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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
This book targets new trends in microwave engineering by downscaling components and devices for industrial purposes such as miniaturization and function densification, in association with the new approach of activation by a confined optical remote control. It covers the fundamental groundwork of the structure, property, characterization methods and applications of 1D and 2D nanostructures, along with providing the necessary knowledge on atomic structure, how it relates to the material band-structure and how this in turn leads to the amazing properties of these structures. It thus provides new graduates, PhD students and post-doctorates with a resource equipping them with the knowledge to undertake their research.
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Seitenzahl: 143
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014
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Contents
Introduction
I.1. General introduction
I.2. Definition of a new area “nanoarchitectronics”
I.3. Three main thrusts
I.4. Organization of the book
1 Nanotechnology-based Materials and Their Interaction with Light
1.1. Review of main trends in 3D to OD materials
1.2. Light/matter interactions
1.3. Focus on two light/matter interactions at the material level
2 Electromagnetic Material Characterization at Nanoscale
2.1. State of the art of macroscopic material characterization techniques in the microwave domain with dedicated equipment
2.2. Evolution of techniques for nanomaterial characterization
2.3. Micro- to nanoexperimental techniques for the characterization of 2D, 1D and 0D materials
3 Nanotechnology-based Components and Devices
3.1. Photoconductive switches for microwave applications
3.2. 2D materials for microwave applications
3.3. 1D materials for RF electronics and photonics
4 Nanotechnology-based Subsystems
4.1. Sampling and analog-to-digital converter
4.2. Photomixing principle
4.3. Nanoantennas for microwave to THz applications
Conclusions and Perspectives
C.1. Conclusions
C.2. Perspectives: beyond graphene structures for advanced microwave functions
Bibliography
Index
First published 2014 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd
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UK
www.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Hoboken, NJ 07030
USA
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2014
The rights of Charlotte Tripon-Canseliet and Jean Chazelas to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2014930265
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISSN 2051-2481 (Print)
ISSN 2051-249X (Online)
ISBN 978-1-84821-587-0
Introduction
I.1. General introduction
When addressing the main requirements of future interconnected system environments, autonomy and resilience are the most challenging factors since they include very demanding technology aspects and integrated intelligence aspects.
In an environment where communications often take a larger place, it is obvious that all the future systems will be required to have the capability of working in a networked ambient environment.
New systems will be defined by key words representing their main functions: smart, autonomous, wireless, networked and sensing systems. The adjective smart and autonomous refer to the autonomy in terms of energy, such as zero power consumption or energy harvesting, and to the autonomy defined from the decision point of view (i.e., they have the capability to do what is needed to be done, when it seems optimal to do it).
It also requires the inclusion of all the elements required for a dedicated mission: protection of the environment, communication, security or defense, biomedical and e-health, and power electronics.
I.2. Definition of a new area “nanoarchitectronics”
Richard Feynman’s visionary speech in 1959 had inspired the field of nanotechnology, with the theme “to synthesize nanoscale building blocks with precisely controlled size and composition, and assemble them into larger structures with unique properties and functions”. Never before in history has any technology provided so many possibilities to create and manipulate such tiny structures as the basic elements for functional devices and hierarchical systems that render superior performances.
Microwave systems, technology and material-based architectures at nanoscale lead to a novel approach and a novel scientific area. We propose to call this new area nanoarchitectronics because it describes the ability to build up or design new architectures at the material level, device level and system level, including electromagnetics and electronics at nanoscale, nanomaterials and nanotechnologies based on basic physics and embedded software systems.
As an example and following the research on two-dimensional (2D) atomic crystals, it appears extremely powerful to assemble isolated atomic planes into designer heterostructures made layer by layer in a precisely chosen sequence. The first, already remarkably complex, such heterostructures (often referred to as “Van der Waals”) have recently been fabricated and investigated, revealing unusual properties and new phenomena.
In this book, we will address an additional new field, which could be entitled beyond nanoarchitectronics, in which we are looking to a new dimension of the above-mentioned architectures, when dealing with the interactions of electromagnetic waves and nanodevices. As an example of these new capabilities, this book will present new approaches linked to the use of photonics technologies to control nanoscale microwave devices.
