
4
mim][BF
4
] [105].
Figure 8.12 Rh-NP deposition on a Teflon-coated magnetic stirring bar from an IL dispersion [110].
Figure 8.15 Schematic benzene or cyclohexene hydrogenation by Rh-NPs deposited on a Teflon-coated magnetic stirring bar and the activity plot over 10 consecutive runs for cyclohexene hydrogenation (conditions 6.8 mmol cyclohexene, 3.1 × 10
−
7
mol Rh, molar ratio ∼22 000; 75 °C, 4 bar H
2
) [110].
Figure 8.14 Schematic hydrogenation reaction of benzene or cyclohexene to cyclohexane with Ru-, Rh-, or Ir-NP/TRGO under organic-solvent-free conditions. (a) The constant activities for cyclohexene hydrogenation over 10 consecutive runs were achieved at 4 bar H
2
and 75 °C with 0.01 mol cyclohexene, 1.89 × 10
−5
mol Ru (molar substrate-to-metal ratio 530) or 1.82 × 10
−5
mol Rh (molar ratio 550) (11 mg M-NP/TRGO with 17.4 wt% Ru or 17.0 wt% Rh, respectively) [105]. (b) The increasing activity as TOF (= mol cyclohexane × (mol Ir)
−
1
× h
−
1
) for the hydrogenation of benzene by Ir/TRGO was monitored at 100 °C, 10 bar of H
2
with 4.49 mmol benzene, 1 × 10
−
3
mmol Ir (molar benzene-to-Ir ratio 4490) (5.32 mg Ir/TRGO with 3.6% Ir) [106].
Figure 8.10 Schematic synthesis of transition metal nanoparticles supported on thermally reduced graphite oxide through microwave or electron beam irradiation [105, 106].
Chapter 9: Top-Down Synthesis Methods for Nanoscale Catalysts
Figure 9.1 (a) A typical DC-sputtering system used for RTIL/metal sputtering. (Inset) Schematic illustration of physical ejection of surface atoms and/or small metal clusters by bombardment with energetic gaseous ions. (b) Binary targets composed of M
A
and M
B
metal plates. The
f
MA
values indicate the area fraction of M
A
plates in targets.
Figure 9.2 TEM images of Au nanoparticles sputter-deposited in [C
2
mim][BF
4
] (a) and [N
1113
][N(Tf)
2
] (b).
Figure 9.3 Absorption spectra of Au-sputter-deposited [C
2
mim][BF
4
]. The numbers in the Figure represent the sputtering time in minutes. The concentration of deposited Au linearly increased with an increase in the sputtering time as shown in the inset.
Figure 9.4 TEM images of (a) core-shell-structured In@In
2
O
3
nanoparticles sputter-deposited in [C
2
mim][BF
4
] and (b) hollow In
2
O
3
particles obtained by heat treatment of In@In
2
O
3
in the RTIL at 523 K in air. (c) Schematic illustration of hollow particle formation
via
the Kirkendall effect.
Figure 9.5 (a) Size distribution of Au nanoparticles sputter-deposited in [C
4
mim][BF
4
] at various temperatures. (b) The relationship between the peak diameter of Au particles and the value of
T
/η of [C
4
mim][BF
4
].
Figure 9.6 Schematic illustrations of the sputter deposition mechanisms (a) for Au particles uniformly dispersed in the [C
2
mim][BF
4
] solution phase and (b) for an Au nanoparticle monolayer on the surface of [HO-C
2
mim][BF
4
].
Figure 9.7 Dependences of the average size and the chemical composition of AuPd particles on the area fraction of Au plates in binary AuPd targets (
f
Au
).
Figure 9.8 Representative TEM images of sputter-deposited Au particles (a) and Au@In
2
O
3
(b) in [C
2
mim][BF
4
] and those of heat-treated particles of bare Au (d) and Au@In
2
O
3
(e). The heat treatment of the solutions was conducted at 250 °C for 1 h. Panels (c) and (f) show high-magnification HAADF-STEM images of particles in (b) and (e), respectively.
Figure 9.9 Schematic illustration of the formation of Au@In
2
O
3
particles via oxidation of In metal sputter-deposited on Au nanoparticle cores.
Figure 9.10 (a) A top view photograph of an Au nanoparticle monolayer deposited on the [HO-C
2
mim][BF
4
] solution surface
via
RTIL/metal sputtering. (b) A photograph of transfer of half of the Au film deposited on [HO-C
2
mim][BF
4
] onto a glass plate by a horizontal lift-off method. (c) An AFM image of an Au nanoparticle monolayer transferred onto the HOPG surface.
