Nanofiltration E-Book

• Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH GmbH
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 2295

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021

Beschreibung

An updated guide to the growing field of nanofiltration including fundamental principles, important industrial applications as well as novel materials

With contributions from an international panel of experts, the revised second edition of Nanofiltration contains a comprehensive overview of this growing field. The book covers the basic principles of nanofiltration including the design and characterizations of nanofiltration membranes. The expert contributors highlight the broad ranges of industrial applications including water treatment, food, pulp and paper, and textiles.

The book explores photocatalytic nanofiltration reactors, organic solvent nanofiltration, as well as nanofiltration in metal and acid recovery. In addition, information on the most recent developments in the field are examined including nanofiltration retentate treatment and renewable energy-powered nanofiltration. The authors also consider the future of nanofiltration materials such as carbon- as well as polymer-based materials. This important book:

• Explores the fast growing field of the membrane process of nanofiltration
• Examines the rapidly expanding industrial sector's use of membranes for water purification
• Covers the most important industrial applications with a strong focus on water treatment
• Contains a section on new membrane materials, including carbon-based and polymer-based materials, as well as information on artificial ion and water channels as biomimetic membranes

Written for scientists and engineers in the fields of chemistry, environment, food and materials, the second edition of Nanofiltration provides a comprehensive overview of the field, outlines the principles of the technology, explores the industrial applications, and discusses new materials.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Title Page

Copyright

Foreword (Second Edition, 2020)

Foreword (First Edition, 2005)

Acknowledgments

Dedication

Ora Kedem and Miriam Balaban

Introduction

References

Volume 1

Part I: Principles

1 History of Nanofiltration Membranes from 1960 to 1990

1.1 Overview

1.2 Introduction

1.3 First‐Generation NF Membranes

1.4 Early Studies of Charged Reverse Osmosis (Hyperfiltration) Membranes

1.5 Early Models of NF Selectivity

1.6 Negative Salt Rejection

1.7 Early Development of Industrial NF: Ionic Modification of Asymmetric Cellulose Acetate

1.8 Early NF Composites

1.9 NF Composites of the 1980s

1.10 Composites Produced by Noninterfacial Cross‐linking

1.11 Chemically Stable NF Membranes

1.12 Conclusions

Abbreviations

References

2 Nanofiltration Membrane Materials and Preparation

2.1 General Introduction

2.2 Phase Inversion

2.3 Interfacial Polymerization

2.4 Coating

2.5 Surface Modification

2.6 Ceramic Membranes

2.7 Hollow Fiber Preparation

2.8 Commercial and Novel (SR)NF Membranes

2.9 Outlook

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

References

3 Nanofiltration Module Design and Operation

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Module Types and Characteristics

3.3 Spiral Wound Module (SWM) – Design Features

3.4 Strategies to Improve Control of Concentration Polarization

3.5 System Design and Operation

3.6 Conclusions

Nomenclature

Subscripts

Greek Symbols

Abbreviations

References

4 Nanofiltration Membrane Characterization

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Structural Characteristics

4.3 Charge Related Parameters

4.4 Nanofiltration Membranes for Nonaqueous Systems

4.5 Conclusions

Nomenclature

Greek Symbols

Abbreviations

References

Note

5 Modeling Nanofiltration of Electrolyte Solutions

*

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Basic Equations and Concepts

5.3 Nanopore Models of NF

5.4 Solution‐Diffusion‐Electromigration Models of Nanofiltration

5.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Nomenclature

Greek Symbols

Abbreviations

References

Notes

6 Chemical Speciation Effects in Nanofiltration Separation

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Chemical Speciation

6.3 Review of Effects of Solute Size, Charge, and Concentration on Rejection by NF Membranes

6.4 Solution Processes Influencing Speciation and Rejection

6.5 Effect of Concentration Polarization on Speciation and Rejection

6.6 Conclusions

Nomenclature and Symbols

Abbreviations

References

7 Fouling in Nanofiltration

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Fouling Characterization

7.3 Fouling Mechanisms

7.4 Organic Fouling

7.5 Scaling

7.6 Colloidal and Particulate Fouling

7.7 Biofouling

7.8 Fouling Prevention and Cleaning

7.9 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Nomenclature

Greek Symbols

Abbreviations

References

8 Pretreatment and Hybrid Processes

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Pretreatment – An Overview

8.3 Non‐membrane Pretreatment Methods

8.4 Pretreatment Methods Using Filter Media

8.5 Nanofiltration as a Pretreatment

8.6 NF in Hybrids Related to Seawater Desalination

8.7 NF as Post‐treatment and Polishing Technology

8.8 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

References

Volume 2

Part II: Applications

9 Water Treatment

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Overview of Nanofiltration Applications in Drinking Water

9.3 Plant Design

9.4 Plant Operation and Monitoring

9.5 Case Studies

9.6 Plants Treating Highly Colored Water

9.7 Conclusions

Abbreviations

References

10 Water Reclamation, Remediation, and Cleaner Production with Nanofiltration

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Reclamation of Municipal Effluent

10.3 Groundwater Remediation

10.4 Agricultural Drainage Water

10.5 Industrial Reuse and Cleaner Production

10.6 Closure

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

References

Note

11 Nanofiltration in the Food Industry

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Applications in the Milk Industry and Whey Processing

11.3 Applications in the Beverage Processing

11.4 Applications in Sugar Production

11.5 Applications in the Edible Oil Industry

11.6 Production of Food Ingredients and Nutraceutics

11.7 Process Water Treatment

11.8 Conclusions

Abbreviations

Nomenclature

References

12 Nanofiltration in the Chemical Processing Industry

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Inorganic Chemical Industry

12.3 Organic Chemical Industry

12.4 Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology Industry

12.5 Petrochemical Industry

12.6 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

References

13 Nanofiltration in the Pulp and Paper Industry

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Streams that could be Processed with NF Membranes

13.3 NF Modules and Demands in the Pulp and Paper Industry

13.4 Examples of Mill‐Stage NF Plants

13.5 Pilot and Bench‐Scale Systems

13.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects

Abbreviations

References

14 Nanofiltration of Textile Dye Effluent

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Textile Wastewater Treatment Overview

