Nanotechnology-Based Additive Manufacturing E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH GmbH
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- Sprache: Englisch
Nanotechnology-Based Additive Manufacturing
State-of-the-art overview of additive manufacturing techniques with an emphasis on processes, product designs and applications
This book offers a thorough overview of additive manufacturing technologies, including manufacturing requirements, product design, optimization of processes and product parameters to reduce manufacturing costs. It provides a comprehensive and state-of-the-art review on various additive manufacturing technologies, their advantages, shortcomings, potential applications and future directions. Sample topics discussed by the three well-qualified editors on the topic of additive manufacturing include:
- Areas of application in the fields of electronics, aerospace, construction, automobile, sports and biomedicine
- Material considerations, the requirement of specific design, fabrication and processing methods
- Advantages and disadvantages of various 3D printing techniques for the respectively intended applications
This book is an immensely valuable resource for researchers working in the field of additive manufacturing or 3D printing, or for developers dealing with the processing and manufacturing of materials and products for advanced technologies.
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Seitenzahl: 1339
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Volume 1
Preface
1 State‐of‐the‐Art Overview and Recent Trends in Additive Manufacturing: Opportunities, Limitations, and Current Market
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Classification of AM Processes
1.3 Recent Trends in AM
1.4 Conclusion and Outlook
References
2 Additive Manufacturing Technologies and Post‐processing, Design Optimization, and Material Considerations for Reliable Printing
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Chronological Evolution of AM Technologies
2.3 Post‐processing Techniques
2.4 Design Optimization
2.5 Materials
2.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
3 Nanomaterials and Nanostructures in Additive Manufacturing: Properties, Applications, and Technological Challenges
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Classification of Nanomaterials
3.3 Properties of Nanomaterials/Composites in Additive Manufacturing
3.4 Applications
3.5 Technological Challenges
3.6 Conclusions
References
4 Metal Additive Manufacturing of PEM Fuel Cell Flow Field Plates and the Scope of Nanomaterials for Its Fabrication
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Materials Used for Flow Field Plates
4.3 Additive Manufacturing of Metal Flow Field Plates
4.4 Can Nanomaterials + Additive Manufacturing Be a Game‐Changer?
4.5 Outlook and Prospectus
References
5 Additive Manufacturing of Ceramic‐Based Materials
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Ceramic Materials
5.3 Ceramic Additive Manufacturing
5.4 CAM: Single‐Step Processing
5.5 CAM: Multi‐Step Processing
5.6 Different Ceramic‐Based Materials Fabricated by Additive Manufacturing (AM)
5.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
6 Additive Manufacturing of Tunable Metamaterials
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Mechanical Metamaterials
6.3 Electromagnetic Metamaterials
6.4 Acoustic Metamaterials
6.5 Multimaterial Approaches
6.6 Conclusions
References
7 Additive Manufacturing of Hydrogels
7.1 Introduction
7.2 History of AM
7.3 Role of Nanomaterials and Nanostructures in AM
7.4 Importance of Hydrogels
7.5 AM Techniques
7.6 Powder‐Based Techniques
7.7 Molten Filament‐Based Techniques
7.8 AM‐Printed Hydrogel Application‐Based Hybrid Nanomaterials
7.9 Biomedical Applications Based on Printed Hydrogels
7.10 3D‐Printed Hydrogel‐Based Biosensors
7.11 Lab on a Chip‐Based 3D‐Printed hydrogels
7.12 3D‐Printed Hydrogel‐Based Wearable and Other Applications
7.13 Actuators Based on 3D‐Printed Hydrogels
7.14 Future Scope of AM through 3D printing of Hydrogels
7.15 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
8 Self‐Healing Polymers and Composites for Additive Manufacturing: Materials, Properties, and Applications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Extrinsic and Intrinsic Self‐Healing Systems
8.3 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
9 Stimuli‐Responsive Smart Materials for Additive Manufacturing
9.1 Introduction
9.2 External Stimuli
9.3 Stimuli‐Responsive Smart Materials
9.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
10 Additive Manufacturing of Multifunctional Polymer Nanocomposites: From 3D to 4D
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Types and Classification of Nanomaterials
10.3 Classification of Nanomaterials Based on Their Dimensions
10.4 Classification of Nanomaterials Based on Their Origin
10.5 Multifunctional Polymer Nanocomposites
10.6 Additive Manufacturing (AM) Process
10.7 Classification of Additive Manufacturing Technology
