Nanomaterials for 2D and 3D Printing E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
The first book to paint a complete picture of the challenges of processing functional nanomaterials for printed electronics devices, and additive manufacturing fabrication processes.
Following an introduction to printed electronics, the book focuses on various functional nanomaterials available, including conducting, semi-conducting, dielectric, polymeric, ceramic and tailored nanomaterials. Subsequent sections cover the preparation and characterization of such materials along with their formulation and preparation as inkjet inks, as well as a selection of applications. These include printed interconnects, passive and active modules, as well as such high-tech devices as solar cells, transparent electrodes, displays, touch screens, sensors, RFID tags and 3D objects. The book concludes with a look at the future for printed nanomaterials.
For all those working in the field of printed electronics, from entrants to specialized researchers, in a number of disciplines ranging from chemistry and materials science to engineering and manufacturing, in both academia and industry.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Chapter 1: Printing Technologies for Nanomaterials
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Ink Formulation Strategies
1.3 Printing Technologies
1.4 Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 2: Inkjet Printing of Functional Materials and Post-Processing
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Industrial Inkjet
2.3 Postprocessing of Metal-Based Inks for Conductive Applications
2.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Electroless Plating and Printing Technologies
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Electroless Plating – Overview
3.3 Seed Layer Printing
3.4 Electroless Plating on Printed Parts
3.5 Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 4: Reactive Inkjet Printing as a Tool for in situ Synthesis of Self-Assembled Nanoparticles
4.1 Introduction to Reactive Inkjet Printing
4.2 RIJ of Self-Assembled Au NPs
4.3 Parameters Influencing the Growth of Au NPs
4.4 Simplifying the Approach (Single Cartridge) Using Single Cartridge Step
4.5 Further Progress toward Reduction of Fabrication Time (1 min)
4.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: 3D Printing via Multiphoton Polymerization
5.1 Multiphoton Polymerization
5.2 The Diffraction Limit
5.3 Experimental Setup
5.4 Materials for MPP
5.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: High Speed Sintering: The Next Generation of Manufacturing
6.1 The Need for the Next Generation of Additive Manufacturing
6.2 High Speed Sintering
6.3 Machine Setup & Parameter Control
6.4 Materials & Properties
6.5 HSS for High-Volume Manufacturing
6.6 Case Study: From Elite to High Street
6.7 Opening the Supply Chain
6.8 The Future of HSS and the Benefits of Inkjet
References
Chapter 7: Metallic Nanoinks for Inkjet Printing of Conductive 2D and 3D Structures
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Metallic Nanoinks: Requirements and Challenges
7.3 Synthesis and Stabilization of Metal NPs for Conductive Nanoinks
7.4 Formulation of Conductive Metallic Nanoinks
7.5 Formation of 2D Conductive Structures: Printing and Sintering
7.6 3D Printing of Conductive Patterns: Formation and Sintering
7.7 Applications of Metallic Inkjet Nanoinks in Printed Electronics
7.8 Outlook
References
Chapter 8: Graphene- and 2D Material-Based Thin-Film Printing
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Printing Procedures
8.3 Performance and Applications
8.4 Discussion and Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 9: Inkjet Printing of Photonic Crystals
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Inkjet Printing of Photonic Crystals
9.3 Application of Printing of Photonic Crystals
9.4 Outlook
References
Chapter 10: Printable Semiconducting/Dielectric Materials for Printed Electronics
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Printable Materials for Semiconductors
10.3 Printable Materials for Dielectrics
10.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 11: Low Melting Point Metal or Its Nanocomponents as Functional 3D Printing Inks
11.1 Introduction of Metal 3D Printing
11.2 Low Melting Point Metal Ink
11.3 Liquid-Phase 3D Printing
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 12: Inkjet Printing of Conducting Polymer Nanomaterials
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Inkjet Printing of Polyaniline Nanomaterials
12.3 Polypyrrole
12.4 Polythiophene (Pth) and Poly(3,4-Ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)
12.5 Conclusions and Future Outlook
References
Chapter 13: Application of Printed Silver Nanowires Based on Laser-Induced Forward Transfer
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Ag NW Transparent Electrodes
13.3 Printed Ag NW Electrodes
13.4 Summary
References
Chapter 14: Inkjet Printing of Functional Polymers into Carbon Fiber Composites
14.1 Inkjet Printing
14.2 Carbon Fiber Composites
14.3 Mechanical Tests
14.4 Printing and Sample Preparation
14.5 Carbon Fiber Composites that Contain Inkjet-Printed Patterns Composed of PMMA Microdroplets
14.6 Carbon Fiber Composites that Contain Inkjet-Printed Patterns Composed of PMMA and PEG Microdroplets
14.7 Morphology of the Printed PMMA and PEG Droplets
14.8 Printed Polymers for Intrinsic Repair of Composites
14.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 15: Inkjet-Printable Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites for Sensor Fabrication
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Metallic Inks
15.3 Conductive Polymers
15.4 Carbon Nanomaterials
15.5 Future Outlooks and Conclusions
References
Chapter 16: Electrochromics for Printed Displays and Smart Windows
16.1 Overview on Electrochromics
16.2 Screen Printing
16.3 Inkjet Printing
16.4 Flexographic Printing
16.5 Roll-to-Roll Printing
16.6 Other Printing Methods
16.7 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: Printing Technologies for Nanomaterials
Figure 1.1 Operational principles of thermal and piezoelectric inkjet printing (A) and jet break up and satellite formation during the inkjet process (B).
Figure 1.2 Effect of drop spacing and deposition delay on definition of inkjet-printed lines (a,b) and effect of drying temperature on surface profiles of inkjet-printed droplets (c). (Soltman and Subramanian (2008) [57]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.) Array of micrometer-sized droplets of a nickel nanoparticle ink deposited by electrostatic IJP (d).
Figure 1.3 Image of a high-viscous inkjet system, schematic, and the resulting droplet shape.
Figure 1.4 Principle of LIFT (A) and influence of laser fluence (100 (B) and 230 (C) mJ cm
−2
) on jet formation and droplet size and definition of a silver nanoparticle ink [63]. Scale bars correspond to 50 µm.
Figure 1.5 Examples of LIFT-printed interconnects and conformal lines on a curved surface.
Figure 1.6 Schematic principle of flexo printing (a). (Kipphan (2001) [68]. Reproduced with permission of Springer.) Foil on roll with flexo printed silver ink (b) and microscopic images of the resulting conductive grid structure (c).
Figure 1.7 Schematic representation of various embodiments of screen printing (A). Electron microscopic image of a screen mesh partially covered with emulsion (B). (Kipphan (2001) [68]. Reproduced with permission of Springer.) Electrode pattern for a pressure sensor consisting of screen-printed graphene sheets and carbon nanotubes [72].
