Nanostructured Polymer Membranes, Volume 2 E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 853

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

The 2nd volume on applications with discuss the various aspects of state-of-the-art, new challenges and opportunities for gas and vapor separation of polymer membranes, membranes for wastewater treatment, polymer electrolyte membranes and methanol fuel cells, polymer membranes for water desalination, optical, electrochemical and anion/polyanion sensors, polymeric pervaporation membranes, organic-organic separation, biopolymer electrolytes for energy devices, carbon nanoparticles for pervaporation polymeric membranes, and mixed matrix membranes for nanofiltration application.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Chapter 1: Nanostructured Polymer Membranes: Applications, State-of-the-Art, New Challenges and Opportunities

1.1 Membranes: Technology and Applications

1.2 Polymer Membranes: Gas and Vapor Separation

1.3 Membranes for Wastewater Treatment

1.4 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane and Methanol Fuel Cell

1.5 Polymer Membranes for Water Desalination and Treatment

1.6 Biopolymer Electrolytes for Energy Devices

1.7 Phosphoric Acid-Doped Polybenzimidazole Membranes

1.8 Natural Nanofibers in Polymer Membranes for Energy Applications

1.9 Potential of Carbon Nanoparticles for Pervaporation Polymeric Membranes

1.10 Mixed Matrix Membranes for Nanofiltration Application

1.11 Fundamentals, Applications and Future Prospects of Nanofiltration Membrane Technique

References

Chapter 2: Membranes: Technology and Applications

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Reverse Osmosis Process

2.3 Ultrafiltration Process

2.4 Pervaporation Process

2.5 Microfiltration Process

2.6 Coupled and Facilitated Transport

2.7 Membrane Distillation

2.8 Ultrafiltration Zeolite and Ceramic Membranes

2.9 Conclusions

References

Chapter 3: Polymeric Membranes for Gas and Vapor Separations

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Significance and Prominent Industrial Applications

3.3 Fundamentals and Transport of Gases in Polymeric Membranes

3.4 Polymeric Membrane Materials for Gas and Vapor Separations

3.5 Strategies for Tuning the Transport in Polymeric Membranes through Molecular Design and Architecture

3.6 Process Modeling and Simulation

3.7 Challenges and Future Directions

3.8 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 4: Membranes for Wastewater Treatment

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Membrane Theory

4.3 Membrane Separation Techniques in Industry

4.4 Membrane Operations in Wastewater Management

4.5 Existing Membrane Processes

4.6 Industrial Development of Membrane Modules

4.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 5: Polymer Electrolyte Membrane and Methanol Fuel Cell

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs)

5.3 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs)

5.4 Principle and Working Process of PEMFCs

5.5 Principle and Working Process of DMFCs

5.6 Modeling and Theory of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells

5.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 6: Polymer Membranes for Water Desalination and Treatment

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Polymer Membranes Used in Distillation

6.3 Membrane Distillation

6.4 Desalination Driven by MD Systems

6.5 MD Hybrid Systems for Water Desalination and Treatment

6.6 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 7: Polymeric Pervaporation Membranes: Organic-Organic Separation

7.1 General Introduction on Pervaporation

7.2 Brief History of Pervaporation

7.3 Polymeric Materials for Organic-Organic Separation – General Requirements

7.4 Pervaporation Case Studies for Organic-organic Separation

7.5 Conclusions and Future Directions

References

Chapter 8: Biopolymer Electrolytes for Energy Devices

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Chitosan-based Electrolyte Membranes

8.3 Methyl Cellulose-based Electrolyte Membranes

8.4 Biopolymer Electrolytes in Lithium Polymer Batteries

8.5 Biopolymer Electrolytes in Supercapacitors

8.6 Biopolymer Electrolytes in Fuel Cells

8.7 Biopolymer Electrolytes in Dye-sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs)

8.8 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 9: Phosphoric Acid-Doped Polybenzimidazole Membranes: A Promising Electrolyte Membrane for High Temperature PEMFC

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Synthesis of PBI

9.3 Characterization of PBI

9.4 Research Needs and Conclusions

Table of Abbreviations

References

Chapter 10: Natural Nanofibers in Polymer Membranes for Energy Applications

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Natural Fibers

10.3 Polymer Nanocomposite Membranes Based on Natural Fibers: Production, Properties and General Applications

10.4 Applications of Natural Fibers Nanocomposite Membranes in the Energy Field

10.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 11: Potential Interests of Carbon Nanoparticles for Pervaporation Polymeric Membranes