Figure 9.11 (a) A TEM image of Pt nanoparticle-loaded carbon nanotubes prepared with heat treatment at 573 K in [N
1113
][N(Tf)
2
]. (b) Schematic illustration of RTIL as a nanoglue between Pt nanoparticle and carbon nanotube.
Figure 9.12 (a) A schematic illustration of the immobilization of Au nanoparticles on Ag cubes in RTIL and the preparation of Au nanoframe structure through the chemical etching of Ag in the obtained composites. (b) A SEM image of Au nanoparticle-deposited Ag cubes. (Inset) SEM image of Au nanoframe prepared by the chemical etching of Ag. The bar in each image represents the scale of 250 nm.
Figure 9.13 Photoluminescence spectra of CdTe nanoparticles (a) with and (b) without Au nanoparticle layers. The number in the Figure represents the accumulation number,
n
, of (PSS/PDDA)
n
as a polymer spacer. The structure of each composite film is shown beside the corresponding spectra.
Figure 9.14 Changes in ECSA of Pt-loaded powders (open circles) and Pt@In
2
O
3
-loaded carbon powders (solid circles) during the accelerated durability test of fuel cells.
Figure 9.15 (a) Cyclic voltammograms for ethanol oxidation with AuPd nanoparticle-immobilized HOPG electrodes (solid lines, the positive potential scan; dotted lines, the negative potential scan). The numbers in the panel represent the value of
f
Au
used for sputter deposition. (b) Relationship between the peak current density observed in the positive potential scan and
f
Au
.
Figure 9.16 A schematic illustration of rotary apparatus for thermal vapor deposition of metal onto cooled solutions.
Figure 9.17 Schematic illustrations of laser ablation experiments. A laser light focused on an Au plate surface located inside (a) or outside (b) RTIL.
Figure 9.18 TEM images of flowerlike Au nanoparticles obtained by laser ablation inside [C
4
mim][N(CN)
2
].
Figure 9.19 (a) A schematic illustration of KBr growth in RTIL droplets and (b) a tapping-mode AFM topography of a (111)-oriented KBr island grown with RTIL flux.
Figure 9.20 An optical microscope image (a) and an AFM image (10 µm × 10 µm) (b) of a pentacene single crystal obtained under the growth temperature of 383 K. (c) A height profile of the crystal surface in the AFM image of panel (b).
Chapter 10: Electrochemical Preparation of Metal Nanoparticles in Ionic Liquids
Figure 10.1 Terrace–step–kink (TSK) model for electrodeposition of metals. The solvent molecules filling the space over the metal electrode are not illustrated in this figure.
Figure 10.2 Concentration distribution changing with the elapse of time,
t
, after imposition of an overpotential.
C
is the concentration of the metal species,
C
*
is the bulk concentration of the metal species, and
x
is the distance from the electrode surface. The diffusion coefficient of the metal species is assumed to be 1 × 10
−5
cm
2
s
−1
.
Figure 10.3 Cyclic voltammogram of a glassy carbon electrode in [C
4
mPyr][N(Tf)
2
] containing 100 mM Ag[N(Tf)
2
] at 25 °C. Scan rate: 10 mV s
−1
. (Reproduced from [31] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)
Figure 10.4 SEM images of the electrodeposits obtained on a glassy carbon electrode in [C
4
mPyr][N(Tf)
2
] containing 100 mM Ag[N(Tf)
2
] at (a) −0.25, (b) −0.40, (c) −0.80, (d) −1.20, and (e) −1.60 V. Temperature: 25 °C. Electric charge: 7.07 C cm
−2
. (Reproduced from [31] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)
Figure 10.5 Schematic illustrations of electric double layer in (a) aqueous solution (with specifically adsorbed anions), (b) ionic liquids (
E
=
E
PZC
), and (c) ionic liquids (
E
<
E
PZC
).
Figure 10.6 TEM images of silver nanoparticles prepared in (a) [C
4
mPyr][N(Tf)
2
] containing 100 mM Ag[N(Tf)
2
], (b) [C
4
mim][N(Tf)
2
] containing 67 mM Ag[N(Tf)
2
], (c) [C
2
mim][N(Tf)
2
] containing 50 mM Ag[N(Tf)
2
], and (d) [C
4
mim][CF
3
SO
3
] containing 100 mM Ag[CF
3
SO
3
]. (Reproduced from [31] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)
Figure 10.7 Cyclic voltammograms of a Pt electrode in [C
4
mPyr][N(Tf)
2
] containing (a) 50 mM Fe[N(Tf)
2
]
2
[62], (b) 100 mM Co[N(Tf)
2
]
2
[75], and (c) 50 mM Ni[N(Tf)
2
]
2
[86] at room temperature. Scan rate: 100 mV s
−1
. (Reproduced from [75] with permission from The Electrochemical Society. Reprinted from [86] with permission from Elsevier.)