Figure 1.8 Two embodiments of photopolymerization: DLP in which a layer of resin is exposed by a pattern generated by a so-called digital light processor (a) and SLA where the pattern is created by a scanning laser beam (b).
Figure 1.9 Sketch and picture of light engine based on multiple laser sources for high-resolution and large-area 3D printing [82].
Chapter 2: Inkjet Printing of Functional Materials and Post-Processing
Figure 2.1 Acoustic principle of droplet formation in an end-shooter type printhead with a manifold connection (open end) and a nozzle plate (closed end) [ length of the cavity, compliance-correct speed of wave propagation in the channel].
Figure 2.2 Schematic overview of the different routes to metallic deposits derived from inkjet-processable inks.
Figure 2.3 Sintering mechanisms schematically depicted for the simplified case of two touching particles.
Figure 2.4 Equivalent circuit model for the heat transport through multiple layers of material during photonic sintering.
Chapter 3: Electroless Plating and Printing Technologies
Figure 3.1 Diagram of the problems and decisions sequence in electroless plating on printed seed.
Figure 3.2 Copper layer(2 μm thick) built on inkjet-printed silver. The flat substrate is “VeroClear™” by Stratasys Inc. demonstrating 2D object plating.
Figure 3.3 3D cone-shaped copper plated layer on 3D silver printed. The copper layer connects the bottom and topside of the cube. The raw material of printed cubic is "VeroClear™" by Stratasys Inc.
Figure 3.4 van der Pauw resistivity measurements printed with Ag nanoplarticles on PET, before (left) and after (right) electroless copper plating.
Figure 3.5 Electroless CuCo alloy deposited on inkjet-printed (Dimatix™ DMP-2831) seed on polymer used 3D printing (VeroWhite™ by Stratasys Inc.).
Chapter 4: Reactive Inkjet Printing as a Tool for in situ Synthesis of Self-Assembled Nanoparticles
Figure 4.1 RIJ printing scheme resulting in self-assembled Au NPs. Ink A (left) is printed first, followed by printing of ink B (middle) on top of A. Printing was carried out in air at room temperature. The substrate was then heated to 120 °C to result in Au NP array (right). The right-side image is an actual high-resolution SEM scan shown in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.2 Printed square array of droplets of ink B on top of ink A, according to scheme of Figure 4.1. A 30 µm spacing between drops (center-to-center) was used. Inset is a SEM image of an array spot after heat treatment. Note the shrinkage in diameter of the spot.
Figure 4.3 HRSEM of printed areas after the heat treatment. The average diameter of the NPs is about 8 ± 2 nm.
Figure 4.4 Post-heat-treatment EDS analysis of the printed features. The dominating Si peak is due to the silicon substrate.
Figure 4.5 XRD (a) and HRTEM (b) images of Au NPs grown by RIJ printing as described in Figure 4.1. Electron diffraction pattern shown in the inset of (b) agrees well with the FCC structure indicated by the XRD results.
Figure 4.6 Au NPs obtained using a reverse printing scheme to that shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.7 Au NPs grown using two inks for each printing experiment made of (a) gold precursor in water and oleylamine in ethanol, (b) gold precursor in a mixture of ethanol/toluene (1/10) and oleylamine in toluene, (c) gold precursor in DMF and oleylamine in toluene, and (d) 10 ml:1 ml mixture of 1,2-dichlorobenzene and oleylamine (ink A) and gold precursor in DMSO (ink B). Scale bar: (a) 500 nm, (b) 200 nm, (c) 500 nm, and (d) 100 nm.
Figure 4.8 SEM image of Au NPs formed using the solvent system consisting of gold precursor in DMSO and oleylamine in 1,2-dichlorobenzene (Figure 4.3) with gold precursor concentration increased to 0.4 mmol.
Figure 4.9 SEM image of Au NPs obtained after 3 h heat treatment of printed inks (A and B) at 120 °C. In this case, 2 mmol HAuCl
4
·3H
2
O in 10 ml of DMSO and 3 ml of oleylamine in 10 ml of 1,2-dichlorobenzene were used. The Figure (b) is inks A and B shown in Figure 4.1. Scale bar: 300 nm (a) and 100 nm (b).
Figure 4.10 SEM image of Au NPs grown using AuCl
3
as the metal precursor instead of AuCl
4
·3H
2
O. Scale bar: 400 nm. Note the relatively broad size distribution compared to Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.11 SEM image of Au NPs formed upon the use of single cartridge containing 400 nm a single ink mixture of 0.18 mmol of the gold precursor (HAuCl
4
·3H
2
O) in 10 ml of oleylamine, at room temperature. Scale bar is 400 nm.
Figure 4.12 (a–c) The printed array before heat treatment. (d–f) SEM images of printed drops upon photonic heat treatment. Image (e) indicates that an 80% surface coverage of Au NPs can already be obtained with 1 printed drop of ink A followed by 2 drops of ink B. A complete surface coverage is obtained using 1 printed drop of ink A followed by 3 drops of ink B as shown in (f).
Chapter 5: 3D Printing via Multiphoton Polymerization
Figure 5.1 Sequential (a) and simultaneous absorption (b). In the first case, the intermediate energy level is an actual energy level, while in the second case it is virtual.
Figure 5.2 A typical setup for multiphoton polymerization, consisting of an fs laser, a galvanometric mirror scanner, moving stages, directional and focusing optics, and a monitoring camera.
Figure 5.3 MPL experimental procedure: (a) beam focusing, (b) laser writing, (c) development, (d) completed structure.
Figure 5.4 One of the first 3D structures fabricated by MPL.
Figure 5.5 A photonic structure fabricated using SU-8.
Figure 5.6 A microneedle fabricated using ORMOCER®.
Figure 5.7 A three-dimensional photonic crystal with sub-100 nm features (a). (Vasilantonakis
et al
. (2012) [91]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley.) An IR polarizer (b).
Figure 5.8 SEM images of a 3D artificial scaffold.
Figure 5.9 A free-standing microscaffold.
Chapter 6: High Speed Sintering: The Next Generation of Manufacturing
Figure 6.1 A cost analysis of injection molding versus various additive manufacturing technologies.
Figure 6.2 Parts manufactured by high speed sintering.
Figure 6.3 High speed sintering in action, the black image on the white powder provides the selectivity crucial to the process.
Figure 6.4 DSC analysis showing the supercooling behavior of Nylon 12.
Figure 6.5 Continuous grayscale from 0 at the extreme left to 255 at the extreme right.
Figure 6.6 The tensile test specimen used for the build projection (dimensions in mm).
Figure 6.7 Customized shoe soles manufactured by high speed sintering.
Figure 6.8 The Factum project logo.