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Principle of Permeation

11.3 Current Requirements for Pervaporation Membranes

11.4 Performances of Nanocomposite Membranes: From Membrane Preparations to Enhanced Properties with Carbon Nanoparticles

11.5 Impact of the Insertion of Carbon Particles in Pervaporation Membranes

11.6 Pervaporation Membranes

11.7 Pervaporation with the Use of MMM Containing Pristine Carbon Particles

11.8 Pervaporation with the Use of MMM Containing Functionalized Carbon Particles

11.9 Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 12: Mixed Matrix Membranes for Nanofiltration Application

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Nanofiltration Process: History and Principles

12.3 Mixed Matrix Nanofiltration Membranes

12.4 Applications of Mixed Matrix Nanofiltration Membranes

12.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgment

List of Abbreviations

References

Chapter 13: Fundamentals, Applications and Future Prospects of the Nanofiltration Membrane Technique

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Membrane Synthesis

13.3 Membrane Characterization

13.4 Equations for Calculation of Operating Parameters

13.5 Effect of Feed Pressure on Process Flux

13.6 Optimization of NF Process Using Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD)

13.7 Applications of NF in Societal Development and Industrial Progress

13.8 Economics of NF Process for Groundwater Purification

13.9 Conclusions

References

Index

End User License Agreement

Guide

Cover

Copyright

Contents

Begin Reading

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1

Summary of the established membrane separation technologies.

Table 2.2

Membrane polymer for UF and some characteristics.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1

Some of the prominent industrial applications of polymeric membranes for gaas separation [5, 9].

Table 3.2

The chronological trend of development of membrane materials for air separation [5].

Table 3.3

The specifications and properties of commercial hydrogen separation membranes [9].

Table 3.4

Main applications of polymeric membranes for vapor/gas separation [5].

Table 3.5

The physical properties of common gases and vapors [38].

Table 3.6

Dominant interactions present in sorption modes [40].

Table 3.7

The chemical structure of commercial polyimides used for gas and vapor separation [57].

Table 3.8

The chemical structures of selected perfluoropolymers [79].

Table 3.9

Alkane permeabilities of substituted polyacetylenes [83].

Chapter 4

Table 4.1

Materials can cause membrane fouling.

Table 4.2

Summary of the recognized membrane separation technologies. (Adapted from [9, 21])

Table 4.3

Typical design flux and operating pressure for NF and RO membranes. (Adapted from [20])

Table 4.4

Basic differences between conventional MBR and HR-MBRs. (Adapted from [121])

Table 4.5

Characterization of different types of membrane modules.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1

Summarization of FCs [6].

Table 5.2

Comparison of themoset composite and thermoplastic composite materials.

Table 5.3

US-DOE technical target for the flow field plates [38].

Table 5.4

Nafion types.

Table 5.5

Comparison of Pt-based, modified Pt, and non-Pt catalysts.

Table 5.6

Comparison between LT-PEMFC and HT-PEMFC.

Table 5.7

Status and target of the PEMFC for the transportation application [58].

Table 5.8

Advantage and disadvantage of the PEMFC and DMFC.

Table 5.9

Companies for the portable sectors [11].

Table 5.10

Heat conductivity of individual components in the PEMFC [86].

Table 5.11

Summary of cooling strategies for the PEMFC [87].

Chapter 6

Table 6.1

Equations to determine the

B

coefficient for each mass transfer mechanism.

Table 6.2

Equations describing heat transfer in each region of the membrane modules [43–45].

Table 6.3

DCMD permeate flux obtained for water desalination using commercial and commercial-modified membranes.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1

Summary of separation performance of various membranes for the separation of methanol-MTBE mixtures.

Table 7.2

Summary of separation performance of various membranes for the separation of ethanol-ETBE mixtures.

Table 7.3

Summary of separation performance of various membranes for the separation of ethanol-cyclohexane mixtures.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1

Chitosan- and chitosan-derivative-based electrolytes and their room temperature ionic conductivities.

Table 8.2

Methyl-cellulose-based polymer electrolytes and their room temperature ionic conductivities.

Table 8.3

Characteristics of lithium polymer batteries.

Table 8.4

Differences between a capacitor and battery [60–64].

Table 8.5

Examples of EDLC employing biopolymer electrolytes.

Table 8.6

Characteristics of the fuel cells.