Figure 10.8 TEM images of nanoparticles of (a) Fe (50 mM Fe[N(Tf)
2
]
2
at −2.6 V) [33], (b) Co (10 mM Co[N(Tf)
2
]
2
at −2.0 V) [34], and (c) Ni (50 mM Ni[N(Tf)
2
]
2
at −2.6 V) [33] prepared in [C
4
mPyr][N(Tf)
2
] at room temperature. (Reproduced from [33] with permission from The Electrochemical Society. Reproduced from [34] with permission from The Electrochemical Society of Japan.)
Figure 10.9 Cyclic voltammograms of a glassy carbon electrode in [C
4
mPyr][N(Tf)
2
] containing 10 mM [PdCl
4
]
2−
and [PdBr
4
]
2−
at 25 °C. Scan rate: 50 mV s
−1
. (Reproduced from [92] with the permission from Maney Publications.)
Figure 10.10 TEM image of Pd nanoparticles prepared by potentiostatic cathodic reduction on a carbon felt electrode in [C
4
mPyr][N(Tf)
2
] containing 10 mM [PdBr
4
]
2−
at −2.2 V (25 °C). The inset shows the electron diffraction diagram of a Pd nanoparticle. (Reproduced from [38] with the permission from Elsevier.)
Figure 10.11 Cyclic voltammogram of a glassy carbon electrode in [C
4
mPyr][N(Tf)
2
] containing 5 mM Pd(acac)
2
at 25 °C. Scan rate: 50 mV s
−1
. (Reproduced from [37] with the permission from Elsevier.)
Figure 10.12 TEM image of Pd nanoparticles prepared by potentiostatic cathodic reduction on a glassy carbon electrode in [C
4
mPyr][N(Tf)
2
] containing 5 mM Pd(acac)
2
at −2.0 V (25 °C). The inset shows the electron diffraction diagram of a Pd nanoparticle. (Reproduced from [37] with the permission from Elsevier.)
Figure 10.13 Cyclic voltammogram of a glassy carbon electrode in [C
4
mPyr][N(Tf)
2
] containing 10 mM [AuBr
4
]
−
at 25 °C. Scan rate: 50 mV s
−1
. (Reproduced from [36] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)
Figure 10.14 TEM image of Au nanoparticles prepared by potentiostatic cathodic reduction on a glassy carbon electrode in [C
4
mPyr][N(Tf)
2
] containing 10 mM [AuBr
2
]
−
at −2.5 V (25 °C). The inset shows the electron diffraction diagram of a Au nanoparticle. (Reproduced from [36] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)
Figure 10.15 Cyclic voltammogram of a glassy carbon electrode in [C
4
mPyr][N(Tf)
2
] containing 10 mM [PtBr
6
]
2−
at 25 °C. Scan rate: 50 mV s
−1
. (Reproduced from [35] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)
Figure 10.16 TEM image of Pt nanoparticles prepared by potentiostatic cathodic reduction on a glassy carbon electrode in [C
4
mPyr][N(Tf)
2
] containing 10 mM [PtBr
4
]
2−
at −2.6 V (25 °C). The inset shows the electron diffraction diagram of a Pt nanoparticle. (Reproduced from [35] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)
Figure 10.17 TEM images of carbon black immersed in (a) [C
4
mPyr][N(Tf)
2
] and (b) [C
4
mPyr][N(Tf)
2
] containing Pt nanoparticles at 200 °C for 24 h. (Reproduced from [35] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)
Chapter 11: Tailoring Biomass Conversions using Ionic Liquid Immobilized Metal Nanoparticles
Scheme 11.1 Mechanism for dissolving cellobiose due to reversible binding agent [33].
Scheme 11.2 Products obtained during the hydrogenation of 4-(2-furyl)-3-butene-2-one which is derived from furfural [37].
Scheme 11.3 Altering selectivity of the Ru@SILP catalyic system by tailoring the acidity [38].
Scheme 11.4 Reaction pathway for hydrodeoxygenation of lignin-based phenol [40].