14.3 Membrane‐Based Technologies for Textile Wastewater Treatment

14.4 Advances in Nanofiltration Fabrication and Modification

14.5 Factors Affecting NF Performance

14.6 Fouling Control Approaches

14.7 Integrated Process Involving Nanofiltration

14.8 Economic Evaluation on Nanofiltration Hybrid Process

14.9 Conclusions

Abbreviations

References

15 Nanofiltration in Landfill Leachate Treatment

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Landfill Leachate

15.3 Overview of Currently Employed Processes

15.4 Landfill Leachate Treatment by Nanofiltration

15.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

References

16 Nanofiltration Bioreactors

16.1 Introduction

16.2 NF‐MBR Configurations

16.3 Wastewater Treatment Applications

16.4 Removal of Organic Matter and Nutrients

16.5 Removal of Trace Organic Contaminants

16.6 Operational Challenges

16.7 Nutrient Recovery Opportunities

16.8 Bioprocessing

16.9 Conclusions

Abbreviations

References

17 Photocatalytic Nanofiltration Reactors

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Background

17.3 Possible System Configurations

17.4 Some Applications from Laboratory to Industrial Scale

17.5 Conclusions

Abbreviations

References

18 Nanofiltration in Hydrometallurgy

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Challenges in the Application of Nanofiltration to Hydrometallurgy

18.3 Nanofiltration in Copper Hydrometallurgical Processing

18.4 Nanofiltration in Uranium Processing

18.5 Nanofiltration in Processing of Lithium Brines

18.6 Nanofiltration in Zinc Processing

18.7 Nanofiltration in Gold Processing

18.8 Other Processing Applications

18.9 Nanofiltration for Recovery of Critical Materials from Secondary Sources

18.10 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

References

19 Trace Contaminant Removal by Nanofiltration

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Occurrence of Trace Contaminants and their Effect on Health and Environment

19.3 Nanofiltration in Water and Wastewater Treatment

19.4 Removal Mechanisms of Trace Contaminants by Nanofiltration

19.5 Fouling, Chemical Cleaning, and Aging

19.6 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Nomenclature

Abbreviations

References

20 Organic Solvent Nanofiltration

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Membrane Materials

20.3 Membrane Modules for Organic Solvent Nanofiltration

20.4 Modeling and Simulation of the Membrane Module Performance

20.5 Models for the Description of the Permeation Behavior

20.6 Process Examples

20.7 Conclusions

Nomenclature

Greek Symbols

Superscripts

Subscripts

Abbreviations

References

21 Nanofiltration Retentate Treatment

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Disposal Strategies

21.3 Further Treatment

21.4 Volume Reduction

21.5 Resource Recovery Strategies

21.6 Concentrates as the Target Fraction

21.7 Conclusions

Abbreviations

References

22 Renewable Energy‐Powered Nanofiltration

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Renewable Energy‐Powered Nanofiltration (RE‐NF) Systems

22.3 Performance of Small‐Scale RE‐NF Systems

22.4 System Performance in Terms of Water Quality

22.5 Conclusions and Outlook

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

References

Part III: Future Nanofiltration Materials

23 Carbon Nanotube Composite Materials for Nanofiltration

23.1 Carbon Nanotube Membranes

Acknowledgements

Nomenclature

Greek Symbols

Abbreviations

References

24 Biomimetic Nanofiltration Materials

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Self‐organized Hybrid Membranes

24.3 Adaptive Constitutional Membranes

24.4 Artificial Water Channels (AWCs)

24.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

25 Novel Polymer‐Based Materials for Nanofiltration

25.1 Motivation and Scope

25.2 Overview on Fabrication Methods and Building Blocks

25.3 Alternative Membrane Polymers in Established Fabrication Processes

25.4 Alternative Fabrication Processes Based on Macromolecules and Nanoparticles

25.5 Alternative Monomers in Established Interfacial Polymerization Fabrication Processes

25.6 Alternative Fabrication Processes Based on Small Molecules

25.7 Mixed Matrix Composite Membranes

25.8 Postmodification

25.9 Approaches to Stimuli‐Responsive Nanofiltration Membranes

25.10 Conclusions

Nomenclature

Abbreviations

References

26 Graphene‐Based Membranes for Nanofiltration

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Porous Graphene Layer

26.3 Assembled Graphene Laminates

26.4 Graphene‐Based Composites

26.5 Transport Mechanisms

26.6 Organic Solvent Nanofiltration

26.7 Conclusions and Perspectives

Nomenclature

Abbreviations

References

Conclusions and Future Developments

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Introduction

Table 1 Global Market for Nanofiltration Membranes with Market Segments (CAGR...

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Commercially available loose RO (NF) membranes in 1973.

Table 1.2 Influence of evaporation and annealing temperature on flux/rejectio...

Table 1.3 SelRO™ acid/base/solvent‐resistant membranes.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Common polymers used in the preparation of membranes via phase inve...

Table 2.2 Monomers used in the synthesis of PA, polyester, and polyamine thin...

Table 2.3 Overview of widely used commercial NF membranes for aqueous and sol...

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Mechanisms of solute depolarization.

Table 3.2 Mass transfer correlations for use in Eq. (3.11).

Table 3.3 Hydraulic diameters for various geometries.

Table 3.4 Characteristics of the different module concepts.

Table 3.5 Flux enhancing strategies.

Table 3.6 Potential enhancements and estimated specific power for unsteady‐st...

Table 3.7 Mathematical models for recovery,

r

tot

, and net specific energy cons...

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Most important surface analytical methods [18, 102].

Table 4.2 Characteristic bands in ATR–FTIR in membrane applications [105, 106...

Table 4.3 Physical properties of representative solvents and permeability of ...

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Tableau for aqueous system containing 10

−4

 M total cadmium in...

Table 6.2 Activity coefficients for dissolved ionic species deduced using the...

Table 6.3 Common acid–base reactions in natural waters showing the equilibriu...

Table 6.4 Properties of selected thin film composite membranes used in studie...

Table 6.5 Acid–base reactions of arsenic species across the pH range typical ...

Table 6.6 Properties of the NF membranes used by Choo et al. [20] in obtainin...

Table 6.7 Selected half‐reactions written in terms of redox pairs dominating ...

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Fouling and where it occurs first.

Table 7.2 Foulants and their control strategies in NF and RO processes.

Table 7.3 Size fractionation water quality determination for agricultural dra...

Table 7.4 Surface properties of typical polyamide thin‐film composite membran...

Table 7.5 NF270 membranes modified in situ by redox‐initiated graft polymeriz...

Table 7.6 Typical biocide concentrations for RO sanitizing.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Pretreatment methods in NF and their applications [2–9].

Table 8.2 Summary of hybrids incorporating NF in seawater desalination.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Typical commercial nanofiltration membrane modules.

Table 9.2 Two fouling mechanisms of spiral wound modules.

Table 9.3 Efficiency of nanofiltration with NF 70 at Méry prototype.

Table 9.4 Comparison of rejection between the NF 70 and NF 200B membrane at M...

Table 9.5 Raw water characteristics.

Table 9.6 Salt rejection performance of the Jarny plant.

Table 9.7 Major feedwater and permeate characteristics.