Table 8.7

List of some examples of biopolymer electrolytes in PEMFC.

Table 8.8

The possible functional groups for R

1

and R

2

.

Table 8.9

Anthocyanin dyes and their performance in DSSCs.

Table 8.10

Carotenoid dyes and their performance in DSSCs.

Table 8.11

Betalain dyes and their performance in DSSCs.

Table 8.12

Chlorophyll dyes and their performance in DSSCs.

Table 8.13

DSSC employing quasi-solid state polymer electrolyte.

Table 8.14.

Effect of TPAI salt on the room temperature conductivity of phthaloyl chitosan-EC-DMF based polymer electrolyte.

Table 8.15

The photoelectrochemical parameters of the DSSC cells: TiO

2

| phthaloyl chitosan-EC-DMF-TPAI | Pt.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1

Structure and stability of several polybenzimidazoles [24, 27, 28].

Table 9.2

Solubility information for polybenzimidazoles.

Table 9.3

Conductivity of PA-doped PBI membranes and their composition.

Table 9.4

FTIR details of PA-doped PBI and pure PBI.

Table 9.5

Permeability of hydrogen and oxygen at different temperatures [55].

Table 9.6

Single cell PEMFC data of acid-doped PBI membranes.

Table 9.7

Research needs for PBI membranes.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1

Transport properties of MMM containing neat carbon particles.

Table 11.2

Transport properties of MMM containing functionalized carbon particles.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1

Reported mixed matrix NF membranes prepared by phase inversion technique.

Table 12.2

Reported TFN NF membranes prepared by interfacial polymerization technique.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1

List of equipment and corresponding costs of NF system.

Table 13.2

Operation and maintenance cost of NF for surface water treatment.

Pages

ii

iii

iv

xvii

xviii

xix

xx

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

196

197

198

199

200

201

202

203

204

205

206

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

226

227

228

229

230

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

242

243

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

251

252

253

254

255

256

257

258

259

260

261

262

263

264

265

266

267

268

269

270

271

272

273

274

275

276

277

278

279

280

281

282

283

284

285

286

287

288

289

290

291

292

293

294

295

296

297

298

299

300

301

302

303

304

305

306

307

308

309

310

311

312

313

314

315

316

317

318

319

320

321

322

323

324

325

326

327

328

329

330

331

332

333

334

335

336

337

338

339

340

341

342

343

344

345

346

347

348

349

350

351

352

353

354

355

356

357

358

359

360

361

362

363

364

365

366

367

368

369

370

371

372

373

374

375

376

377

378

379

380

381

382

383

384

385

386

387

388

389

390

391

392

393

394

395

396

397

398

399

400

401

402

403

404

405

406

407

408

409

410

411

412

413

414

415

416

417

418

419

420

421

422

423

424

425

426

427

428

429

430

431

432

433

434

435

436

437

438

439

440

441

442

443

444

445

446

447

448

449

450

451

452

453

454

455

456

457

458

459

460

461

462

463

464

465

466

467

468

469

470

471

472

473

474

475

476

477

478

479

480

481

482

483

484

485

486

487

488

489

490

491

492

493

494

495

496

497

498

499

500

501

502

503

504

505

506

507

508

509

510

511

512

513

514

515

516

517

518

519

520

521

522

523

524

525

526

527

528

529

530

531

Scrivener Publishing 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J Beverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at Scrivener Martin Scrivener ([email protected]) Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Nanostructured Polymer Membranes

Volume 2: Applications

Visakh P.M.

Olga Nazarenko

Copyright © 2016 by Scrivener Publishing LLC. All rights reserved.

Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Beverly, Massachusetts. Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, [phone], fax [phone], or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, [phone], fax [phone], or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at [phone], outside the United States at [phone] or fax [phone].

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

For more information about Scrivener products please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

Cover design by Russell Richardson

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-1-118-83178-6

Preface

Many recent research accomplishments in the area of polymer nanocomposite membrane materials are summarized in Nanostructured Polymer Membranes: Applications, including the state of the art and new challenges, membrane technology and applications, polymer membranes for gas and vapor separation, membranes for wastewater treatment, polymer electrolyte membrane and methanol fuel cell, polymer membranes for water desalination and treatment, polymeric pervaporation membranes for organic-organic separation, biopolymer electrolytes for energy devices, phosphoric acid-doped polybenzimidazole membranes as a promising electrolyte, membrane for high-temperature PEMFC, natural fibers in polymer membranes for energy applications, the potential interest in carbon nanoparticles for pervaporation polymeric membranes, mixed matrix membranes for nanofiltration application, and fundamentals, applications and future prospects of nanofiltration membrane technique. As the title indicates, various aspects of nanostructured polymer membranes and their applications are emphasized in this book. It is intended to serve as a “one-stop” reference resource for important research accomplishments in the area of nanostructured polymer membranes and their applications.