We have chosen to reduce the scope of our analysis to the impact of nanotechnologies on electromagnetic (EM) applications ranging from radio frequency (RF) to terahertz (THz) and to extract technologies that exhibit advanced or new performances with size reduction either by continuity like More Moore or by breakthrough quantum effects [PIE 10a].
Interesting nanostructured materials, devices and systems already constitute research areas in RF nanoelectronics [PIE 10b].
I.3. Three main thrusts
I.3.1. Thrust 1 – around new nanodevices and systems
The following research fields are concerned: carbon nanotubes (CNT), graphene and nanowire (NW), graphene nanoribbon (GNR) circuits and transmission lines, semiconductor- and other novel material-based nanotechnology for RF electronics, nanostructured microwave materials and metamaterials, nanowireless sensors and power meters, nanoantennas and arrays, THz nanoelectronics/photonics, including signal generation and processing, photoemission and detection, nano-interconnects for advanced RF packaging, nanoscale electromechanical switches (NEMS) and resonators, spin waves for RF nanoelectronics (spintronics) and molecular electronics, nanoplasmonic structures for RF applications and superconducting nanostructures and RF nanodevices for quantum information processing.
I.3.2. Thrust 2 – around theoretical issues and modeling
The following research fields are concerned: multiphysics modeling of nanostructures and nanodevices, ballistic transport, wave solutions and multiport circuits in nanomaterials, combined electromagnetic/coherent transport problem in nanodevices, electrodynamics, radiation, detection and photogeneration in nanostructures, and wave mixing, dispersive and nonlinear effects in nanomaterials.
I.3.3. Thrust 3 – around technology, instrumentation, imaging and reliability
The following research fields are concerned: broadband characterization of nanoscale devices/systems for RF applications, microwave nanoscale near-field imaging and surface patterning, noise measurement of nanoscale devices and three-dimensional (3D) integration of carbon- and silicon/semiconductor-based nanodevices.
The scientific theories associated with these research areas cover the following fields [ENG 07]:
This book will focus on the engineering of nanomaterials for microwave, millimeter wave and terahertz applications and especially on the optical control of these nanodevices.
The purpose of this book is to provide the readers with required knowledge to enter the world of nanoarchitects for microwave nanosystems.
Here, we recall the main trends for 3D, 2D and one-dimensional (1D) materials, which could be used in the definition of new system architectures (see [ALA 09, Figure 1]). In the field of the interaction between light and semiconductor materials, some elements of the history of photoconductivity and the capability to go from the picosecond (ps) domain to the THz frequency range will be given.
Figure I.1.Classification of nanomaterials: a) 0D spheres and clusters, b) 1D nanofibers, wires and rods, c) 2D films, plates and networks, and d) 3D nanomaterials
I.4. Organization of the book
The book is organized as follows: Chapter 1 deals with nanotechnology-based materials for ultrafast microwave applications and their interaction with light. Chapter 1 is focused on two aspects: first to give some trends in new semiconductor materials from 3D to 0D and second to give an in-depth analysis of the interaction at nanoscale between light and these new materials in photoconductivity and plasmonics. The materials concerned are carbon-based materials (especially graphene and carbon nanotubes), NW-based technologies: Si, III–V semiconductors, ZnO, etc., nanostructured materials and metamaterials.
Chapter 2 addresses EM material characterization at nanoscale, including a state of the art of macroscopic material characterization techniques in the microwave domain with dedicated equipment, EM environment constraints (T°, mechanical stability and multiscale access) and noise contributions in measurements and the evolution of techniques for mesoscopic nanomaterial characterization.
Chapter 3 is devoted to nanotechnology-based components and devices, reviewing the existing components and a state of the art with these technologies (active) and with a focus on new passive components and devices with optional optical control (photoconductivity and plasmonics).
Chapter 4 presents the engineering of new optically controlled microwave functions based on 2D and 1D semiconductor materials.
Finally, in the Conclusion, we draw some perspectives of this new field of optically controlled low-dimensional materials with a focus on the socalled Van der Waals heterostructures as an example of nanoarchitectronics.