Table 9.8 Some examples of soft surface water sources in Central Norway [40].

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Overview of case study features.

Table 10.2 Examples of reclaimed water projects – Applications, drivers, and ...

Table 10.3 Effect of irrigation water salinity on crop management [20].

Table 10.4 Typical feed water and product water quality targets for high‐grad...

Table 10.5 Removal of wastewater indicator compounds by reverse osmosis membr...

Table 10.6 Summary of CECs and surrogates monitored at the Orange County's Gr...

Table 10.7 Summary of indicative reductions of organic contaminants via vario...

Table 10.8 Wastewater reclamation facilities based on multi‐barrier membrane ...

Table 10.9 Water quality analysis for contaminated groundwater at a nickel re...

Table 10.10 Three‐stage pilot plant results.

Table 10.11 Operating data from February 1993.

Table 10.12 Estimated capital and operating costs associated with typical RO,...

Table 10.13 The raw water qualities in the pilot‐scale system in Buena Vista

.

Table 10.14 Summary of average water quality and saturation indices from the ...

Table 10.15 Selected data demonstrating variability of water quality in San J...

Table 10.16 Common components in produced water.

Table 10.17 Water quality analysis in Jiaozhou Bay [84].

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 NF applications in the food industry.

Table 11.2 Reduction of minerals in whey, partially demineralized by ED and N...

Table 11.3 Daily average of total solid content and dextrose purity of NF fee...

Table 11.4 The effect of prior demineralization on the dextrose purity of NF ...

Table 11.5 Overview of methanol‐stable membranes and their properties for FFA...

Table 11.6 Summary of properties of valuable compounds derivable from food wa...

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Examples of implemented offshore sulfate removal systems. Adapted ...

Table 12.2 Chemicals released in chemical industry.

Table 12.3 Results of tests with photoprocessing wash water.

Table 12.4 Economic data.

Table 12.5 General comparison between hydrophilic ceramic and polymeric NF me...

Table 12.6 Optimal design for 70 and 450 MW power plant.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Spent liquors from main pulping processes and focus for different ...

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Characteristics of textile wastewater obtained from different stag...

Table 14.2 Types of dyes used in the textile industry and their chemical stru...

Table 14.3 Comparison of different treatment processes for textile wastewater...

Table 14.4 Comparison of different UF membrane performances.

Table 14.5 Different chemical cleaning methods for NF membranes of textile ef...

Table 14.6 Integrated nanofiltration processes for efficient water and brine ...

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Time estimates of emission duration for different landfills.

Table 15.2 Impact category of landfill leachate compounds.

Table 15.3 Quality limits for landfill leachate in Germany for discharge.

Table 15.4 Quality limits for landfill leachate for nonhazardous waste in the...

Table 15.5 Process combinations for landfill leachate treatment.

Table 15.6 Efficiency of process for landfill leachate.

Table 15.7 Key features of NF and RO membranes in landfill leachate applicati...

Table 15.8 Leachate and permeate characteristics for NF of raw leachate from ...

Table 15.9 Leachate and permeate characteristics for NF of raw leachate from ...

Table 15.10 Leachate and permeate characteristics for NF of biologically pret...

Table 15.11 Comparison of NF and RO of biologically pretreated leachate.

Table 15.12 Overview on the full‐scale Biomembrat‐Plus

®

plant in Berg, G...

Table 15.13 Overview on the full‐scale Biomembrat‐Plus

®

plant in Beacon ...

Table 15.14 Water recovery rates for RO, HPRO, and NF/HPRO stage of four plan...

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Salt rejection (%) by NF membranes.

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Band gap energies and wavelengths of the classic photocatalysts.

Table 17.2 Characteristics of some commercial NF membranes used in photocatal...

Chapter 18

Table 18.1 Pilot plant test results for nanofiltration of copper pregnant lea...

Table 18.2 Composition of eluate from uranium resin‐in‐pulp process.

Table 18.3 Flat‐sheet cross‐flow nanofiltration of strong acid strip liquor a...

Table 18.4 Solution compositions of main process streams measured at 72% perm...

Table 18.5 Two‐pass nanofiltration of raw lithium brine.

Table 18.6 Nanofiltration of liquor from leaching of Waelz oxide.

Table 18.7 Nanofiltration of wet‐process phosphoric acid (20% P

2

O

5

).

Table 18.8 Pilot plant results for nanofiltration of wet‐process phosphoric a...

Chapter 19

Table 19.1 Maximum concentration of contaminants regulated for

drinking water

...

Table 19.2 Maximum concentration of inorganic trace contaminants regulated fo...

Table 19.3 Relative estrogenic potencies of endocrine‐disruptive chemicals.

Table 19.4 Examples of wastewater, water and desalination treatment plants us...

Table 19.5 Summary of methods to estimate diffusion coefficients [252].

Table 19.6 Dipole moment and log 

K

ow

of natural and synthetic hormones.

Table 19.7 Ionic and hydrated radius of several selected ions.

Table 19.8 Mechanisms underlying the effects of membrane fouling on the reten...

Table 19.9 Estimated estrone adsorption on full‐scale modules [120].

Chapter 20

Table 20.1 Investigated solutes.

Table 20.2 Polymers used in OSN.

Table 20.3 Interfacial polymerization monomers

Table 20.4 Polymers used for selective coating for OSN TFC membranes.

Table 20.5 Properties of flat sheet membrane modules employed for polymeric O...

Table 20.6 Compilation of organic solvent nanofiltration applications for the...

Table 20.7 Compilation of organic solvent nanofiltration applications for the...

Table 20.8 Compilation of organic solvent nanofiltration applications for the...

Table 20.9 Compilation of organic solvent nanofiltration applications for the...

Chapter 21

Table 21.1 Water quality parameters for nanofiltration concentrate (after aer...

Table 21.2 Composition of a typical concentrate from olive mill wastewater tr...

Table 21.3 Composition of roselle extract and nanofiltration concentrate usin...

Chapter 22

Table 22.1 Common contaminants in water.

Table 22.2 Overview of selected commercially available RE membrane systems so...

Table 22.3 Average and cumulative performance parameters of wind‐powered RE m...

Table 22.4 Research strategy for the Tanzania field trial 2012–2014.

Chapter 23

Table 23.1 Water transport in CNTs: slip lengths and flow rate enhancement fa...

Table 23.2 Typical methods used in the literature to verify that transport oc...

Table 23.3 Water transport in CNTs: permeance (

P

), slip lengths (

L

s

), and flo...

Chapter 24

Table 24.1 Performance overview of artificial water channels and pores report...

Chapter 25

Table 25.1 Representative approaches toward microporous barrier structures, w...