This book will be a very valuable reference source for university and college faculties, professionals, post-doctoral research fellows, senior graduate students, and R&D laboratory researchers working in the area of polymer nano-based membranes and their applications. The various chapters were contributed by prominent researchers from industry, academia and government/private research laboratories across the globe. The book is an up-to-date record on the major findings and observations in the field of nanostructured polymer membranes and their applications. Chapter 1, which is an introduction to nanostructured polymer membranes and their applications, gives an overview of the state of the art, new challenges and opportunities of nanostructured polymer membranes and their applications, along with a discussion of future trends in polymer membranes.

The following chapter lends structure to the previous introductory chapter on membrane technology and applications. It is devoted to the science and applications of all kinds of membrane separation processes, including reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, pervaporation, microfiltration, coupled and facilitated transport, membrane distillation, and zeolite and ceramic membranes. Also, the fundamental knowledge and principle of membrane technology and membrane types and modules are presented and the challenges and potential implications of developments for the future of membrane technology are discussed. Polymer membranes for gas and vapor separation are thoroughly explained in Chapter 3. This chapter provides an overview of gas and vapor separation of polymer-based nanomembranes. The authors discuss various topics such as its significance and prominent industrial applications, fundamentals and transport of gases and vapors in polymeric membranes, polymeric membrane materials for gas and vapor separations, strategies for molecular design and architecture of polymeric membranes, process modeling and simulation, and challenges and future directions. The next chapter mainly concentrates on membranes for wastewater treatment. It provides a brief overview of membrane-based processes for water reuse and environmental control in the treatment of industrial wastewaters. Applications involving the use of pressure-driven membrane operations, membrane bioreactor, as well as a combination of membrane operations in hybrid systems in the treatment of waste from different industries are analyzed and discussed. Polymer electrolyte membrane and methanol fuel cell technologies are explained in Chapter 5. This chapter summarizes the recent advances in proton exchange membrane fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cell technologies. It introduces two major polymer membrane-based fuel cells, proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), followed by the working principles of these fuel cells and modeling and theory of polymer membrane-based fuel cells. Section 5.1 includes a historical introduction and classifications of fuel cells; Sections 5.2 and 5.3 present the basic principle and components in the PEMFC and DMFC, respectively; Sections 5.4 and 5.5 are about the systematic designs of the PEMFC and DMFC; and Section 5.6 explains the fundamentals of electrochemistry and the theoretical model of the PEMFC. Chapter 6 on polymer membranes for water desalination and treatment summarizes the recent progress in the fabrication and modification of MD membranes, as well as intrinsic aspects of the MD process such as mechanistic fundamentals, configurations and operating parameters. The chapter also offers a comprehensive outlook concerning the advances of this technology in water desalination and treatment.