1
Nanotechnology-based Materials and Their Interaction with Light
Chapter 1 will be dedicated to nanotechnology-based materials for ultrafast microwave applications and the interactions of these materials mainly semiconducting with light. It will focus on two aspects, the first aspect is to give some trends in new semiconductor materials from three dimensional (3D) to zero dimensional (0D) and the second aspect is to give a deep analysis of the interactions at nanoscale between light and these new materials around photoconductivity and plasmonics. Materials concerned are carbon-based materials (especially graphene and carbon nanotubes), nanowire-based technologies: Si, III-V semiconductors, ZnO, nanostructured materials and metamaterials.
1.1. Review of main trends in 3D to 0D materials
1.1.1. Main trends in 3D materials for radio frequency (RF) electronics and photonics
Controlling the permittivity and permeability of three-dimensional (3D) materials appears as a major challenge for future electromagnetism systems. Nanomaterials are high-potential candidates for applications in microwave, millimeter wave, terahertz (THz) and optical systems. During the last decade, numerous research activities have been devoted to the study of artificial materials, such as metamaterials [ENG 06]. Mixing components at the nanoscale results in materials providing superior properties compared with conventional microscale composites and, at the same time, that can be synthesized using simple and inexpensive techniques.
In particular, major research advances have been obtained by the group of Nader Engheta, who worked on specific materials such as epsilon-near-zero (ENZ), mu-near-zero (MNZ), zero-index metamaterials and double-negative materials [ALU 07].
The introduction on the structure of the split-ring resonator (SRR) by J. Pendry in 1999 opened the way for the demonstration of metamaterials based on the periodic implantation of such SRRs [PEN 99, PEN 07, SMI 00]. The implementation of the first effective medium with left-handed properties by D.R. Smith in 2000 was possible due to the use of small metallic resonators, SRRs. The SRR appeared as the first non-magnetic resonator capable of showing negative values of the magnetic permeability around its resonance frequency.
The control and the tunability of those materials remain as the great future challenges in this field.
1.1.2. Main trends in 2D materials for RF electronics and photonics
The combination of the unique properties of two-dimensional (2D) semiconductor materials, such as graphene, with new device concepts and nanotechnology can overcome some of the main limitations of traditional electronics in terms of maximum operating frequency, linearity and power dissipation.
1.1.2.1. The example of graphene
xcarbon atoms forming a 2D honeycomb lattice. Graphene is a basic building block of graphite and carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Graphene properties were first introduced by Wallace in 1947.
At the beginning of the 21st Century, Andre Geim, Konstantin Novoselov and their collaborators from the University of Manchester (UK), and the Institute for Microelectronics Technology in Chernogolovka (Russia), published their results on graphene structures in October 2004 [NOV 04].
After reviewing some important papers in the literature devoted to this new material, we can derive some basic characteristics of graphene materials and their main applications.
Figure 1.1.Graphene: a flat monolayer of carbon atoms for ming a 2D honeycomb lattice
Figure 1.2Top left: graphene is a honeycomb lattice of carbon atoms. Top right: graphite can be viewed as a stack of graphene layers. Bottom left: carbon nanotubes are rolled-up cylinders of graphene. Bottom right: fullerenes C60 are molecules consisting of wrapped graphene by the introduction of pentagons on the hexagonal lattice [CAS 06]
Table 1.1. Typical characteristics of graphene [CAS 09, AVO 10, WAN 10, LOV 12, WU 12, SCH 10]
Parameters
Typical characteristics
Thickness
0.142 nm
Band structure
Semi-metal or zero-bandgap semiconductor
Electron transport
Ballistic at room temperature Relativistic quantum Dirac equation
Carrier mobilities
1,00,000 cm
2
/V.s in suspended graphene 10,000 cm
2
/V.s in graphene on substrate
Young’s modulus
1.5 TPa
Breakdown current
10
8
A/cm2
Current density
1 A/ μm
Transistor cutoff frequency
350 GHz
Carrier density
10
14
cm
–2
Optical absorption
πα~2.3%
Thermal conductivity
5,000 W/m.K
One of the main characteristics of this material is that intrinsic graphene is a semi-metal or a zero-bandgap semiconductor. In this material, the electron transport is ballistic at room temperature and is described by a relativistic-like quantum Dirac equation instead of a Schrödinger equation.