Chapter 7: Metallic Nanoinks for Inkjet Printing of Conductive 2D and 3D Structures
Figure 7.1 SEM images of 2D conductive structures as a function of sintering temperature. (a) Structures obtained by printing of aqueous silver nanoink (10% Ag, Disperbyk 190 as a dispersing agent) on a glass substrate and sintered in air atmosphere for 10 min. (Kamyshny
et al
. (2005) [33]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley.) (b) Structures obtained by printing copper nanoink (20% Cu in mixed solvent of ethylene glycol and 2-methoxyethanol, PVP as a stabilizing agent) on a glass substrate and sintered in vacuum for 1 h.
Figure 7.2 SEM images of 2D metallic structure obtained by inkjet printing of Cu nanoink on PI after drying (a) and following intense pulse irradiation (b).
Figure 7.3 SEM images of Ag track printed on PEN foil after plasma presintering and microwave flash sintering resulting in a conductivity of 60% of that of bulk silver. a – top view, b – cross-sectional view.
Figure 7.4 Scheme of the double printing process. First, a pattern of Ag nanoink is printed on the substrate followed by printing a salt solution on top of the silver pattern.
Figure 7.5 Schematic illustration of the stabilizer detachment followed by sintering caused by built-in sintering agent.
Figure 7.6 Printing of a conductive 3D structure with the use of ink composed of an UV-curable emulsion and a dispersion of silver NPs. Inset is a 3D profile of a 200 µm width lines composed of 1, 3, 6, 10, and 20 printed layers.
Figure 7.7 RFID antenna inkjet-printed on Epson photo paper with the use of Cu@Ag nanoink (a) and SEM image of the cross section of the printed pattern (b).
Figure 7.8 Working flexible four-layer electroluminescent devices (PET:ITO:ZnS:BaTiO
3
) with patterned top Ag electrodes printed onto BaTiO
3
layer. (a) Ag pattern was sintered at RT by contact with a polycation, PDAC. Magdassi
et al
. (2010) [229]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2010, American Chemical Society. (b) Ag pattern was sintered by exposure to low-pressure Ar plasma.
Figure 7.9 Light microscope images of a 2D array (a) and a 2D network (b) of conductive Ag rings inkjet printed on PET.
Figure 7.10 Schematic presentation of typical OSC.
Chapter 8: Graphene- and 2D Material-Based Thin-Film Printing
Figure 8.1 Schematic illustration of the ink preparation method. (a) Graphene is exfoliated from graphite powder in ethanol/EC. (b) The graphene/EC/ethanol dispersion is centrifuged to remove large graphite flakes. (c) Graphene/EC powder is obtained from salt-induced flocculation. (d) The final ink is prepared by the dispersion of graphene/EC powder in the ratio of 85 : 15 cyclohexanone/terpineol. (e) Vial of the prepared graphene ink.
Figure 8.2 Schematic illustration of the ink formulation concept for inkjet printing of 2D-layered materials based on the distillation-assisted solvent exchange technique.
Figure 8.3 Stroboscopic images of jetted droplets showing the jetting performance of (a) graphene (Li
et al
. (2013) [19]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley) and (b) MoS
2
inks
Figure 8.4 As-printed (upper) and dried (lower) patterns for inkjet printing of (a) graphene (Li
et al
. (2013) [19]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley) and (b) MoS
2
(Li
et al
. (2014) [21]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley). Scale bars: 100 µm.
Figure 8.5 Inkjet-printed KTH logo on glass slides (b) with graphene inks [19]. (a) The original design.
Figure 8.6 (a) Left: illustration for the sliding of contact lines to suppress coffee-ring effects. Right: optical images and SEM images (insets) of printed dots on substrate with low contact angle (upper) and high contact angle (lower). (Reproduced with permission from [26, 29].) (b) Optical images of the packing structure (left) and the corresponding final deposition morphology (right) of ellipsoidal particles and spherical particles.
Figure 8.7 Evaporation processes of inkjet-printed graphene films on silicon. (a) Optical micrograph of an as-printed liquid film. (b) The dried pattern with the substrate at room temperature. The dark region in the center consists of the dewetted terpineol. (c) The dried pattern with the substrate at 60 °C. There is no dewetting and the pattern is fairly uniform.
Figure 8.8 AFM images of a dried droplet (a) and line (b) printed for the printed graphene patterns in Figure 8.4a. (c, d) Cross-sectional profiles along the three directions in (a) and (b), respectively. The patterns are globally uniform (free from the coffee-ring effect).
Figure 8.9 Morphology of inkjet-printed graphene features on HMDS-treated Si/SiO
2
wafer illustrating the uniformity of the printed features. SEM images of (a) multiple printed lines and (b) a single printed line and drop (inset: scale bar corresponds to 40 µm). (c) AFM image of a single line following 10 printing passes and (d) averaged cross-sectional profiles (over the boxed region in (c)) of printed lines after 1, 3, and 10 printing passes, demonstrating the uniform patterns free from coffee-ring effects even after multiple printing passes.
Figure 8.10 (a) Schematic illustration of the laser annealing process for films made from graphene inks. (b) Optical microscope image of a drop-cast graphene film where the laser-treated areas are marked by dotted rectangle (inset: close-up view of the border area). (c) 3D image of the surface topography by laser scanning microscope indicating the difference between the areas with and without laser annealing.
Figure 8.11 Printed graphene transparent conductive films on glass. (a) Printed graphene square films (1.5 cm × 1.5 cm) with various printing layers (from 1–6 layers). (b) An SEM image of the six-layer (6L) graphene film. (c) Raman spectra of the printed graphene films. (d) Transmittance (at the wavelength of 550 nm) versus sheet resistance for some printed graphene films (3–6 printing layers).
Figure 8.12 Inkjet-printed mSCs on Kapton with graphene electrodes. (a) Printed silver current collectors. (b) Printed graphene electrodes (eight printing layers) on top of silver current collectors. (c) Asymmetric supercapacitors where only one set of silver Figure is covered by printed graphene (four printing layers). All the fingers are 1.0 mm wide, 9.4 mm long, and interspaced by 0.6 mm. (d–f) CV curves measured in 1 m Na
2
SO
4
aqueous solutions for (a), (b), and (c), respectively.
Figure 8.13 Photoresponse of a printed MoS
2
device (channel length is 13 µm). (a) Illustration of the MoS
2
device structure under illumination. Upper-right inset: optical micrographs of the device under different illuminations of white (left), blue (middle), and red (right) lights. The scale bar is 100 µm. (b) Time-resolved photoresponse of the device under different gate bias
V
g
and/or different illuminations. The lights are on (off) in the shaded (unshaded) intervals. Each interval is 5 s. (c) A close-up view of the photoresponse to white light at
V
g
= 0 V [the topmost one in (b)]. In all measurements, the drain voltage is
V
d
= 1 V.
Figure 8.14 Inkjet-printed all-2D-material photodetectors. (a) Photograph of one device with interdigitated graphene electrode (black region) and zigzag MoS
2
channel (yellow region). (b) An optical image showing the graphene/MoS
2
interface. (c) Current–voltage curves for the device in dark and under different illuminations.