Chapter 7 opens with a general overview on pervaporation and a brief description of its history. Then, the main requirements of polymeric membranes in terms of their hydrophobic/hydrophilic nature, crosslinking, swelling degree and thickness of selective layer are described with particular reference to organic-organic separations. Finally, three different case studies on the application of pervaporation in some of the most important organic-organic separations are reported and discussed. Chapter 8 on biopolymer electrolytes for energy devices explains many subtopics such as chitosan-based electrolyte membranes, methyl cellulose-based electrolyte membranes biopolymer electrolyte in lithium polymer batteries, biopolymer electrolyte in supercapacitors, polymer electrolyte in fuel cells, and biopolymer electrolytes in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Chapter 9 discusses the phosphoric acid-doped polybenzimidazole membrane, which is a promising electrolyte membrane for high-temperature PEMFC. The authors of this chapter explain the synthesis of polybenzimidazole membranes and their characterization techniques such as molecular weight distribution, thermogravimetric analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, permeability, mechanical testing and fuel cell testing. In Chapter 10, natural nanofibers in polymer membranes for energy applications are explained by various works related to many topics such as natural fibers, polymer nanocomposite membranes based on natural fibers, applications of natural fibers nanocomposite membranes in the energy field, lithium batteries, dye-sensitized solar cells and other energy devices. This chapter also briefly introduces natural nanofibers and their production processes and proposes and overviews polymer nanocomposite membranes based on natural fibers, focusing on their application in the energy field, with a discussion of fundamental research in this area. Chapter 11 on the potential interest of carbon nanoparticles for pervaporation polymeric membranes is devoted to investigations of the influence of carbon fillers, such as pristine and functionalized carbon nanoparticles (e.g., graphene, graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, fullerene), on the pervaporation transport properties of different polymers whose mechanism transport is known to obey the solution-diffusion mechanism. When used as nanofillers in membranes’ networks, these carbon particles can be useful for significantly improving pervaporation performance. In Chapter 12 on mixed matrix membranes for nanofiltration application, the authors summarize the recent scientific and technological advances in the development of mixed matrix nanofiltration membranes. These membranes are classified according to their preparation method into: (1) asymmetric mixed matrix nanofiltration membranes prepared by phase inversion, (2) thin-film nanocomposite (TFN) nanofiltration membranes prepared by interfacial polymerization, and (3) surface coating containing inorganic materials. Applications of mixed matrix nanofiltration membranes are also briefly discussed. The final chapter reports on the fundamentals, applications and future prospects of the nanofiltration membrane technique. The chapter’s aim is to provide insight into several distinctive properties of nanofiltration (NF) from the perspective of pore radius as well as surface charge density, which signifies its uniqueness in several fields of applications. Beginning with core fundamentals and principles, recent advances in the synthesis and characterization procedure of NF membranes are thoroughly described. The fundamental transport mechanism in NF membranes is discussed through different models, including solution-diffusion, preferential sorption surface-capillary flow, Donnan equilibrium and dielectric exclusion theory.

The editors would like to express their sincere gratitude to all the contributors of this book, whose excellent support resulted in the successful completion of this venture. We are grateful to them for the commitment and sincerity they have shown towards their contributions. Without their enthusiasm and support, the compilation of this book would not have been possible. We would like to thank all the reviewers who have taken their valuable time to make critical comments on each chapter. We would also like to thank the publisher, John Wiley and Sons Ltd. and Scrivener Publishing, for recognizing the demand for such a book, realizing the increasing importance of the area of nanostructured polymer membrane applications, and starting a project on such a new topic, which has yet to be addressed by many other publishers.

Visakh. P. MOlga NazarenkoJuly 2016

Chapter 1Nanostructured Polymer Membranes: Applications, State-of-the-Art, New Challenges and Opportunities

Visakh. P. M

Research Associate, Tomsk Polytechnic University, Department of Ecology and Basic Safety, Tomsk, Russia

Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

This chapter is a brief account of the various topics presented in Nanostructured Polymer Membranes: Applications. Different topics are discussed such as membrane technology; gas and vapor separation of membranes; membranes for wastewater treatment; polymer electrolyte membrane; methanol fuel cell membrane; polymer membranes for water desalination; polymer membrane (optical, electrochemical and anion/polyanion sensors); phosphoric acid-doped polybenzimidazole membranes; natural nanofibers in polymer membranes for energy applications; potential interest of carbon nanoparticles for pervaporation polymeric membranes; mixed matrix membranes for nanofiltration application; and the fundamentals, applications and future prospects of nanofiltration membrane technique.

Keywords: Polymer membranes, nanostructured polymer membranes, polymer membrane applications, vapor separation of membranes, nanofiltration application, mixed matrix membranes

1.1 Membranes: Technology and Applications

Membrane technologies have gained an important place and made great progress in numerous industries and are used in a broad range of applications. Commercial markets have been spreading very rapidly and throughout the world the most important industrial applications of membranes are pure water production and wastewater treatment. Membrane science and technology is interdisciplinary, involving polymer chemistry to develop new membrane materials and structures. There are many membrane applications other than wastewater treatments such as artificial kidneys (hemodialysis), artificial lungs (blood oxygenators), and controlled drug delivery and release and other medical applications [1, 2]. In recent years, membranes and membrane separation techniques have grown from a simple laboratory tool to an industrial process with considerable technical and commercial impact. Reverse osmosis is regarded as the most economical desalination process, which has played a crucial role in water treatment such as ultrapure water makeup, pure boiler water makeup in industrial fields, seawater and brackish water desalination in drinking water production, and wastewater treatment and reuse in industrial, agricultural, and indirect drinking water production [3].