Scheme 11.5 Ionic liquids used in the exercise [40].
Scheme 11.6 Poly-N-donor ligands used as additional stabilizer [41].
Scheme 11.7 Outline of the need for selective partial hydrogenation of FAME.
Scheme 11.8 Composition of fatty acids before and after hydrogenation using Pd in [C
4
mim]BF
4
[43].
Scheme 11.9 Hydrogenolysis of glycerol to 1,2-propanediol over RuCu supported on IL-modified bentonite [46].
Scheme 11.10 Selective hydrogenation of citral over SCILL system [48].
Chapter 12: Nanoparticles on Supported Ionic Liquid Phases – Opportunities for Application in Catalysis
Figure 12.1 Nanoparticles stabilized by physisorbed and chemisorbed SILPs (NPs@SILPs).
Scheme 12.1 Synthetic strategies toward the preparation of chemisorbed SILPs (S = support material).
Figure 12.2 Chemisorbed SILP systems used in the preparation of NP@SILP systems.
Figure 12.3 Selected examples of SILPs used in CC coupling reactions catalyzed by NPs@SILPs.
Figure 12.4 Selected examples of SILPs used in hydrogenation reactions catalyzed by NPs@SILPs.
Scheme 12.2 Selective hydrogenation of biomass-derived tris(5-methylfuran-2-yl)-methane (
22
) using PdNPs@SILP
19
[87].
Scheme 12.3 Reaction pathway for the deoxygenation of phenol to cyclohexane using bifunctional catalysts composed of Ru NPs and an acidic IL [97, 98].
Scheme 12.4 Synthetic pathway for the selective deoxygenation of 4-(2-tetrahydrofuryl)-2-butanol (
23
) toward different classes of value-added chemicals, cyclic ethers (
23a
), primary alcohols (
23b
), and aliphatic ethers (
23c
), catalyzed by RuNPs@SILP
21
[99].
Chapter 13: Photovoltaic, Photocatalytic Application, and Water Splitting
Figure 13.1 Schematic overview of a dye-sensitized solar cell [15]. (Hagfeldt
et al
. [15]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 13.2 (a) Photographs of imidazolium melts and their mixtures at room temperature. The samples from left to right are [C
6
mim][I], [C
4
mim][I], [C
3
mim][I], [C
2
mim][I], [C
1
mim][I], [C
1
mim][I]/[C
2
mim][I] (1/1, molar ratio), 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium iodide ([Amim][I]), [C
1
mim][I]/[C
2
mim][I]/[Amim][I] (1/1/1, molar ratio), respectively. All samples were dried at 80 °C under a vacuum of ∼3 Torr for 8 h. (b) Schematic coupling transport mechanism of triiodide in IL electrolytes with a high iodide packing density, where the red, blue, and green balls represent the iodide, triiodide, and encountering complex, respectively [25]. (Cao
et al
. [25]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
Scheme 13.1 Chemical structures of (a) 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium iodides and (b) gelator [17].
Figure 13.3 (a) Plots of
V
oc
,
J
sc
, η, FF versus ionic liquid electrolytes and ionic nanoparticle gel electrolytes. A white circle and a dashed line show the value of the DSCs with ionic liquid electrolytes alone (
n
= 3). (b) Scheme of [C
2
mim][N(Tf)
2
] chemical structure. (c) Picture of the ionic nanocomposite gel containing MWCNTs. These were ground with [C
2
mim][N(Tf)
2
] in an agate mortar and then centrifuged [28]. (d) Photographic images of graphene-ionic liquid electrolytes with graphene concentration increasing from right to left [29]. (Usui
et al
. [28]. Reproduced with the permission of Elsevier.)
Figure 13.4 Photoinduced formation mechanism of an electron–hole pair in a semiconductor with the presence of water pollutant (P) [38]. (Chong
et al
. [38]. Reproduced with the permission of Elsevier.)
Figure 13.5 Photocatalytic oxidative desulfurization process of DBT [45]. (Wang
et al
. [45]. Reproduced with the permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 13.6 Proposed mechanism showing the catalytic role of IL on the surface of BiOI [50]. (Wang
et al
. [50]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 13.7 Schematic illustration of proposed photoelectrochemical mechanism for photolyzed acetochlor oxidation in TiO
2
–P3HT–IL modified GCE [52]. (Jin
et al
. [52]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
Figure 13.8 Schematic illustration of (a) photocatalytic mechanism of WS reaction for H
2
and O
2
production using an n-type semiconductor, (b) PEC WS reaction for H
2
and O
2
, and (c) working principle of the PEC WS reaction with the n-type semiconductor photoanode.