Chapter 26

Table 26.1 Typical graphene‐based laminate membranes for pressure‐driven nano...

List of Illustrations

Introduction

Figure 1 Liquid‐phase pressure‐driven membrane processes – typical solute se...

Figure 2 Pores in NF membranes: (a) AFM image and (b) pore size distribution...

Figure 3 Schematic trends of solute retention vs. pressure for ultrafiltrati...

Figure 4 Publication trends for ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), a...

Figure 5 Publications in Journal of Membrane Science (Elsevier) for nanofilt...

Figure 6 Global Market for Nanofiltration Membranes, 2012–2019 (US$ millions...

Figure 7 Nanofiltration – Principles, Applications, and New Materials book s...

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Transmission electron micrograph cross section of the skin and up...

Figure 1.2 Principle of negative salt rejection in the presence of highly re...

Figure 1.3 Scanning electron micrograph of UF PES membrane used for making N...

Figure 1.4 Flux (gallons/ft

2

 d) vs. salt rejection (%) for early open RO mem...

Figure 1.5 Flux (gallons/ft

2

‐d) vs rejection (%NaCl) for different interfaci...

Figure 1.6 Flux (l/m

2

 d) vs TMC/IPC ratio of piperazineamide interfacial mem...

Figure 1.7 Scanning electron micrograph cross section of a cross‐linked sulf...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Schematic of nonsolvent‐induced phase inversion process to obtain...

Figure 2.2 Phase diagram of a ternary system of polymer, solvent, and nonsol...

Figure 2.3 Composition of the polymer film immediately after immersion in th...

Figure 2.4 Formation of macrovoids.

Figure 2.5 Schematic representation of the conventional IP procedure to synt...

Figure 2.6 Schematic representation of the IP process executed at large scal...

Figure 2.7 Improved interaction through ionic bonds between a modified PAN s...

Figure 2.8 Interfacial polymerization of a PA dense layer based on trimesoyl...

Figure 2.9 The colloidal and polymeric route in the sol–gel process.

Figure 2.10 Hollow fiber preparation procedure. (1) N

2

gas cylinder, (2) bor...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Solute concentration gradient.

Figure 3.2 Plate and frame module.

Figure 3.3 Spiral wound module. (a) Basic elements; leaves connected to a pe...

Figure 3.4 Shell and tube module.

Figure 3.5 Hollow fiber module.

Figure 3.6 Submerged membranes.

Figure 3.7 Laboratory setup: (a) cross‐flow tester and (b) stirred cell.

Figure 3.8 Mass transfer coefficients vs. channel pressure loss for various ...

Figure 3.9 Spacer geometries: (a) diamond (showing hydrodynamic angle (

θ

...

Figure 3.10 Example of CFD predictions showing eddies between transverse spa...

Figure 3.11 The distribution of local driving forces (TMP) over a spiral ele...

Figure 3.12 SWM‐predicted distributions of (a) TMP and (b) flux across an SW...

Figure 3.13 Basis for SWM model. Grid arrangement, flows across and below me...

Figure 3.14 SWM: specific productivity vs. leaf geometry (

L

L

/

W

L

).

Figure 3.15 Structure of integrated model of SWM.

Figure 3.16 Vibrating module (VSEP).

Figure 3.17 Rotor/stator module.

Figure 3.18 System design: (a) series, (b) parallel (stages), and (c) tapere...

Figure 3.19 (a) SSRO, (b) 1–2 EERO, and (c) 1–3 EERO.

Source

: Adapted from [...

Figure 3.20 Two‐stage tapered cascade showing constraints because of flow va...

Figure 3.21 Comparison of tapered cascade designs of 2 : 1 and 3 : 2 : 1 arr...

Figure 3.22 (a) OPD and (b) SEC

net

for SSRO, 1–2 EERO, and 1–3 EERO processe...

Figure 3.23 (a) Conventional process with ERD. (b) Two‐stage process with a ...

Figure 3.24 Osmotic pressure vs. recovery plot. Highlighted areas are SECs o...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Schematic drawing of the separation of uncharged molecules by por...

Figure 4.2 Schematic drawing of the Donnan exclusion (i.e. the electrostatic...

Figure 4.3 Images of the top part of NF composite membranes obtained by diff...

Figure 4.4 HIM images of membrane cross sections: (a) clean NF90, (b) clean ...

Figure 4.5 (a) An AFM 3D topographic image of a freestanding polyamide film ...

Figure 4.6 Contact angle and surface energies (sessile drop technique).

Figure 4.7 Schematic drawing of the variation of the electrostatic potential...

Figure 4.8 Origin of the streaming current (

I

str

) and streaming potential (Δ

Figure 4.9 Streaming potential measured with NF 45 membrane and NaCl solutio...

Figure 4.10 Zeta potential (

ζ

) of three polyamide NF membranes (NF270, ...

Figure 4.11 Bode plots for three active layers of SWM1 membranes in 0.1 M KC...

Figure 4.12 Nyquist plot of the Desal DK membrane wetted by a 10

−5

 M K...

Figure 4.13 Frequency dependence of observed capacitance

C

(a) and conductanc...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Illustration of a model of membrane transport with virtual soluti...

Figure 5.2 Plot of transmembrane pressure drop (Δ

P

, red line, calculated wit...

Figure 5.3 Representation of the steric exclusion model for partitioning of ...

Figure 5.4 (a) Plots of the product of the partition coefficient (

Γ

i

, E...

Figure 5.5 Salt transmission coefficient (1‐reflection coefficient) as a fun...

Figure 5.6 Reflection coefficients for several salts as a function of the ra...

Figure 5.7 Scheme showing the factors that could give rise to negative salt ...

Figure 5.8 Salt and trace‐ion rejections calculated using the Steric/Donnan ...

Figure 5.9 Salt and trace‐ion rejections calculated using the steric/Donnan ...

Figure 5.10 Dielectric exclusion excess solvation energies for different por...

Figure 5.11 Scheme of a model sometimes used to estimate “average” dielectri...

Figure 5.12 Experimental (squares) and simulated (lines) real ion rejections...

Figure 5.13 Calculated dimensionless electric fields (in RT/FL units, where ...

Figure 5.14 Rejections of (a) Na

+

and (b) Cl

−

in NF through Dow NF...

Figure 5.15 Plots of calculated (a) volume fluxes, (b) chloride rejections, ...

Figure 5.16 Scheme of cation and anion concentration profiles as well as ele...

Figure 5.17 Resistances to salt transport,

R

s

, as a function of barrier‐laye...

Figure 5.18 Qualitative plot of CaCl

2

NF rejection or salt resistance as a f...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Concentrations of dissolved cadmium species as a function of pH o...