Chapter 9: Inkjet Printing of Photonic Crystals
Figure 9.1 (a) Generation process of the ink droplets. (b) Schematic illustration of the droplet behaviors after impacting the substrate.
Figure 9.2 Influence of ink composition on the particle deposition and assembly structure. SEM images of particle deposition printed from (a) water-based ink and (b) water/formamide-based ink; (Park and Moon (2006) [63]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.) (c,d) Optical properties of the printed PC dots from inks with varying ethyl glycol content.
Figure 9.3 (a,b) Schematic illustration of colloidal particles' assembly with a droplet printed on the (a) hydrophilic and (b) hydrophobic substrate. (Ko
et al
. (2004) [71]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.) (c,d) Optical images of the printed PC dots on substrate with different water contact angles: (c) 48° and (d) 91°.
Figure 9.4 (a) Colloidal droplets on superhydrophobic substrate with low-adhesion-generating PCs with narrow stopband. (Huang
et al
. (2012) [75]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.) (b,c) SEM images of the particle assembly structure of printed PC dots on substrate with receding contact angle of (b) 18.0 ± 5.7° and (c) 93.3 ± 1.9°. (d) The reflection intensity of printed PC dots on substrate with different receding contact angles.
Figure 9.5 (a) The influence of the drop spacing and delay time on the morphology of printed droplets. Examples of printed line morphology: individual drops, scalloped, uniform, bulging, and stacked coins from left to right with decreasing drop spacing. (Soltman and Subramanian (2008) [29]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.) (b) Typical coalescing cases of the neighboring ink droplets induced by different dynamic wettabilities of ink droplets on the substrates. By adopting optimized dynamic wettability, straight, and smooth PC lines with good optical property are obtained.
Figure 9.6 (a) Schematic illustration of the evaporative flux distribution of the droplet surface. (b) Particles migrating to the edge of the droplet during evaporation. (c) A ring-shaped deposition on substrate. (Deegan
et al
. (1997) [82]. Reproduced with permission of Nature Publishing.)
Figure 9.7 (a–c) Optical photos of inkjet-printed colloidal PC patterns. (d) SEM images of the printed PC dots.
Figure 9.8 (a) The fluorescent PC domes exhibit an excellent wide viewing angle from 0° to 180°. PC patterns consisting of fluorescent PC domes display consistent strong fluorescent images of either top view or side view. (Kuang
et al.
(2014) [43]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley.) (b) SEM images of a single PC dome printed by reactive inks and the fluorescent image of a PC dot-matrix-constructed 2D code pattern. (Bao
et al.
(2015) [44]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley.) (c) Optical images of various PC patterns obtained by magnetic screen printing. Scale bar: 100 µm.
Figure 9.9 (a) Schematic illustration of manipulating 3D morphology of microcolloidal PC pattern through hydrophilic pattern–induced asymmetric dewetting. (b) Mechanism of pinning points induced asymmetric dewetting and assembly. (c) SEM images of controllable 3D structures include line a
1
, quadrilateral a
2
, star a
3
, hexagonal a
4
, and octagon a
5
. Scale bar: 20 µm.
Figure 9.10 (a) Real-time optical microscope images of the colloidal PC microdots as water vapor is concentrating and scattering. Scale bar: 20 µm. (b) Color photographs of dragon images taken in low (left) and high (right) concentration of wet air. Scale bar: 5 mm. (c) Top: hydrophobic transition of the molecular conformation of PAAm-co-PNIPAm incorporated in the PC microdot. Bottom: changes of the Bragg diffraction peak shift of PC microdots with response time.
Figure 9.11 (a) Digital photographs and micrographs of inkjet-printed PC chips. Scale bar: 5 mm. The normalized detection results (Δλ) computed from differences between the sample spot and control spot data. (Shen
et al.
(2012) [40]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2012 The Royal Society of Chemistry). (b) PC microchip with hydrophilic PC dots on hydrophobic substrate. The wettability difference in water CA between the hydrophilic PC dot and hydrophobic substrate induces the target molecules to enrich the active PC microsensors.
Chapter 10: Printable Semiconducting/Dielectric Materials for Printed Electronics
Figure 10.1 (a) Atomic force microscopy (AFM) images of spin-coated and printed films. (b) Representative TFT transfer plots of current versus carrier density (
N
ind
) of various gravure-, flexo-, and inkjet-printed devices. (c) TFT transfer plots of current versus gate voltage for representative TFTs with gravure-printed semiconductor and dielectric layers.
Figure 10.2 (a) Transfer characteristics of Li-doped ZnO TFTs with different doping concentrations (
V
D
= 40 V). (b) Field-effect mobility of Li and Na-doped ZnO TFTs as a function of doping concentration. (c) Transfer characteristics of the ZnO TFTs based on ZnO doped with various alkali metals (10 mol% Li, 1 mol% Na, 3 mol% K, and 1 mol% Rb).
Figure 10.3 Transfer characteristics of IGZO, ITZO, and ITZO–IGZO TFTs. The number in parenthesis indicates the number of spin-coating process.
Figure 10.4 Electrical characteristics of the IZO/SWNT hybrid TFTs with different SWNT concentrations from 0 to 1 wt%. (a–c) Transfer characteristics at
V
DS
= 10 V: (a) 0 wt%, (b) 0.5 wt%, (c) 1 wt%. (d–f) Output characteristics: (d) 0 wt%, (e) 0.5 wt%, (f) 1 wt%.
Figure 10.5 Depiction of the two different synthetic approaches: combustion chemistry-based and conventional approaches.
Figure 10.6 (a) Transfer and output characteristics of a photo-annealed IGZO TFT fabricated on a PAR substrate. In output curve,
V
GS
is ranging from 0 to 10 V (bottom to top), in 2-V steps. Channel length and width are 10 and 100 µm, respectively. (b) Distribution of saturation mobilities of photo-annealed IGZO TFTs on PAR (49 devices). (c) Threshold voltage shift of IGZO TFTs under positive gate-bias stress (
V
GS
= +5 V,
V
DS
= +0.1 V). Glass substrates are unpassivated; PAR substrates are either unpassivated (green curve) or passivated with poly(methylmethacrylate) (blue curve).
Figure 10.7 Schematic of the top-contact/bottom-gate OFET device geometry and the structures of the polymers and silane cross-linkers for the fabrication of cross-linked polymer blend gate dielectrics.
Figure 10.8 (a) Ionic liquid and triblock copolymer: [EMIM][TFSI] and PS-PEO-PS, respectively. (b) Frequency dependence of the specific capacitance of triblock copolymer and ion-gel film.