Figure 13.9 (a) Schematic illustration showing the growth of DW-TiO
2
NTs on Ti foil using the sonoelectrochemical anodization process in IL media. (b) Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) surface image of DW-TiO
2
NTs. (c) Photoelectrochemical experimental data plot of annealed SW-TiO
2
NTs and DW-TiO
2
NTs under global AM1.5 in 1 M KOH electrolyte [65]. (d) Schematic diagram of DW-TiO
2
NT formation during anodization in the [NH
4
][BF
4
]-based electrolyte [66]. (John
et al
. [65]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 13.10 (a) Schematic illustration showing the stepwise synthetic procedure of IL-TiO
2
and (b) linear sweep voltammograms of bare TiO
2
and IL-TiO
2
under 380 nm irradiation at a scan rate of 1 mV s
−1
under chopped light. (c) A proposed mechanism for understanding enhanced PEC water oxidation at the IL-TiO
2
photoelectrode [73]. (Jing
et al
. [73]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
List of Tables
Chapter 1: Fe, Ru, and Os Nanoparticles
Table 1.1 List of reactions catalyzed by Ru and Ru alloy NPs in ILs
Chapter 2: Co, Rh, and Ir Nanoparticles
Table 2.1 Synthesis of cobalt, rhodium, and iridium NPs in ILs.
a
Table 2.2 Examples of hydrogenation reactions catalyzed by Ir, Rh, and Co NPs in ILs.
a
Chapter 3: Ni and Pt Nanoparticles
Table 3.1 Pt NPs synthesized by decomposition or reduction of several metal precursors in ILs
Table 3.2 Hydrogenation reactions of Pt NPs from Pt
2
(dba)
3
and PtO
2
in ILs [4m, 9].
a
Table 3.3 Ni NPs synthesized by decomposition of metal precursor in ILs
Table 3.4 Effect of different ILs on the catalytic performance for citral hydrogenation [24].
a
Table 3.5 Heck coupling reaction of aryl halide and olefins catalyzed by IL–Ni(II)–MNPs.
a
Chapter 5: Soluble Pd Nanoparticles for Catalytic Hydrogenation
Table 5.1 Reduction of PdNPs in ILs
Chapter 7: Bimetallic Nanoparticles in Ionic Liquids: Synthesis and Catalytic Applications
Table 7.1 Hydrogenation of 2-cyclohexenone catalyzed by FeRu NPs in [C
4
mim]
+
[PF
6
]
−
Table 7.2 Hydrogenation of 4-nitrophenol catalyzed by AgPd NPs in [C
2
OHmim]
+
[NTf
2
]
−
.
a
Chapter 8: Synthesis and Application of Metal Nanoparticle Catalysts in Ionic Liquid Media using Metal Carbonyl Complexes as Precursors
Table 8.1 Binary metal carbonyls.
a
Table 8.2 Examples of metal nanoparticles formed from metal carbonyl precursors in ionic liquids
Chapter 9: Top-Down Synthesis Methods for Nanoscale Catalysts
Table 9.1 Average size and morphology of nanoparticles prepared by various top-down syntheses
Chapter 11: Tailoring Biomass Conversions using Ionic Liquid Immobilized Metal Nanoparticles
Table 11.1 Results of hydrogenation of 4-(2-furyl)-3-butene-2-one using Ru NPs in different ionic liquids [37]
Table 11.2 Results of hydrogenation of lignin model compounds with different stabilizing ligands [41]
Edited by Martin H. G. Prechtl
Nanocatalysis in Ionic Liquid
Editor
Dr. Martin H. G. Prechtl
Universität zu Köln
Institut für Anorganische Chemie
Greinstr. 6
50939 Köln
Germany
Cover
A TEM image of nanoparticles was kindly provided by the editor.
All books published by Wiley-VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.
Library of Congress Card No.: applied for
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek
The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie}; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.
© 2017 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany
All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.