Graphene demonstrates not only an electric field effect but also a ballistic electronic transport, which results in very high charge carrier mobilities more than 100,000 cm2/V.s.
Such mobilities of graphene exceed that of silicon by at least a factor of 40, which makes it particularly important for designers of the next-generation fast transistors.
Also, graphene has a Young’s modulus of 1.5 TPa.
Due to these unique properties, graphene is very promising for high-frequency nanoelectronic devices, such as oscillators and switches. In practical applications, graphene is deposited on a SiO2 layer with a typical thickness of 300 nm, which is grown over a doped silicon substrate.
It is interesting to note that the conductivity of the graphene sheet is an anisotropic tensor and it can be controlled by applying an electrostatic and magnetostatic biasing field. This property introduces the possibility of developing new applications, which cannot be obtained by conventional conducting materials of fixed conductivities.
1.1.2.2. Graphene for RF applications
Recent results on the use of graphene for microwave applications enabled us to review some functions covering the field of nanocircuits up to the realization of new microwave functions based on this material; among those, we will review the following functions in Chapter 2: RF mixers, frequency multipliers, antennas, isolator, circuits, transistors and field-effect transistors (FETs), photodetectors, barristor, optoelectronic functions such as graphene photodetector and other potential applications of graphene, superconducting FETs and room-temperature spintronics, and transparent electrodes [OBE 11].
Some helpful analysis on the use of graphene for microwave applications will be given in Chapter 3.
1.1.3. Review of other two-dimensional structures for RF electronic applications
1.1.3.1. Plasmonic structures
Plasmonics is based on the interaction process between an electromagnetic radiation and the conduction electrons at metallic interfaces or in small metallic nanostructures. For noble metals such as Ag and Au, the plasma frequency is in the visible or ultraviolet region; therefore, their permittivity has negative real parts in the optical frequencies. These metals behave as plasmonic materials, and their interaction with optical signals involves surface plasmon resonances (SPRs). These plasmonic structures provide interesting possibilities not only for synthesizing subwavelength cavities or new metamaterials at infrared and optical frequencies, but also for addressing new microwave functions involving confined optical interactions and microwave modulation of the electric field at a semiconductor/dielectric interface [AHM 12].
A detailed approach of plasmonic structures has been given in the Introduction.
1.1.3.2. Two-dimensional semiconductor materials
The 2D semiconductors such as transition metal dichalcogenides (such as MoS2, MoSe2, WS2 or WSe2) show excellent device characteristics, as well as novel optical, electrical and optoelectronic characteristics due to quantum size effects. Recent research of 2D materials based on chalcogenides and/or III–V semiconductors on Si/SiO2 substrates has been achieved. It is important for both fundamental science and applications, such as electronics, photonics and chemical sensing. Unlike the zero-bandgap graphene, it is possible to tune the bandgap of 2D semiconductor materials by the choice of elements and the number of layers. The large bandgaps of 2D semiconductors (e.g. 1.8 eV for MoS2 monolayer nanosheet) and their carrier mobility make these materials very attractive for the next-generation nanoelectronic and nanophotonic devices [JAV 13].
1.1.4. Main trends in 1D materials for RF electronics and photonics
This section deals with recent research on carbon-based and non-carbon-based one-dimensional (1D) materials such as nanorods/carbon nanotubes (CNTs), boron nitride nanotubes (BNNTs) and semiconductor nanowires (NWs).
1.1.4.1. CNT materials and microwave applications
It is well known that CNTs are cylinders of nanometer (nm) diameter of a graphene sheet wrapped up to form a tube. Since their experimental discovery in 1991 [IIJ 91], numerous research efforts have been devoted to exploring their physical properties including electromagnetic wave interaction of the conducting CNTs, which seems to contain important features compared with traditional conductors [GHA 11].