Figure 6.2 Temperature dependency of various equilibrium constants of partic...

Figure 6.3 Log concentration (C)–pH diagrams for weak acids–bases that are c...

Figure 6.4 Carbonate/bicarbonate speciation in the feed and permeate of a fl...

Figure 6.5 Na

+

rejection by FilmTec NF40 membrane as a function of the p...

Figure 6.6 Rejection of (a) boron, (c) nitrate, and (e) fluoride in milli‐Q ...

Figure 6.7 Effect of solution pH on As(V) and As(III) rejection by NF membra...

Figure 6.8 Effect of the presence of mono‐ or divalent (a) co‐ions or (b) co...

Figure 6.9 Uranium speciation in 0.1 mol/l NaNO

3

in equilibrium with air (pC...

Figure 6.10 Uranium speciation in 0.1 mol/l NaNO

3

in equilibrium with a gas ...

Figure 6.11 (a) Effect of [ligand]/[cesium] ratio and (b) effect of [NaNO

3

] ...

Figure 6.12 Calculated percentage of initial cobalt present in precipitated ...

Figure 6.13 Cobalt rejection by NF membranes (a) NTR7410, (b) NTR7250, (c) N...

Figure 6.14 (a) Concentration vs. pH predominance diagram for Fe(III) in aqu...

Figure 6.15 U(VI) sorption to ferrihydrite for a range of ΣU. (a) Low pH edg...

Figure 6.16 Uranium adsorption by ferrihydrite at two partial pressures of C...

Figure 6.17 Effect of cross flow velocity on NOM fouling at various calcium ...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Complex deposit of surface water on a membrane.

Figure 7.2 Scanning electron micrographs (SEMs) of membranes fouled during t...

Figure 7.3 Typical protocol used in fouling studies.

Figure 7.4 SEM and EDX scans of an NF270 membrane fouled by tertiary municip...

Figure 7.5 Concentration polarization where feed flow induce a crossflow tha...

Figure 7.6 Illustration of flux decline over time due to fouling and concent...

Figure 7.7 Simplified diagram of adsorption for different solute to pore siz...

Figure 7.8 Simplified diagram of gel layer formation following adsorption.

Figure 7.9 Colloid – organic fouling mechanisms (a) pore versus surface foul...

Figure 7.10 Critical flux in NF. Note that lines represent different experim...

Figure 7.11 A schematic of a cross flow NF process showing the development o...

Figure 7.12 Conceptual illustration of hindered mass transfer in cross flow ...

Figure 7.13 Conceptual illustration of the effect of cake‐enhanced concentra...

Figure 7.14 Humification diagram showing the molecular mass and aromaticity ...

Figure 7.15 Effect of solution chemistry on the deposit of NOM on a membrane...

Figure 7.16 Interaction of calcium and humic substances in fouling (a) calci...

Figure 7.17 Schematic of the formation of an idealized fouling layer which i...

Figure 7.18 Reduction of the effective pore diameter of membranes and retent...

Figure 7.19 Schematic of concentration polarization layer at the membrane su...

Figure 7.20 Solubility–supersaturation diagram of a sparingly soluble salt o...

Figure 7.21 Flux decline curve (a) and SEM images at various times (1, 4, an...

Figure 7.22 Field‐emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) images of tw...

Figure 7.23 Plot of various colloidal foulant fluxes assuming representative...

Figure 7.24 Atomic force microscope images of NF membranes challenged with a...

Figure 7.25 Membrane biofouling. (a) Fouled upper and lower membrane leafs o...

Figure 7.26 Feedspacer fouling. (a) Pressure marks of antitelescoping device...

Figure 7.27 Impact of cleaning procedure optimization on flux.

Figure 7.28 Flux recovery in the case of successive cleaning steps.

Figure 7.29 Resistances in filtration, rinsing, and cleaning.

Figure 7.30 Influence of temperature on fluxes during the filtration of 250 ...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 The effect of biological pretreatment (aerobic at

T

 = 45–55 °C) o...

Figure 8.2 Block diagram of the process used for lactose production.

Figure 8.3 Flow sheet of wastewater treatment process at a meat and poultry ...

Figure 8.4 Block diagram of an NF/ED hybrid process.

Figure 8.5 Flow sheet for producing salable salts from seawater desalination...

Figure 8.6 Schemes involving NF–MSF hybrids (Figure 3 of [110]). (a) An NF–M...

Figure 8.7 IX–NF process for seawater desalination.

Figure 8.8 A membrane process to treat acidic wastewater created by a copper...

Figure 8.9 Various polyphenols generated by hydrolysis of oleuropein contain...

Figure 8.10 Flow sheet for isolating polyphenols from olive pomace and olive...

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Flow chart of typical NF membrane system.

Figure 9.2 Hydraulic limits of spiral wound modules.

Figure 9.3 Typical module arrangement of a nanofiltration plant.

Figure 9.4 Nanofiltration in a Hallopeau–Dubin diagram (example).

Figure 9.5 Flow diagram of the Méry‐sur‐Oise water treatment line.

Figure 9.6 Méry‐sur‐Oise: nanofiltration gallery.

Figure 9.7 Méry‐sur‐Oise: a third array block.

Figure 9.8 TOC reduction performance at the Méry‐sur‐Oise nanofiltration pla...

Figure 9.9 Bicarbonate reduction performance of the Méry‐sur‐Oise nanofiltra...

Figure 9.10 Water permeability evolution of the first set of membranes of tr...

Figure 9.11 Flow diagram of the Jarny plant.

Figure 9.12 Flow diagram of the Debden Road plant.

Figure 9.13 The operating principle of foam ball cleaning.

Figure 9.14 Typical tubular membrane plant for colored water.

Figure 9.15 Test results with tubular and spiral CA membranes on colored sur...

Figure 9.16 The layout of most surface water plants used for colored water i...

Figure 9.17 Rejection of some parameters with pore size (membrane producer s...

Figure 9.18 Rejection as a function of membrane molecular weight cutoff and ...

Figure 9.19 The original 6000 m

3

/d plant for water color removal with CA NF ...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Distribution of reclaimed water reuse in California. The largest...

Figure 10.2 Schematic diagram of membrane‐based water treatment and desalina...

Figure 10.3 Rejection of different pharmaceuticals by RO and NF membranes. R...

Figure 10.4 Layout of NF/RO plant [52].

Figure 10.5 Chloride transmission as a function of the square root of the fe...

Figure 10.6 Hybrid NF/RO treatment scheme with (a) single NF stage and (b) d...

Figure 10.7 Process flow diagram of pilot plant.

Figure 10.8 Performance of the membrane pilot plant. Percent rejection was b...