Print ISBN: 978-3-527-33910-5
ePDF ISBN: 978-3-527-69412-9
ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-69413-6
Mobi ISBN: 978-3-527-69414-3
oBook ISBN: 978-3-527-69328-3
Cover Design Adam Design Weinheim, Germany
List of Contributors
Abhinandan Banerjee
University of Calgary
NanoScience Program
2500 University Drive NW
Calgary, AB T2N 1N4
Canada
Nathaniel Boyce
McGill University
Department of Chemistry
Centre for Green Chemistry and Catalysis
801 Sherbrooke Street West
Montreal, QC H3A 0B8
Canada
Isabelle Favier
Université de Toulouse 3 – Paul Sabatier
Laboratoire Hétérochimie Fondamentale et Appliquée
UMR CNRS 5069
118 route de Narbonne
31062 Toulouse Cedex 9
France
Adriano F. Feil
PUCRS
Centro Interdisciplinar de Nanociência e Micro-Nanotecnologia
Av. Ipiranga, 6681
CEP 90619-900, Porto Alegre
RS
Brazil
Yuting Feng
McGill University
Department of Chemistry
Centre for Green Chemistry and Catalysis
801 Sherbrooke Street West
Montreal, QC H3A 0B8
Canada
Montserrat Gómez
Université de Toulouse 3 – Paul Sabatier
Laboratoire Hétérochimie Fondamentale et Appliquée
UMR CNRS 5069
118 route de Narbonne
31062 Toulouse Cedex 9
France
Renato V. Gonçalves
Universidade de São Paulo
Instituto de Física de São Carlos
13560-970, São Carlos
SP
Brazil
Zhenshan Hou
East China University of Science and Technology
School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials
Meilong Road 130
Xuhui District
Shanghai 200237
China
Christoph Janiak
Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf
Institut für Anorganische Chemie und Strukturchemie
Universitätsstrasse 1
40225 Düsseldorf
Germany
Tatsuya Kameyama
Nagoya University
Department of Crystalline Materials Science
Graduate School of Engineering
Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku
Nagoya 464-8603
Japan
Yasushi Katayama
Keio University
Department of Applied Chemistry
Faculty of Science and Technology
3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Kohoku-ku
Yokohama
Kanagawa 223-8522
Japan
Madhu Kaushik
McGill University
Department of Chemistry
Centre for Green Chemistry and Catalysis
801 Sherbrooke Street West
Montreal, QC H3A 0B8
Canada
Susumu Kuwabata
Osaka University
Department of Applied Chemistry
Graduate School of Engineering
2-1 Yamada-oka
Suita, Osaka 565-0871
Japan
Walter Leitner
RWTH Aachen University
Institut für Technische und Makromolekulare Chemie
Worringerweg 2
52074 Aachen
Germany
and
Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung
45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr
Germany
Kylie L. Luska
RWTH Aachen University
Institut für Technische und Makromolekulare Chemie
Worringerweg 2
52074 Aachen
Germany
Raquel Marcos Esteban
Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf
Institut für Anorganische Chemie und Strukturchemie
Universitätsstrasse 1
40225 Düsseldorf
Germany
Pedro Migowski
RWTH Aachen University
Institut für Technische und Makromolekulare Chemie
Worringerweg 2
52074 Aachen
Germany
Audrey Moores
McGill University
Department of Chemistry
Centre for Green Chemistry and Catalysis
801 Sherbrooke Street West
Montreal, QC H3A 0B8
Canada
Srinidhi Narayanan
National University of Singapore
Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
4 Engineering Drive 4
Blk E5, #02-37
Singapore 117585
Singapore
Muhammad I. Qadir
UFRGS
Instituto de Química
Avenida Bento Gonçalves
9500, Agronomia
91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS
Brazil
Jackson D. Scholten
UFRGS
Departamento de Química Inorgânica
Instituto de Química
Avenida Bento Gonçalves
9500, Agronomia
91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS
Brazil
Robert W. J. Scott
University of Saskatchewan
Department of Chemistry
110 Science Place
Saskatoon, SK S7N 5C9
Canada
Emmanuelle Teuma
Université de Toulouse 3 – Paul Sabatier
Laboratoire Hétérochimie Fondamentale et Appliquée
UMR CNRS 5069
118 route de Narbonne
31062 Toulouse Cedex 9
France
Tsukasa Torimoto
Nagoya University
Department of Crystalline Materials Science
Graduate School of Engineering
Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku
Nagoya 464-8603
Japan
Anna M. Trzeciak
University of Wrocław
Department of Inorganic Chemistry
Faculty of Chemistry
14 Fryderyka Joliot-Curie
50-383 Wrocław
Poland
Carla Weber Scheeren
Federal University of Rio Grande
School of Chemistry and Food
Rua Barão do Caí, 125 sala 09
Santo Antônio da Patrulha
RS 95500000
Brazil
Heberton Wender
Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS)
Instituto de Física
Laboratório de Nanomateriais e Nanotecnologia Aplicada (LNNA) Av. Costa e Silva s/n
CEP 79070-900, Campo Grande
MS
Brazil
Ning Yan
National University of Singapore
Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
4 Engineering Drive 4
Blk E5, #02-37
Singapore 117585