Figure 10.9 (a) Scheme of printed ZnO TFTs with ion-gel gate insulator (45-nm-thick photolithographically patterned Au source-drain electrodes with
W
/
L
= 500/25 µm and printed 500-nm-thick PEDOT:PSS gate electrode). Diagram is not to scale. (b) Optical micrograph of an aerosol-jet-printed ZnO pattern. The minimum width of the printed lines is about 50 µm. (c) Optical image of a flexible ZnO device on kapton substrate. (d) A magnified image of a single device, where all the functional layers can be distinguished.
Figure 10.10 Effect of zirconium doping on the electrical properties of the solution-processed amorphous alumina thin film. Leakage current density versus electric field plots for (a) AlO
x
and (b) zirconium-doped aluminum oxide (ZAO). Schematics showing the conceptual structural features of (c) AlO
x
and (d) ZAO. AlO
x
contains weakly bonded oxygen-associated lattice defects or hydroxide due to their weak bonding to oxygen, which are replaced with strongly bonded oxygen upon the addition of a Zr cation.
Chapter 11: Low Melting Point Metal or Its Nanocomponents as Functional 3D Printing Inks
Figure 11.1 (a) A printed LED circuit on a plastic film through atomized spray printing method. (Zhang et al. (2014) [11]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2014, Springer); (b) a printed circuit on PVC substrate via direct writing method. (Zheng
et al
. (2014) [10]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2014, Nature Publishing Group); (c) a liquid-embedded-elastomer patterned with Ga–In liquid metal. (Kramer
et al
. (2013) [13]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2013, Wiley-VCH); (D) a liquid metal cube antenna fabricated with injection casting method.
Figure 11.2 TEM image of the liquid metal nanoparticles.
Figure 11.3 Injectable 3D printing of medical electronics. (a) The fabrication process of implantable bio-electrode. Here, (1) denotes the formed packaging domain; (2) and (3) represent the fabrication process of electrode mode; (4) denotes the formed electrode within the packaging domain by injecting liquid metal ink; (b) a printed implantable electrode within the in vitro porcine tissues.
Figure 11.4 Injectable 3D printing of metal bone cement. (a) A demonstrated molding of alloy cement in the shape of “BONE”; (b) X-ray imaging of the bone cavity filled with alloy cement; (c) X-ray imaging of the mouse with the alloy cement implanted subcutaneously [21].
Figure 11.5 Comparisons of the thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity between liquid metal and other materials.
Figure 11.6 The relation between the thermal conductivity enhancement ratio and the volume fraction of different nanoparticles in liquid-gallium suspensions.
Figure 11.7 Scheme and device for liquid-phase 3D printing toward quick metal fabrication.
Figure 11.8 Dynamic droplet configurations in liquid-phase fluid: (A) the droplet formation process in water (the droplet falling velocity is 3.34 mm s
−1
); (B) the long tail tadpole-like droplets due to fast injection speed in ethanol cooling fluid (the droplet falling velocity is 7.98 mm s
−1
).
Figure 11.9 The droplet deposition process (from a to f) in ethanol cooling fluid (the droplet falling velocity is 5.65 mm s
−1
).
Figure 11.10 Typical 3D metal structures made by liquid-phase 3D printing method. (a) Metal balls; (b) metal rods; (c) frustum of a cone structure; and (d) cylinder structure.
Figure 11.11 The size distribution of the droplets produced with syringe needles of 0.16 mm (a), 0.34 mm (b), 0.51 mm (c), and 0.84 mm (d) inner diameters, respectively.
Figure 11.12 Comparison between ethanol cooling and air cooling printings: (a) column formed by the ethanol cooling method; (b) molten globule formed by the air cooling approach.
Figure 11.13 Injection needle array for future parallel liquid-phase 3D printer.
Chapter 12: Inkjet Printing of Conducting Polymer Nanomaterials
Figure 12.1 A general chemical structure of polyaniline consisting of amine repeating units and imine repeating units.
Figure 12.2 A typical cyclic voltammetry curve of polyaniline under acidic media (pH 1) with a description of the redox reaction occurring at each oxidation or reduction peak.
Figure 12.3 The relationship between conductivity, oxidation state, and the protonation level of polyaniline: (a) the normalized conductance current versus electrochemical potential and (b) the same plot under pH 1–6 buffer solutions.
Figure 12.4 The scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of the polyaniline nanowires (a) as-synthesized and (b) after inkjet printing on a transparency film (five prints).
Figure 12.5 Minimum line and gap width achievable with inkjet patterning of polyaniline nanowire network (printed five times).
Figure 12.6 A chemiresistive hydrogen peroxide sensor: (a) image of the sensor showing printed polyaniline nanowire network modified with catalytic silver nanoparticles and (b) the conduction current response of the sensor when exposed to various concentrations of H
2
O
2
.
Figure 12.7 A general chemical structure of polypyrrole showing a chain of heterocyclic aromatic compounds.
Figure 12.8 Cyclic voltammogram of polypyrrole showing the faradaic and capacitive current components, at a scan rate of 20 mV s
−1
.
Figure 12.9 SEM images of polypyrrole (insets: seed template): (a) unseeded reaction; (b) seeded with 1.5 mg HiPco SWCNT; (c) seeded with 4 mg of V
2
O
5
; (d) seeded with SWCNT pre-exposed to (NH
4
)
2
S
2
O
8
.
Figure 12.10 SEM images of (a) Ppy with globular shape; (b) fibrous Ppy morphology that resulted from 0.5 DA/Py mole ratio; (c) more compacted fibrous Ppy morphology that resulted from 2 DA/Py mole ratio; and (d) TEM topography image of a single PDA-Ppy fiber that resulted from 2 DA/Py mole ratio.
Figure 12.11 The stoichiometry of (a) the oxidation of aniline with APS in acidic aqueous medium yielding protonated polyaniline in its emeraldine form and (b) the oxidation of pyrrole resulting in a protonated polypyrrole.
Figure 12.12 Inkjet-printed Ppy/GA formulations. (a) Digital photo of Ppy/GA film printed 20 times on PVDF membrane; (b) SEM image of the printed Ppy/GA particles, scale bar = 100 nm; and (c) magnified SEM image showing the Ppy/GA nanoparticles, scale bar = 10 nm.
Figure 12.13 (A) CV curves of (a) bare and (b–f) Ppy-modified screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs) in 0.01 M PBS with various H
2
O
2
concentrations. In (b–f), the SPCEs were exposed to 0, 1, 10, 100, and 1000 μM H
2
O
2
, respectively; (B) CV curves of SPCEs modified with inkjet-printed Ppy/HRP in 0.01 M PBS. In (a–e), the electrodes were exposed to 0, 1, 10, 100, and 1000 μM H
2
O
2
, respectively. HRP loading is 2.5 mg mL
−1
. All potentials are versus Ag/AgCl (3.0 M NaCl) and the scan rate was 0.1 V s
−1
.