Nanofiltration (NF) membranes are mostly of porous structure. The typically excellent performance of NF membrane, such as high flux, small investment and low cost for operation, brings it wider and larger applications [4]. Ultrafiltration (UF) membranes have been widely expanded further, such as in the water treatment field, food and beverage production, the automobile industry, the pharmaceutical industry, the electronic industry, etc. [5]. Chitosan and polyelectrolyte (Nafion) membrane also provide equivalent performance in PV dehydration of organics. One major challenge in the chemical industry is the complex separation problem of organic mixtures forming zaeotrope with water. Polyether-polyamide block copolymers (PEBA), combining permeable hydrophilic and stabilizing hydrophobic domains within one material, are successfully used as the organic-water PV separation membrane. Applications for hydrophobic membranes are numerous, such as wastewater treatment, removal of organic traces from ground and drinking water, removal of alcohol from beer and wine, recovery of aromatic compounds in food industries, and separation of compounds from fermentation broth in biotechnology, etc.

Some kind of membrane has been developed for the removal and recovery of metals [6–9], including chromium, copper, zinc, cobalt, nickel, strontium and lanthanides, from wastewaters and industry streams. Ceramic membranes have a lot of advantages, conditions under which polymer membranes fail: they are autoclavable, allow sterilization by superheated water, steam, or oxidizing agents, show high temperature resistance, acid and base resistance, solvent resistance, excellent mechanical resistance, and have a long working life and are environment friendly.

Zeolites are crystalline microporous silicalite or aluminosilicate materials with a regular three-dimensional pore structure, charge-balanced by cations, which is relatively stable at high temperatures. They are currently used as catalysts or catalyst supports for a number of high temperature reactions. Membrane technologies are best suited in this context as their basic aspects well satisfy the requirements of process intensification for a sustainable industrial production. In fact, they are precise and flexible processing techniques.

1.2 Polymer Membranes: Gas and Vapor Separation

Various separation technologies have been developed over the years and used in order to respond to the required demands. Polymeric membranes have also been extensively utilized for separation and purification of hydrogen and helium as valuable light gases. It should be noted that the recovery of hydrogen in refineries is a key approach to meet the increased demand for hydrogen owing to new environmental regulations. Gas and vapor separation using polymeric membranes is an area of growing interest with a variety of prominent applications, particularly in the chemical and petrochemical sector. Polymeric membranes used for air separation typically provide higher permeation rates for oxygen, and as a result, the permeate stream is comprised of oxygen-enriched gas. The main feature of organic vapors that facilitates their separation from a gas stream is their high solubility. Accordingly, rubbery polymers, such as PDMS or silicone rubber, has been introduced and examined as a viable candidate for this purpose [10–12].

Hydrocarbon recovery is considered the largest market for membranes after acid gas removal and this position is expected to remain for the foreseeable future. Olefin/paraffin separation is an application with considerable potential opportunity for practical applications. One of the most important applications of olefin/paraffin separation is the recovery of propylene vent gas from propylene reactor [13]. Polysulfones are one of the most widely used commercial membrane materials, particularly for a variety of gas separation applications, including hydrogen and air separation [14]. Polyethersulfone is one of the most important polymeric materials for use in gas separation and filtration applications due to its mechanical, chemical and thermal resistances, introducing it as an ideal candidate for asymmetric membranes [15, 16]. Applicability of PESf membrane-based pilot plants for CO2 recovery from LNG-fired boiler flue gas showed that 90% recovery of CO2 with 99% purity was possible.

Polyimides are the largest group of organic polymers used for the synthesis of membranes for gas and vapor separation due to their high thermal and chemical stability and mechanical strength [17]. These materials are composed of aromatic dianhydride and diamine monomers and a wide variety of PIs and therefore exist according to varying both dianhydride and diamine [18]. Visser et al. [19] proposed the concept of mutual plasticization in mixed gas studies as opposed to auto-plasticization in pure gas condition. Duthie et al. [20] and Lin and Chung [21] demonstrated that nitrogen, and to a lesser extent oxygen permeability, increased with temperature. However, carbon dioxide permeability decreased with temperature, showing that in this case the relative magnitude of solubility decline was higher than the diffusivity augmentation with temperature increase. Substituted polyacetylenes have large oxygen permeability (>1000 Barrer) due to high free volume and unusual free volume distribution derived from their low cohesive energy structure, stiff main chain and bulky substituents [22]. The gas separation performance of polymers depended on the degree of the conversion which was affected by the film thickness [23]. It was shown that greater chain mobility occurred in thin films due to the proximity of the free surfaces and reduced diffusional resistance for removal of the volatile compounds of the rearrangement reaction. Moreover, it was revealed that thin films of TR membranes derived from 6FDA-HAB polyimides, experienced a greater extent of aging than thick films after 1000 h exposure to different gases such as H2, O2, N2 and CH4.