Singapore
Jiaguang Zhang
National University of Singapore
Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
4 Engineering Drive 4
Blk E5, #02-37
Singapore 117585
Singapore
Ran Zhang
East China University of Science and Technology
School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials
Meilong Road 130
Xuhui District
Shanghai 200237
China
Preface
The first room-temperature organic molten salt was reported by Peter Walden over 100 years ago in 1914 [1]. In the next decades, molten salts have been tested as solvents for biomass processing (1920s), and later as electrolytes (1950s) for the electrodeposition of aluminum. Interestingly it took again more than 20 years until molten salts, now also called ionic liquids, were reported as solvents for organic synthesis in the 1980s [2]. The first applications of ionic liquids (ILs) in catalysis was reported just in 1990, when Yves Chauvin (Nobel laureate 2005; 1930–2015) published the first nickel-catalyzed olefin dimerization reaction performed in water-sensitive organochloroaluminate molten salts under biphasic reaction conditions [3]. Later, in the mid-1990s, two manuscripts were submitted almost simultaneously (26 June 1995 and 18 August 1995) about rhodium-catalyzed hydrogenation in biphasic systems using for the first time air and water-stable ILs [4, 5]. Both Yves Chauvin and Jairton Dupont focused on imidazolium-based ionic liquids for the immobilization of the catalysts. Already these early works reported promising turnover numbers (15 000) and good catalyst recyclability. The robustness of these systems in terms of air- and moisture stability was a crucial factor for the later and wide spread application of such ILs. However, it has taken some more years, until for the new millennium more perspectives and future directions have been envisioned and propagated especially in review articles [6–8].
Contrary to the advent of the ILs application, the use of colloidal metals, hence solvated nanoparticles, goes back at least 2000 years and had been subject of scientific researches early as in the nineteenth century by Michael Faraday [9]. Nanoscale metals have been synthesized from chemical vapor in 1927 by Roginsky and Schalnikoff, [10] and applied in catalysis in the 1940s by Nord and coworkers [11]. Since then, the synthesis and uses of metal nanoparticles has spread over all fields of chemistry. Again in the 1990s, Manfred Reetz reported the synthesis of metal nanoparticles in zwitterionic surfactants [12] and the use of palladium nanoclusters stabilized by propylene carbonate for their use as active catalysts for the Mizoroki-Heck reaction [13]. At the same institute, already in 1991 Helmut Bonnemann reported the synthesis of metal nanoparticles using tetraalkyl ammonium hydrotriorganoborates as reducing agent for metal salts and the formed ammonium salts acted as stabilizing agent for the metal nanoparticles [14]. At about the same time, Bradley, Chaudret and colleagues turned their attention from synthesis of organometallic complexes to a novel approach toward the controlled decomposition of organometallics for the defined synthesis of metal nanoparticles for industrial application [15].
These early observations and applications about “laboratory curiosities” such as the use of molten salts in organic synthesis and the decomposition of metal precursors obviously have not fully revealed their potential. The above-mentioned contributions are examples of the vivid research activities toward the end of the last century and of course many other researchers were active as well.
It was only in the early 2000s that the above mentioned aspects of (i) multiphase catalysis in ionic liquids and (ii) controlled decomposition of metal precursors for metal nanoparticle formation started to merge into a single application: nanocatalysis in ionic liquids. These nanocatalysts revealed properties between single-site catalysts in homogeneous catalysis and multisite catalysts in heterogeneous catalysis. It was again Dupont et al. who presented a pioneering work about the use of ionic liquids as template for the synthesis of nanomaterials in ionic liquids and hybrid systems consisting of nanoparticles as catalysts and ionic liquids for multiphase catalysis [16]. In the next years, this new field started to take full ride and the field of application of those nanocatalysts in ILs broadened its diversity. Nowadays there are many examples in literature for different reaction types including hydrogenation, dehydrogenation, cross-coupling, CH activation, and applications such as in organic synthesis (drug design, fine chemicals), new materials, biomass conversion, hydrogen storage, energy conversion, industrial implementation, flow processes, and so on.