Figure 10.9 Schematic flow diagram of the pilot‐scale IMS seawater softening...

Figure 10.10 Effect of operating pressure on salt rejection in NF seawater d...

Figure 10.11 Long‐term NF pilot‐scale performance for seawater desalination ...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Number of patents and publications in journals of articles in En...

Figure 11.2 NF installation for concentration and demineralization of sweet ...

Figure 11.3 Demineralization of HCl acid casein whey (EV: evaporation, CR: c...

Figure 11.4 Demineralization: schematic process layout for lactose productio...

Figure 11.5 Schematic process layout for aroma recovery and juice concentrat...

Figure 11.6 The proposed NF process for beet thin juice concentration and de...

Figure 11.7 The current vegetable oil refining process.

Figure 11.8 Effect of the concentration factor on the flux for WFNX0505 for ...

Figure 11.9 The effect of CF and pH on phosphate retention for WFNX0505 for ...

Figure 11.10 Schematic representation of NF of a caustic cleaning solution....

Figure 11.11 The average permeate flux during NF of a caustic cleaning solut...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Rejection for different salts at different concentrations (

LRO

,

Figure 12.2 Schematic representation of NF for production of low sulfate con...

Figure 12.3 Multipurpose NF/RO seawater desalination.

Figure 12.4 Schematic representation of the use of NF in chlor/alkali produc...

Figure 12.5 Chloride retention as a function of the difference in sulfate co...

Figure 12.6 Schematic representation of a vacuum salt plant.

Figure 12.7 The effect of addition of Drewsperse 747A on calcium retention a...

Figure 12.8 NF‐270 ion retentions for processing of salt crystallization mot...

Figure 12.9 ZLD/MLD process with UHPRO and integrated NF process demonstrati...

Figure 12.10 Dye passage of Procion Blue, triazine‐based dye (BASF), and mon...

Figure 12.11 Dye passage during diafiltration for average 98% desalting. Di ...

Figure 12.12 Typical NF plant for desalting of dyes.

Figure 12.13 PDC process with NF [37].

Figure 12.14 Lab bench test systems for flat sheet polymer cross‐flow membra...

Figure 12.15 Pilot plant for spiral wound elements up to 70 bar and 80 °C, m...

Figure 12.16 Variation of permeate flux vs. permeate volume (

T

 = 15 °C, pH 4...

Figure 12.17 NARO system for antibiotic purification and concentration.

Figure 12.18 Recovery of 6‐APA from mother liquor with NF [43].

Figure 12.19 Simplified process diagram for natural/biological extraction....

Figure 12.20 Edible oil separation from acetone.

Figure 12.21 NF of UF permeate, WFN 0505,

P

 = 30 bar,

T

 = 40 °C. Feed: Phe 1...

Figure 12.22 NF of UF permeate, WFN 0505,

P

 = 30 bar, and

T

 = 40 °C.

Figure 12.23 Rejection for various sugar types at standard conditions.

T

 = 2...

Figure 12.24 Conventional chilled solvent dewaxing.

Figure 12.25 Novel solvent dewaxing incorporating a NF unit.

Figure 12.26 Data from the commercial NF unit for dewaxing [59]. Supplied by...

Figure 12.27 Permeate production rate of cold solvent from commercial instal...

Figure 12.28 Beaumont lube dewaxing NF unit.

Figure 12.29 Process scheme for deacidifying crude oil [63].

Figure 12.30 Process flow diagram for the recovery of produced water.

Figure 12.31 Schematic representation of the use of NF in a de‐SO

x

/bio‐deNO

x

Figure 12.32 EDTA retention for NF‐200 and NF‐270 as a function of time on s...

Figure 12.33 Chloride retention for NF‐200 and NF‐270 as a function of the r...

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Simplified diagram on pulp and paper production and effluent str...

Figure 13.2 Fouling caused by plugging of the feed channels in a spiral woun...

Figure 13.3 Permeate fluxes and development of feed conductivity at differen...

Figure 13.4 The retention of UV light absorbing compounds (UVA 280 nm), cond...

Figure 13.5 Effect of pH on the retention of acids in the filtration of pret...

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Typical stages generally used in a textile wastewater treatment ...

Figure 14.2 Mechanism of electrostatic interaction between dye and membrane ...

Figure 14.3 Typical schematic diagram of advanced wastewater treatment techn...

Figure 14.4 Proposed integrated water treatment system using membranes (full...

Figure 14.5 Scheme of resource recovery from textile wastewater by loose NF‐...

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Water balance of a landfill.

Figure 15.2 Mass balance for leachate from municipal landfills.

Figure 15.3 Molecular weight distribution of organic substances.

Figure 15.4 Flow sheet of the biology, ultrafiltration, adsorption process. ...

Figure 15.5 Flow sheet of a state‐of‐the‐art RO process; drying and nitrogen...

Figure 15.6 Net driving forces and permeate fluxes of RO units for landfill ...

Figure 15.7 NF as a single process for landfill leachate treatment.

Figure 15.8 Biology and NF.

Figure 15.9 Adsorption or oxidation for nanofiltration concentrate treatment...

Figure 15.10 Biomembrat‐Plus® installation for leachate treatment for direct...

Figure 15.11 Concentrate treatment by NF/crystallization and HPRO.

Figure 15.12 DTF module for NF for applications with a high potential for mo...

Figure 15.13 NF and adsorption on powdered activated carbon with biological ...

Figure 15.14 NF and adsorption on powdered activated carbon with biological ...

Figure 15.15 Estimated treatment cost for a leachate treatment process emplo...

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Schematic diagram of the NF‐MBR system: (a) side‐stream and (b) ...

Figure 16.2 Organic matter removal by NF‐MBR. Data were extracted from studi...

Figure 16.3 Generations of bioethanol production and potential feedstocks. ...

Figure 16.4 Effect of NF membranes on the rejection of lactose and lactic ac...

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Basic photocatalytic mechanism occurring when a semiconductor pa...

Figure 17.2 Scheme of a continuous membrane photoreactor system with suspend...

Figure 17.3 Scheme of a discontinuous membrane photoreactor system with irra...

Figure 17.4 SEM micrograph of Degussa P25 TiO

2

particles (Magnification: × ...

Figure 17.5 Schematic diagram of the laboratory‐scale split‐type PMR.

Figure 17.6 Schematic diagram of the unit cell of the PMR with double‐side a...

Figure 17.7 4‐NP concentration in the permeate (

C

p

) through different membra...

Figure 17.8 4‐NP concentration in the retentate vs. time varying the total v...

Figure 17.9 Recirculation reservoir with immersed lamp.

Figure 17.10 Concentration of 4‐NP in the retentate and permeate at pH = 11....