1.3 Membranes for Wastewater Treatment

Synthetic polymer membranes are used mostly in the case of wastewater treatment because it is possible to select a polymer suitable for the specific separation problem from the existing enormous categories of polymers. In comparison with conventional wastewater treatment processes, membrane technology offers the advantage of selectively removing contaminants based on their sizes. Membranes with different pore-size distributions and physical properties remove a wide range of pollutants. The success of membrane operations in wastewater treatment is attributed to the compatibility between different membrane operations in integrated systems. The synergy resulting from this integration is the specific feature of hybrid systems, enhancing the process effectiveness for a particular scenario of wastewater treatment. The wastewater treatment by integrated systems nowadays suggests reducing environmentally harmful effects, decreasing groundwater consumption and energetic requirements, and recovering valuable compounds as a byproduct. Membrane bioreactor (MBR), combining membrane filtration with biological treatment, is recognized as one of the most successful hybrid membrane systems in wastewater treatment. Another interesting application that is a valid alternative to conventional methods is in the treatment of wastewater from the pulp and paper industries containing various solutes with different chemical natures. As conventional processes cannot achieve the requirements of water quality for the process, Zhang and coworkers evaluated the performance of an integrated membrane system (IMS), including MBR, UF and RO (reverse osmosis), to treat and reuse paper mill wastewater on a pilot scale [24]. There are several technical drawbacks to the fast commercialization of these innovative technologies in wastewater treatment, including salinity build-up, low permeate flux and membrane degradation [25].

Membrane processes are widely used for the treatment of industrial wastewater due to the increasing costs for processing water as well as wastewater discharge. Probably the most common reason for reducing the water discharge derives from environmental laws that lead industries to use advanced wastewater treatment such as membrane filtration. Membrane filtration processes suggest interesting perspectives and key advantages over conventional technologies in the treatment of wastewaters.

1.4 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane and Methanol Fuel Cell

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) have partly attained the commercialization stage by reason of their rapid development. There still remain several major challenges. These are issues related to hydrogen (generation, storage, and infrastructure), system cost, and various technological limitations [26]. Graphite plate satisfies many factors as the flow field plate for PEMFC; its size has to be bulky because of its brittle and porous characteristics. The graphite plate is unfit for some applications where lightweight is important. The use of thin metallic sheets in the PEMFC promises is promising for mobile and transportation applications. They are also cheaper than the graphite plate. Composite materials are another option for the flow field plate in the PEMFC. They are more beneficial than the graphite and metallic bipolar plates with regard to corrosion resistance, flexibility and low weight. They can be produced by more economical processes, such as compression, transfer and injection molding processes. Precious metals like platinum and gold are typically considered as the flow field plate, since they have excellent electrical conductivity and high collusive resistance [27]. The high cost of these materials makes their commercialization difficult. Aluminum, titanium, and nickel are alternative materials for the flow field plate in the PEMFC. These materials have many advantages, including low density, low cost, and high strength. Higher grades of stainless steel are also effective. A formation of the passive oxide film, which reduces surface conductivity or increases contact resistance, is an important problem. A suitable PEM should fulfill the following various requirements: high proton conductivity, good electrical insulation, high mechanical and thermal stability, good oxidative and hydrolytic stability, cost effectiveness, good barrier property, low swelling stresses, and capability for fabrication in the MEA.

The major application of the PEMFC focuses on transportation due to its potential impact on the environment [28]. Most automobile companies have developed fuel-cell vehicles (FCVs). Direct liquid fuel cells (DLFCs) have been mainly developed as the portable power source for various electronic devices, including notebooks, cellular phones, and tablets, because the handling and storage of liquids are easier than that of hydrogen [29]. During the past two decades, they have received much attention due to several advantages, including the comparatively high volumetric energy density of methanol. Methanol used as fuel can also be produced from various sources like biomass, natural gas, or coal. Nafion® membranes have excellent properties for the PEMFC, however, several limitations, such as their high production cost and poor ion conductivity with high temperature, still remain. To overcome these challenges, various methods have been studied. These include a modification of conventional PFSA membranes and development of new polymer membranes such as polyarylene sulfone, polyeter ether ketone (PEEK), polyimide, polyphenyloxide (PPO), polybenzimidazole (PBI), and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) [30].