This book presents a collection of selected topics about the progress of nanocatalysis in ionic liquids. The individual chapters are divided into two sections: (i) metals and (ii) specific applications. The chapters cover pioneering works, recent achievements, and discussion for future advancements in sustainable synthetic methods, technologies, and energy research. Besides hydrogenation and cross-coupling reactions, that is, hydrogen storage, water-splitting, biomass processing are subject to discussion as well as bottom-up and top-down synthetic methods for the preparation of metal nanoparticles.
It has been a pleasure and an inspiration to act as editor in this book. I am grateful to all the authors for their efforts in the production of this informative collection about nanocatalysis in ionic liquids. Thirty authors working in eight different countries contributed to 13 chapters reflect international diversity. Nanocatalysis and ionic liquids have become promising research fields in the last 20 years and there are many interesting things to investigate in the future.
Moreover, I am thankful to Dr Claudia Ley who has taken the initiative to discuss with me the adventure and idea for this book project in March 2014. Moreover, I thank Mrs Samanaa Srinivas as supportive project editor along the project. Last but not least, I am grateful to all my current and former collaboration partners, coauthors, students, mentors, family, and friends over the years.
Martin H. G. PrechtlKöln
March 2016
References
1. Walden, P. (1914)
Bull. Acad. Impér. Sci. St. Pétersbourg
,
8
, 405–422.
2. Plechkova, N.V. and Seddon, K.R. (2008)
Chem. Soc. Rev.
,
37
, 123–150.
3. Chauvin, Y., Gilbert, B., and Guibard, I. (1990)
J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun.
, 1715–1716.
4. Suarez, P.A.Z., Dullius, J.E.L., Einloft, S., de Souza, R.F., and Dupont, J. (1996)
Polyhedron
,
15
, 1217–1219.
5. Chauvin, Y., Mussmann, L., and Olivier, H. (1995)
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl.
,
34
, 2698–2700.
6. Welton, T. (1999)
Chem. Rev.
,
99
, 2071–2083.
7. Wasserscheid, P. and Keim, W. (2000)
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.
,
39
, 3772–3789.
8. Dupont, J., de Souza, R.F., and Suarez, P.A.Z. (2002)
Chem. Rev.
,
102
, 3667–3691.
9. Faraday, M. (1857)
Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London
,
147
, 145–181.
10. Roginsky, S. and Schalnikoff, A. (1927)
Kolloid Z.
,
43
, 67.
11. Rapino, L.D. and Nord, F.F. (1941)
J. Am. Chem. Soc.
,
63
, 2745 and 3268.
12. Reetz, M.T. and Quaiser, S.A. (1995)
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl.
,
34
, 2240–2241.
13. Reetz, M.T. and Lohmer, G. (1996)
Chem. Commun.
, 1921–1922.
14. Bonnemann, H., Brijoux, W., Brinkmann, R., Dinjus, E., Joussen, T., and Korall, B. (1991)
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl.
,
30
, 1312–1314.
15. Bradley, J.S., Hill, E.W., Behal, S., Klein, C., Duteil, A., and Chaudret, B. (1992)
Chem. Mater.
,
4
, 1234–1239.
16. Dupont, J., Fonseca, G.S., Umpierre, A.P., Fichtner, P.F.P., and Teixeira, S.R. (2002)
J. Am. Chem. Soc.
,
124
, 4228–4229.
Foreword
Metal nanoparticles are only kinetically stable and consequently nanoparticles that are freely dissolved in solution must be stabilized in order to prevent their agglomeration. Unchecked, they can diffuse together and coalesce, eventually leading to the formation of the thermodynamically favored bulk metal. Indeed, since Faraday, various capping agents have been used to stabilize metal nanoparticles in aqueous or organic solvent solutions, rendering the investigation of the properties of freely dissolved metal nanoparticles a complex challenge. The advent of low-volatility ionic liquids as “liquid” support for the formation and stabilization of metal nanoparticles has opened not only a new avenue for the preparation of soluble “naked” metal nanoparticles but also the possibility to investigate the properties of these materials in situ employing techniques once almost restricted to solid state such as TEM and XPS. Moreover, ionic liquid is proved to be the ideal medium for multiphase catalytic systems, allowing not only the preparation and stabilization of transition-metal nanoparticles but also easy catalyst recycling and product separation, thus avoiding the environmental problems associated with the related aqueous and organic biphasic regimes. Doubtless ionic liquids are the most versatile liquid platform for the design and preparation of a new generation of modular soluble metal nanoparticle materials for catalytic transformations.
The field defined by Nanocatalysis in Ionic Liquids