Figure 12.14 (a) Overlap of fluorescence and optical microscopy image of PC12 cells cultured on inkjet-printed Ppy/collagen scaffold; (b) fluorescence microscopy images of PC12 cells cultured on Ppy/collagen scaffold.
Figure 12.15 General chemical structures of (a) polythiophene and (b) poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT).
Figure 12.16 An inkjet-printed VOC sensor array. (a) Completed, wire bonded, test chip showing 24 electrode patterns with ink-jetted polymers. The sensors in the first column were used for reference. The rest of the electrodes have one type polymer (polythiophene derivative) jetted on each column. (b) Enlarged view of the gold spiral electrodes with no polymer. (c) Spiral electrodes with jetted poly(3-hexylthiophene) polymer formed from 10 drops of 5 mg ml
−1
polymer concentration dissolved in trichlorobenzene.
Chapter 13: Application of Printed Silver Nanowires Based on Laser-Induced Forward Transfer
Figure 13.1 The softness of wearable devices is enhanced using stretchable wiring.
Figure 13.2 Optical microscopy images of (a) typical and (b) ultra-long Ag NWs. Insets show scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images.
Figure 13.3 (a) Sheet resistance corresponding to optical transmittance for air-dried transparent electrodes. (b) Relationship between sheet resistance and haze for heated transparent electrodes at 200 °C for 10 min.
Figure 13.4 Noncontact printing by LIFT. (a) Schematic of the LIFT process. (b) Printed Ag NW network bound with resin, observed by optical microscopy. (c) Optical microscopy images of printed a stretchable Ag NW track prepared by prestretching. (d) Illuminated LED connected by stretchable track on a rubber substrate.
Chapter 14: Inkjet Printing of Functional Polymers into Carbon Fiber Composites
Figure 14.1 Short beam shear (SBS) test setup, showing a loaded sample of carbon fiber composite.
Figure 14.2 A schematic showing the test sample setup for the DCB test, a PTFE film is inserted to initiate cracking.
Figure 14.3 Four different print patterns that deposited an equal amount of PMMA per unit area of substrate.
Figure 14.4
G
Ic
comparison between NP and samples with printed different patterns (error bars represent standard deviation,
n
= 5).
Figure 14.5 The top row shows
G
Ic
comparisons between samples that were either nonprinted (NP), contained a printed hexagonal pattern (pattern 4 from Figure 14.3) of PMMA dots or a continuous film of PMMA. The bottom row compares crack initiation and propagation in the left-hand Figure and the apparent interlaminar shear strength (aILSS), which is derived from the SBS test on the right side. In all cases
n
= 5.
Figure 14.6
G
Ic
comparison of nonprinted samples and samples that contain hexagons composed of PMMA dots. The two hexagon-patterned samples varied in the spacings in
X
and
Y
between the dots;
n
= 5 in all cases.
Figure 14.7 The measured values of
G
Ic
for four composite samples. Three of the sample sets contained an inkjet-printed hexagon pattern of PMMA dots and varied only in the amount of PMMA that each dot contained. The fourth sample was a nonprinted (NP) control. In all cases,
n
= 5.
Figure 14.8 A graph showing how interlaminar fracture toughness can be locally tailored, in Sample A, a nonprinted region transitions into a printed toughened region, whereas in Sample B the opposite case occurs.
Figure 14.9 For multimaterial systems, a standard hexagonal pattern was employed, in which half of the dots were composed of a second material. In this particular case, PEG replaced half of the PMMA droplets. Dot spacing was d
x
/d
y
= 0.4/0.2 mm, and the concentration of the ink was 10% in both cases.
Figure 14.10 The values of
G
Ic
and aILSS measured for three sample sets. One of the sample sets was the nonprinted (NP) control, the second was the optimized PMMA single material system, and the third was a dual material PMMA/PEG system.
Figure 14.11 The morphologies of inkjet-printed PMMA droplets that were embedded into epoxy resin, which had been coated on glass slides. Three structures were printed: hexagon, film, and lines; and the droplet morphologies are shown both before (a,c,e) and after heating; (b,d,f).
Figure 14.12 Morphology of PEG droplets embedded in epoxy resin (a) before heating and (b) after heating.
Figure 14.13 The synthesis route employed for producing monomers that can introduce a repair ability into the carbon fiber composites. The scheme is based on that first reported by Murphy
et al
. [13].
Figure 14.14 (a) Apparent interlaminar shear strength (aILSS) results obtained from the short-beam method for printed samples and unprinted controls before and after a thermal repair cycle. (b) The average percentage reduction in aILSS after a thermal healing cycle shown for printed and unprinted samples. All error bars shown are 1 std. dev.
Chapter 15: Inkjet-Printable Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites for Sensor Fabrication
Figure 15.1 Schematic diagram of the supramolecular protein layers streptavidin, biotinylated C-reactive protein (CRP) antigen, and the bound analyte (anti-CRP antibody) grown on biotinylated self-assembly monolayer (SAM)-covered printed gold electrodes on a paper substrate [31].
Figure 15.2 Fabrication of gold nanoparticle arrays: (a) inkjet printing of the gold nanoparticle ink onto the polyimide substrate; (b) inkjet printing the poly(amic acid) ink to insulate the electrode leads; (c) building the immunoassay for electrochemical detection of human IL-6; (d) the gold nanoparticle pattern (black) shown overlaid with the poly(amic acid) printed pattern (orange).
Figure 15.3 Schematic of the inkjet modification process of the interdigitated silver electrode with polyaniline nanoparticles. These sensors lead to excellent correlation between ammonia (0.25–5 mM) and amperometric response.
Figure 15.4 Printed polyaniline films for polyethylene terephthalate (PET)-based silver interdigitated electrodes used for gaseous ammonia sensing shown alone (a) and with a thermofoil heater (b). Schematic diagram of polyaniline-modified interdigitated electrode showing different layers of the sensor (c).
Figure 15.5 The photoluminescent GO nanosheets adsorb functionalized silver nanoparticles leading to quenching of GO fluorescence. The addition of analyte species leads to the dissociation and aggregation of the silver nanoparticles and the fluorescence is recovered.
Figure 15.6 Printed films of gellan gum and carbon nanotube–gellan gum composite films. Photograph of flexible transparent composite film printed onto PET.
Figure 15.7 Fabricated MWCNT-NP's inkjet-printed sensor on a flexible transparent substrate. The MWCNT channel is printed between printed silver electrodes. The substrate is polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Similar devices showed response at the same range and spectra; however, the noise was doubled.
Figure 15.8 Illustration of the fabrication process: (a) mixing of carbon nanotube ink by using optimal MWCNT–SDS ratio in deionized water, followed by inkjet printing the carbon nanotube ink and (b) the sensor composed of counter, working, and reference electrodes, with a hydrophobic barrier on top [107].