Figure 17.11 Concentrations of Patent blue dye in retentate and permeate vs....

Figure 17.12 Concentrations of 4‐NP in retentate and permeate vs. irradiatio...

Figure 17.13 Substrate concentrations vs. time for runs carried out by using...

Figure 17.14 Scheme of the photoreacting continuous system and photograph of...

Figure 17.15 Schematic drawing of the PMR pilot system.

Figure 17.16 Schematic diagram of the SMPR system: a, feed tank; b, feed pum...

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Leach–solvent extraction–electrowinning route for copper process...

Figure 18.2 Simplified generic process for uranium recovery.

Figure 18.3 Generic process for uranium recovery incorporating NF after IX o...

Figure 18.4 Nanofiltration pilot test rig.

Figure 18.5 Uranium rejection from eluate containing 70–85 g/l H

2

SO

4

over ti...

Figure 18.6 Flux vs. permeate recovery for nanofiltration of eluate.

Figure 18.7 Process for uranium recovery from alkaline leach liquor containi...

Figure 18.8 Simplified process flow sheet for recovering lithium from brine....

Figure 18.9 Two‐pass nanofiltration of raw brine [42].

Figure 18.10 Nanofiltration for separation of sodium carbonate and halides....

Figure 18.11 Nanofiltration for separation of gold from copper cyanide compl...

Figure 18.12 Concentration of dilute vanadium leach liquor via nanofiltratio...

Figure 18.13 Effect of vanadium concentration on permeate flux at 2069 kPa, ...

Figure 18.14 Simplified Bayer process incorporating nanofiltration.

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 Classification of organic and inorganic trace contaminants and m...

Figure 19.2 Water cycle example of trace organic contaminants.

Figure 19.3 Structure of most common EDCs found in water.

Figure 19.4 Structure of some common PhACs detected in water.

Figure 19.5 Structure of pesticides, herbicies, insecticides and fungicides,...

Figure 19.6 Structure of some common DBPs found in water.

Figure 19.7 Structure of common PCFs detected in water.

Figure 19.8 Speciation of arsenate (As(V)) and arsenite (As(III)) as a funct...

Figure 19.9 Speciation of fluoride as a function of pH. (Speciation was carr...

Figure 19.10 Speciation of U(VI) as a function of pH in a system free of car...

Figure 19.11 Speciation of boric acid in an aqueous solution as a function o...

Figure 19.12 Removal efficiency of common pharmaceuticals, steroid hormones,...

Figure 19.13 Retention of natural and synthetic hormones by NF membranes at ...

Figure 19.14 Retention of commonly detected pharmaceuticals by NF membrane a...

Figure 19.15 Retention of the most common pesticides by NF membrane at lab a...

Figure 19.16 Retention of the most common DBPs by NF/RO membranes at lab and...

Figure 19.17 Retention and permeate concentration of inorganic trace contami...

Figure 19.18 Schematic of size exclusion mechanism.

Figure 19.19 Retention of 11 aromatic pesticides (a) and natural and synthet...

Figure 19.20 Variation of molecular dimension and shape under different pH c...

Figure 19.21 Schematic of charge repulsion mechanism.

Figure 19.22 Retention of sulfamethoxazole, carbamazepine, and ibuprofen by ...

Figure 19.23 (a) Glyphosate retention as function of pH with NF membrane....

Figure 19.24 Surface zeta potential of several NF/RO membranes as a function...

Figure 19.25 Retention of selected pharmaceuticals in different feed water t...

Figure 19.26 Schematic of (a) adsorption mechanism and (b) sorption–diffusio...

Figure 19.27 Permeate concentration of estrone as a function of accumulative...

Figure 19.28 Schematic of diffusion and convection transport in NF membrane....

Figure 19.29 Estradiol (E2) retention (a) and mass adsorbed (b) as a functio...

Figure 19.30 Supramolecular interaction mechanisms between micropollutants a...

Figure 19.31 Binding energies of the PA–PhAC complexes at different protonat...

Figure 19.32 Schematic of solute–solute interactions between organic matter ...

Figure 19.33 (a) Retention and (b) flux ratio as a function of pH for

endosu

...

Figure 19.34 Schematic of hydration shell for anion and cation in water.

Figure 19.35 Schematic cationic and anionic Hofmeister series.

Figure 19.36 Retention of anions by (a) NF90, (b) NF270 (condition: 0.1 M Na...

Figure 19.37 Ionic behavior as a function of membrane MWCO and transmembrane...

Figure 19.38 Dimensional radial potential distribution across a cylindrical ...

Figure 19.39 Relationship between specific flux and As(III) retention for di...

Figure 19.40 Schematic illustration of the ionic distribution at the membran...

Figure 19.41 Effect of pH on arsenic retention by NF membranes. Feed composi...

Figure 19.42 Retention of anions by NF270 as a function of pH in ternary ion...

Figure 19.43 Boron retention by NF membranes as a function of the solution p...

Figure 19.44 Uranium retention (bars) and uptake (scatter and line) by NF/RO...

Figure 19.45 Schematic drawing of a membrane top layer as a function of the ...

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1 Operating modes of organic solvent nanofiltration.

Figure 20.2 Retention of different solutes in different solvents for purpose...

Figure 20.3 Postfunctionalization strategies for OSN membranes and incorpora...

Figure 20.4 Envelope‐type membrane module for liquid‐phase applications as o...

Figure 20.5 Max‐Dewax® solvent dewaxing process as presented by Priske et al...

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1 Hybrid system comprising a membrane bioreactor and nanofiltratio...

Figure 21.2 Fluidized bed reactor (pellet reactor) for precipitation of calc...

Figure 21.3 Rejection of organic trace contaminants as a function of recover...

Figure 21.4 “Open channel” design of membrane modules in which classical spa...

Figure 21.5 Four scenarios for further treatment of nanofiltration concentra...

Figure 21.6 Principle of countercurrent nanofiltration cascades for enhanced...

Figure 21.7 Principle of selectrodialysis for fractionation of monovalent an...

Figure 21.8 Reference flowsheet for wastewater treatment in the textile indu...

Chapter 22

Figure 22.1 Decentralized NF/RO in remote community water treatment: (a) bra...

Figure 22.2 Nature of renewable energy resource fluctuations: solar irradian...

Figure 22.3 Schematic diagram of a RE‐powered hybrid UF/NF multiple barrier ...

Figure 22.4 RE membrane system performance plotted as a function of constant...

Figure 22.5 RE membrane system performance plotted as a function of wind tur...

Figure 22.6 SOW (shaded area) demonstrating the constraints to safe operatio...

Figure 22.7 Variables experimented with in the solar irradiance fluctuation ...

Figure 22.8 Effect on RE membrane system performance of varying the magnitud...