A water crossover, which is a water permeation from the anode and the cathode through the membrane, may cause two problems in the DMFC. One is water loss from the anode and the other the water flooding at the cathode. The water flooding is especially responsible for the reduction in the DMFC performance. To solve this problem, diverse water management strategies at the cathode have been developed.

1.5 Polymer Membranes for Water Desalination and Treatment

Desalination technologies can be grouped according to three categories: (i) those involving a phase change (e.g., distillation), (ii) those interacting with selective membranes (e.g., reverse osmosis), and (iii) those employing electric fields (e.g., capacitive deionization) [31]. Membrane distillation (MD) and forward osmosis (FO) are considered potential alternatives to the leading desalination technology (i.e., RO), namely for the desalination of high-salinity brines or industrial wastewaters, where RO presents limitations [32]. Hydrophilic polymers and non-polymeric materials such as metal, glass, carbon materials and ceramics (e.g., zirconia and alumina) were also used in the fabrication of MD membranes [33].

When designing MD modules, the heat transfer coefficient, thermal conductivity and heat flow become crucial parameters to achieve a high performance. The heat transfer mechanism varies according to the selected MD configuration [34]. In order to quantify the magnitude of the effect of both phenomena in the overall performance of MD, the temperature and the concentration polarization coefficients can be determined [35]. Generally, MD systems are applied to the desalination of seawaters, brines and saline waters. This process is able to produce high purity water under near complete rejection of nonvolatile electrolytes (e.g., sodium chloride and potassium chloride) and nonelectrolytes (e.g., organics). Highly competitive module configurations have been designed and scaled-up to a size where low cost applications become possible [36] and have been tested with commercially available membranes.

In addition to solar-powered MD, geothermal energy applications for water desalination have also been considered [37]. Geothermal energy is not suitable for traditional desalination technologies due to its low enthalpy [38]. The increasing need for progress and fulfillment of quality and environmental management principles associated with the demanding constraints imposed by the concept of process sustainability, have stimulated the development of MD-integrated systems. The FO-MD hybrid system has also shown potential in the treatment of more demanding solutions such as wastewaters, heavy metal-contaminated solutions, and oily or dyed wastewater. Mozia and Morawski [39] obtained a high quality permeate solution when studying the removal of ibuprofen sodium salt from tap water, with a capillary MD module employing nine polypropylene (PP) membranes.

1.6 Biopolymer Electrolytes for Energy Devices

A polymer electrolyte is a membrane consisting of organic or inorganic salts dissolved in a polymer. Among the biopolymers, polysaccharides have good potential as hosts for ionic conduction since they are abundant, cheap, eco-friendly and may replace synthetic polymers for use in energy generation and storage devices. Chitosan is an example. Blending chitosan with other polymers or incorporating reinforcement fillers can improve the mechanical stability of the chitosan membrane. A lithium-ion-conducting polymer membrane is used as both the electrolyte and separator. As the polymer electrolyte must function as both the electrolyte and separator in a lithium polymer battery, a number of properties are critical for its success. From an electrochemical point of view, Koksbang et al. [40] and Gray [41] have listed some requirements that a polymer electrolyte must satisfy. The cycle life of a battery is basically the number of continuous charge and discharge cycles within a specified voltage that the battery can operate without reaching the maximum capacity fade allowed for a certain application. A graph of discharge capacity versus cycle numbers can be plotted in order to study the cycling characteristics of a battery. A large number of studies have been carried out on lithium batteries having gel polymer electrolytes in which the liquid electrolyte has been immobilized by incorporation into a polymer matrix.

Membrane films of hexanoyl chitosan-lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate (LiCF3SO3), hexanoyl chitosan-LiCF3SO3-ethylene carbonate (EC) and hexanoyl chitosan-LiCF3SO3-EC-propylene carbonate (PC) were prepared by solution casting technique. The conductivity of the order of 10–4 S cm–1 is suitable for battery application. Thus, electrochemical cells based on LiCoO2