Figure 15.9 Schematic of the inkjet modification process of the Nafion–MWCNT sensor. These sensors lead to an excellent correlation between dopamine (0.1–10 μM) and amperometric response.
Chapter 16: Electrochromics for Printed Displays and Smart Windows
Figure 16.1 Schematic illustration of a typical electrochromic device.
Figure 16.2 Antimony-doped tin oxide–based display by applying a voltage window of ±1.5 V.
Figure 16.3 PEDOT:PSS-based active-matrix display prepared by screen printing methods.
Figure 16.4 (a) Setup of inkjet-printed solid electrochromic device; (b) transmittance spectra of the solid electrochromic device with and without NiO as ion storage layer in the bleached and colored states; (c) a photograph of the pattern solid device with NiO as ion storage layer; (d) the variation of the
in situ
optical density (ΔOD) versus the charge density for the solid electrochromic device with and without NiO as ion storage layer.
Figure 16.5 Electrochromic cell with a transparent silver grid electrode and a Pt counter electrode dipped into the LiClO
4
/PC electrolyte.
Figure 16.6 (a) Schematic of the electrochromic electrode implanted onto wearable textiles; (b) example images showing the capability to control the coloration/bleaching of individual display pixels and their mechanical stabilities against deformations such as crumpling. Scale bar for display pixels: 2 mm.
Figure 16.7 Foldability test of nanopaper. (a) Schematics for the folding procedure; FESEM images of the nanopaper electrode folded to (b) 180° and (c) +180°.
List of Tables
Chapter 2: Inkjet Printing of Functional Materials and Post-Processing
Table 2.1 Commonly used electromagnetic radiation, their wavelength, and their main mechanism of interaction required for sintering
Chapter 3: Electroless Plating and Printing Technologies
Table 3.1 Reasons for combining electroless plating with printing
Table 3.2 Problems that arise from combining electroless plating with printing
Table 3.3 Highlights of electroless plating
Table 3.4 Problems in electroless plating
Table 3.5 Electroless plating generic bath components
Chapter 6: High Speed Sintering: The Next Generation of Manufacturing
Table 6.1 Mechanical data for high speed sintering, cf. laser sintering
Chapter 8: Graphene- and 2D Material-Based Thin-Film Printing
Table 8.1 Properties of 2D materials in different inks
Table 8.2 Performance of inkjet-printed graphene-based transparent conductors
Chapter 11: Low Melting Point Metal or Its Nanocomponents as Functional 3D Printing Inks
Table 11.1 Physical properties of conventional fluids and liquid metal [15–20]
Table 11.2 Typical models for calculating effective thermal conductivity of nanofluids
Table 11.3 The physical properties of the printing ink Bi
35
In
48.6
Sn
16
Zn
0.4
[30]
Table 11.4 Properties of water, ethanol, and dry air at 100 kPa, 20 °C [30]
Chapter 13: Application of Printed Silver Nanowires Based on Laser-Induced Forward Transfer
Table 13.1 Performance of transparent electrodes fabricated from various materials
Chapter 14: Inkjet Printing of Functional Polymers into Carbon Fiber Composites
Table 14.1 Apparent interlaminar shear strength (aILSS) of the printed and unprinted control composite samples as determined by short beam method
Nanomaterials for 2D and 3D Printing
Edited by Shlomo Magdassi and Alexander Kamyshny
Editors
Prof. Shlomo Magdassi
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Casali Center for Applied Chemistry
Edmond J. Safra Campus
91904 Jerusalem
Israel
Dr. Alexander Kamyshny
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Casali Center for Applied Chemistry
Edmond J. Safra Campus
91904 Jerusalem
Israel
Cover: Background: fotolia/TASPP Pictures in the circles are kindly provided by the editors.
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Cover Design Grafik-Design Schulz
List of Contributors
Robert Abbel
TNO, Equipment for Additive Manufacturing (EfAM)
De Rondom 1
5612 AP Eindhoven
The Netherlands
Mutalifu Abulikamu
School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
University of Ottawa, and Centre for Research in Photonics
Advanced Research Complex
Ottawa, ON
Canada
Teppei Araki
Osaka University
The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research
8–1 Mihogaoka
Ibaraki, Osaka 5670047
Japan
Niamh T. Brannelly
University of the West of England
Bristol BS16 1QY
UK
Guofa Cai
Nanyang Technological University
School of Materials Science and Engineering
50 Nanyang Avenue
Singapore 639798
Singapore
Hyung W. Choi
University of Cambridge
Engineering Department
Trumpington Street
Cambridge CB2 1PZ
United Kingdom
Jin-Woo Choi
Louisiana State University
School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
3101 Patrick F. Taylor Hall
Baton Rouge, LA 70803
USA
Peter Darmawan
Nanyang Technological University
School of Materials Science and Engineering
50 Nanyang Avenue
Singapore 639798
Singapore
Alice L.-S. Eh
Nanyang Technological University
School of Materials Science and Engineering
50 Nanyang Avenue
Singapore 639798
Singapore
Adam Ellis
The University of Sheffield
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Mappin Street
Sheffield
South Yorkshire S1 3JD
UK
Maria Farsari
IESL-FORTH
N. Plastira 100
70013 Heraklion
Crete
Greece
Elliot J. Fleet
NetComposites Ltd.
Chesterfield
Derbyshire
UK
Stav Friedberg
Tel-Aviv University
Department of Physical Electronics
69978 Ramat-Aviv
Tel-Aviv
Israel
Hanna Haverinen
School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
University of Ottawa, and Centre for Research in Photonics
Advanced Research Complex
Ottawa, ON
Canada
Ghassan Jabbour
School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
University of Ottawa, and Centre for Research in Photonics
Advanced Research Complex
Ottawa, ON
Canada
Sunho Jeong
Division of Advanced Materials
Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT)
141 Kajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu
Daejeon 305-600
Republic of Korea
Jinting Jiu
Osaka University
The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research
8–1 Mihogaoka
Ibaraki
Osaka 5670047
Japan
Alexander Kamyshny
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Casali Center of Applied Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry
Edmond J. Safra Campus
91904 Jerusalem
Israel
Anthony J. Killard
University of the West of England
Bristol BS16 1QY
UK
Minxuan Kuang
Key Laboratory of Green Printing, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and Engineering Research Center of Nanomaterials for Green Printing Technology
Institute of Chemistry
Zhongguancun North First Street 2
Beijing 100190
China
Pooi S. Lee
Nanyang Technological University
School of Materials Science and Engineering
50 Nanyang Avenue
Singapore 639798
Singapore
Max C. Lemme
KTH Royal Institute of Technology
School of Information and Communication Technology
Electrum 229
16440 Kista
Sweden
and
University of Siegen
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
Hölderlinstr. 3
57076 Siegen
Germany
Jiantong Li
KTH Royal Institute of Technology
School of Information and Communication Technology
Electrum 229
16440 Kista
Sweden
Jing Liu
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry
29 Zhongguancun East Road
Haidian District
Beijing, 100190
China
Shlomo Magdassi
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Casali Center of Applied Chemistry Institute of Chemistry and The Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Edmond J. Safra Campus
91904 Jerusalem
Israel
Rajesh Mandamparambil
Technische Universiteit Eindhoven
TNO Industrie
De Rondom 1
5612 AP Eindhoven
The Netherlands
Erwin R. Meinders
TNO
Equipment for Additive Manufacturing (EfAM)
De Rondom 1
5612 AP Eindhoven
The Netherlands
Jooho Moon
Yonsei University
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu
Seoul 120-749
Republic of Korea
Mikael Östling
KTH Royal Institute of Technology
School of Information and Communication Technology
Electrum 229
16440 Kista
Sweden
Ingo Reinhold
Xaar Jet AB
Advanced Manufacturing Techn.