Figure 22.9 Effect of three different magnitudes of solar irradiance step ch...

Figure 22.10 Effect of solar irradiance fluctuations with frequencies of 1, ...

Figure 22.11 Wind‐powered RE membrane system (BW30, 2750 mg/l NaCl) performa...

Figure 22.12 Effect of intermittent operation on the permeate quality and qu...

Figure 22.13 Performance of wind‐powered RE membrane system (BW30, 5500 mg/l...

Figure 22.14 SOW (shaded area) showing constraints to safe operation and per...

Figure 22.15 Typical water sources: (a) “unprotected” well in Tanzania with ...

Figure 22.16 Field trial conditions: (a) site and tent laboratory in Central...

Figure 22.17 Cumulative permeate volume and permeate EC for difference betwe...

Figure 22.18 Uranium, calcium, and magnesium speciation and uranium membrane...

Figure 22.19 Retention of (a) common ions chloride, sulfate, potassium, sodi...

Figure 22.20 Mdori and Ngare Nanyuki field testing sites in northern Tanzani...

Figure 22.21 Concentration of fluoride, electrical conductivity (EC), inorga...

Figure 22.22 Removal of organic matter in Tanzania.

Figure 22.23 Organic matter removal in Ngare Nanyuki.

Figure 22.24 Water vendors in (a) Coober Pedy (Australia) with a coin‐operat...

Chapter 23

Figure 23.1 (a) The construction of a carbon nanotube from a single graphene...

Figure 23.2 Flow past an immovable surface for three slip length scenarios....

Figure 23.3 Type of CNT membranes: (a) membranes in which the only transport...

Figure 23.4 Process flow diagrams for the fabrication of CNT membranes using...

Figure 23.5 Typical defects in a SWNT: (A) five‐ or seven‐membered rings in ...

Scheme 23.1 Schematic representation of SWNT amidation (a) by activation wit...

Scheme 23.2 Electrochemical grafting of aryl diazonium compounds to SWNT sid...

Figure 23.6 Rejection coefficients (bars) measured for six salt solutions th...

Figure 23.7 Diffusional flux of several probe molecules in 7 nm wide MWNTs n...

Figure 23.8 Permeance as a function of pore diameter for nanotube membranes ...

Chapter 24

Figure 24.1 Upscale transposition of self‐organized functional ion channels ...

Figure 24.2 (a) Stick representation of the patching of 3 in the crystal, sh...

Figure 24.3 (a) Nanostructured “ureidopeptoides”

1

–

5

receptors in (b) hydrop...

Figure 24.4 Upscale transfer from molecular level to nanostructures, describ...

Figure 24.5 The cation‐templated hierarchic self‐assembly of guanine alkoxys...

Figure 24.6 Schematic representation of the synthetic route to obtain dynami...

Figure 24.7 Dynamic exchanges between supramolecular architectures of G‐ribb...

Figure 24.8 (a) Top view of the helical pore assembled from dendritic peptid...

Figure 24.9 (a) G‐quartet‐G4 and (b) I‐quartet‐I4 for the transport of catio...

Chapter 25

Figure 25.1 Summary of pathways to microporous polymer‐based membranes with ...

Figure 25.2 (a) First reported example of a polymer with intrinsic microporo...

Figure 25.3 Schematic visualization of polymeric segments with cation and an...

Figure 25.4 Overview on various metal ion chelate or covalent linkages betwe...

Figure 25.5 Chemical structures of cellulose and cellulose acetate as well a...

Figure 25.6 TEM image of the outer (selective) surface of a composite membra...

Figure 25.7 Robust and flexible BCP blend membrane obtained by SNIPS with a ...

Figure 25.8 Schematic visualization of barrier layers: (a) side view on alte...

Figure 25.9 Schematic cross section of composite membranes with rigid star a...

Figure 25.10 (A) Hard–soft core–shell nanoparticles as building blocks and c...

Figure 25.11 (a) Visualization of the barrier structure formed by an array o...

Figure 25.12 (a) Cross‐link structures after reaction of the diamine

piperaz

...

Figure 25.13 (A) Morphology of the active layer of TFC PA composite membrane...

Figure 25.14 Structure of the cross‐linked Q

I

phase of LLC monomer, the proc...

Figure 25.15 (a) Visualization of the self‐assembly of cyclic octapeptide‐PE...

Figure 25.16 (a) SEM cross‐sectional image of the upper layer of a multilaye...

Chapter 26

Figure 26.1 (a) Schematic of a graphene‐sealed microchamber. (Inset) Optical...

Figure 26.2 Functionalization of graphene pores with hydrogen atoms (a) or h...

Figure 26.3 Schematic and SEM image of single‐layer graphene suspended on a ...

Figure 26.4 (A) Process to create controlled pores in graphene membrane. Con...

Figure 26.5 (A) Schematics showing the graphene membrane fabrication and def...

Figure 26.6 (a) Working principle of GO membrane stabilization on a hollow f...

Figure 26.7 Procedure for concentrating GO dispersions. Photographs of stabl...

Figure 26.8 Fabrication of shear‐aligned GO membrane. (a) Schematic of shear...

Figure 26.9 Schematic illustration of (a) a layer‐by‐layer procedure to synt...

Figure 26.10 Schematic diagram of layer‐by‐layer assembly of a GO–PAH membra...

Figure 26.11 Characterization of GO–PAH membranes. (a) SEM images of GO memb...

Figure 26.12 (a) Schematic diagram of LbL assembly process assisted by exter...

Figure 26.13 He‐leak–tight GO membranes: (a) image of a 1 mm‐thick GO film p...

Figure 26.14 (a) Schematic of graphene sheets suspended in a liquid, showing...

Figure 26.15 (a) Schematic diagrams of the proposed membrane structure. SEM ...

Figure 26.16 Illustration of the multistep fabrication process of nanostrand...

Figure 26.17 (A) Schematic illustrations of graphene‐CNT structure. (B) Phot...

Figure 26.18 AFM characterizations of as‐synthesized (a) graphene oxide (GO)...

Figure 26.19 (a, c) AFM images of GO sheets with different lateral sizes. (b...

Figure 26.20 Surface functionalization of membranes with graphene nanomateri...

Figure 26.21 The proposed model for graphene capillaries within GO films....

Figure 26.22 (a) Schematic view for possible permeation route for the GO‐bas...

Figure 26.23 (a) Plot of solvent permeance vs. solvent viscosity for ultrath...

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Title Page

Copyright

Foreword (Second Edition, 2020)

Foreword (First Edition, 2005)

Acknowledgements

Dedication

Introduction

Begin Reading

Conclusions and Future Developments

Index

WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

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