Elektronikhöjden 10
175 26 Järfälla
Sweden
Tsuyoshi Sekitani
Osaka University
The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research
8–1 Mihogaoka
Ibaraki
Osaka 5670047
Japan
Yosi Shacham
Tel-Aviv University
Department of Physical Electronics
69978 Ramat-Aviv
Tel-Aviv
Israel
Patrick J. Smith
University of Sheffield
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Yorkshire
UK
Edward Song
University of New Hampshire
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Durham, NH
USA
Yanlin Song
Key Laboratory of Green Printing, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and Engineering Research Center of Nanomaterials for Green Printing Technology
Institute of Chemistry
Zhongguancun North First Street 2
Beijing 100190
China
Katsuaki Suganuma
Osaka University
The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research
8–1 Mihogaoka
Ibaraki
Osaka 5670047
Japan
Yelena Sverdlov
Tel-Aviv University
Department of Physical Electronics
69978 Ramat-Aviv
Tel-Aviv
Israel
Lei Wang
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry
29 Zhongguancun East Road
Haidian District
Beijing, 100190
China
Avi Yaverboim
Tel-Aviv University
Department of Physical Electronics
69978 Ramat-Aviv
Tel-Aviv
Israel
Yi Zhang
University of Sheffield
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Yorkshire
UK
Chapter 1Printing Technologies for Nanomaterials
Robert Abbel and Erwin R. Meinders
1.1 Introduction
For centuries, printing of texts and graphics on flat (two-dimensional) substrates such as textiles and paper has been an essential enabling technology for the cultural development of mankind. Only recently has this technique been considered as a valuable tool for the processing of functional nanomaterials, for example, in the electronics and biomedical industries [1–6]. For electronics manufacturing, for example, printing has some decisive advantages compared with the more traditional approaches of semiconductor processing. First of all, printing is an additive process, meaning that functional materials are deposited only where needed and can be used much more efficiently than with subtractive techniques, which tend to produce a lot of waste [7, 8]. In addition, printing can be carried out at atmospheric pressure, making high-vacuum technologies obsolete, which also contributes to significant savings on production costs. A third advantage is the selectivity of printing, making multimaterial applications such as multicolor lighting [9–11] or printed thin-film transistors [12, 13] possible. Since in the graphics printing industry, many 2D printing technologies have already been developed toward roll-to-roll processing, commercial mass production of nanomaterial-based printed electronics devices in a continuous manufacturing mode is also within reach [14–16].
A wide variety of 2D printing technologies has been applied for the processing of functional nanomaterials, which can be subdivided into two different groups: noncontact or digital (maskless) printing technologies (without physical contact between printing equipment and substrate) and contact (mask-based) printing technologies (with physical contact). In noncontact printing, droplets or jets of the functional ink are generated at a (small) distance from the substrate and transferred onto it by a pressure pulse that propels them across the interspace. Contact printing typically makes use of a predetermined pattern, embedded as a mask in a drum or screen, which is repeatedly replicated on the substrate by directly touching it. Typical examples for noncontact techniques are inkjet printing (IJP) and laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT), and examples of contact technologies are offset, flexo, gravure, screen, and microcontact printing.
In general, critical issues to be considered during the choice for a specific printing technology for functional nanomaterials are technical aspects such as resolution, feature definition, adhesion, process reliability and stability, manufacturing speed, and device performance. Also nontechnical process features such as production volume and cost, environmental impact, and operator and customer safety are important, since all of these combined will determine whether printing will be a technically and economically viable option for a specific type of device. Since functional electronic and biomedical devices are frequently composed of complex ultrathin stacks of various (nano)materials, some of which can be highly sensitive to mechanical pressure, contactless printing can be a decisive advantage [17]. The balance between design flexibility and the potential for mass manufacturing is another consideration. Digital printing technologies offer a lot of design freedom and easily allow for image adjustments to compensate for possible substrate deformations (for instance, in the case of flexible or stretchable substrates [18]). However, productivity should come from mass parallelization with the obvious challenges such as yield, stability, reproducibility, and durability.
By contrast, all contact printing techniques involve some kind of physical stencil that determines the printing pattern and needs to be adjusted every time a different image is to be produced. This feature, in combination with its potential for very-high-throughput production, makes many contact printing techniques especially suited for the production of large numbers of identical devices [15]. In mature industrial production processes, contact printing is therefore usually preferred, unless possible damage to the products by mechanically touching the surface prohibits its use. By contrast, noncontact processes are generally the technology of choice where small series are required, such as in many academic research laboratories and in early-stage industrial research and development. However, the potential for scalability or transfer to other processes, which are more adept for mass production, is required for the latter to be of any practical use.
In addition to nanomaterials' deposition in two dimensions on flat substrates, functional printing has recently also been applied for the construction of three-dimensional objects [6, 19, 20]. 3D printing or additive manufacturing (AM) is known as a layer-by-layer manufacturing technology to build 3D products. In analogy to 2D technologies, it is an enabling approach with numerous advantages compared with the conventional (subtractive) manufacturing technologies. AM enables the cost-effective manufacturing of complex, personalized, and customized products. It also offers the possibility to introduce multimaterial products or parts with material gradients [21]. AM integrates very well with design tools and computer-aided design (CAD) software and as a result, the AM approaches can significantly impact both time and cost savings, as well as inventory, supply chain management, assembly, weight, and maintenance. AM is seen as an enabling technology for many applications, such as embedded and smart integrated electronics (Internet of things, smart conformal and personalized electronics [22]), complex high-tech (sub)modules made of ceramic or metal with multimaterial or grading material properties [23], and human-centric products (e.g., dentures, prostheses, implants [6, 24]). While new materials and manufacturing technologies are introduced in the market, we see that for many applications the technology is still immature: product quality is inferior to that obtained with conventional methods, the choice of available materials is limited, yield is low by process-induced defects, manufacturing costs are high, and productions speeds are typically low [25].