10.8 Additive Manufacturing of Multifunctional Polymer Nanocomposites
10.9 4D Printing
10.10 Recent Advances in 3D/4D Printing of Polymer Nanocomposites
10.11 Conclusion
References
11 Additive Manufacturing of Fiberglass‐Reinforced Polymer Composites
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Fabrication Method
11.3 Physical/Chemical Characteristics
11.4 Application in Piezoelectric/Triboelectric Energy Harvesting
11.5 Application in Magnetic/Triboelectric Energy Harvesting
11.6 Applications in Sensing
11.7 Challenges and Future Perspectives
11.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
12 Advanced 2D Nanomaterials for Additive Manufacturing
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Hexagonal Boron Nitride (hBN)
12.3 MXenes
12.4 Transition Metal Dichalcogenides (TMDs)
12.5 Graphene
12.6 Conclusion
References
Volume 2
13 Nanomaterials‐Based Additive Manufacturing for Mass Production of Energy Storage Systems: 3D Printed Batteries and Supercapacitors
13.1 Introduction
13.2 3D Printing for Energy Storage Devices
13.3 Summary and Perspective
References
14 Additively Manufactured Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors
14.1 Introduction
14.2 An Overview of Additive Manufacturing Processes
14.3 Additive Manufacturing Technologies
14.4 Additively Manufactured Electrochemical Sensors
14.5 Additively Manufactured Biosensors
14.6 Recent Advances in Additively Manufactured Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors
14.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgements
References
15 Additive Manufacturing Techniques for Designing Advanced Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering
15.1 Introduction
15.2 AM Techniques for Bone Tissue Engineering
15.3 Summary and Future Directions
Acknowledgment
References
16 Additive Manufacturing of Smart Bionanomaterials for Fabrication of Medical Implants
16.1 Introduction on Additive Manufacturing
16.2 3D Printing and 3D Bioprinting in Cancer 3D Tissues
16.3 Additive Manufacturing for Scaffolds and Implants
16.4 Nanobiomaterials‐Based Bioinks for 3D Bioprinting
16.5 3D Writing of Scaffolds
16.6 4D Printing of Smart Nano Biomaterials
16.7 Future Outlook
16.8 Conclusion
References
17 Additive Manufacturing Techniques for Drug Delivery Applications
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Additive Manufacturing: A Brief Note
17.3 Additive Manufactured Drug Delivery Systems
17.4 Drug Release Patterns of AM Devices
17.5 Conclusions and Future Prospectives
References
18 Applications of Additive Manufacturing Techniques in the Fabrication of Thermoelectric Materials and Devices
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Thermoelectric (TE) Materials
18.3 Additive Manufacturing Techniques
18.4 Experimental Modeling of AM for TE Materials and Devices
18.5 Properties of TE Materials Prepared Via AM Techniques
18.6 Conclusions
References
19 Applications of Additive Manufacturing Techniques in Aerospace Industry
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Metal Additive Manufacturing for Aerospace Industry
19.3 Other Relevant Metal Additive Manufacturing Technologies
19.4 Applications in Additive Manufacturing for Aerospace
19.5 Repair of Aerospace Components
19.6 Concluding Remarks
19.7 Challenges and Future Perspectives
References
20 Development of 3D Concrete Printing Using Additive Manufacturing Processes for Construction and Building Industry
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Materials and Methods
20.3 Results and Discussion
20.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgement
References
21 Machine Learning in Additive Manufacturing
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Importance of Artificial Intelligence
21.3 Comparative Analysis of Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence
21.4 There Are Four Broad Kinds of Learning Techniques
21.5 Machine Learning in Additional Production Today: Current Situation
21.6 AM Machine Learning Tomorrow
21.7 Data‐Driven Learning Method
21.8 Machine Learning Tool Promotes Additional Production
21.9 Advanced Performance Learning
21.10 AI Is Central to the Future Use of Real‐Time Production
21.11 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
22 Modeling Strategies and Computer‐Aided Designs for Producing Optimized Performance of Additively Manufactured Nanomaterials
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Design for Additive Manufacturing Workflow
22.3 Modeling Strategies
22.4 Design Principles for Additive Manufacturing
22.5 Nanomaterials in Design for Additive Manufacturing
22.6 Novel Tools for Additive Manufacturing: Design and Simulation
22.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
23 Success Stories of the Digital Manufacturing Laboratories in SARS‐CoV‐2 Pandemic
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Reverse Engineering and the 3D Printing Technique
23.3 3D Products for Coronavirus
23.4 The Powered Air‐Purifying Respirator
23.5 Challenges
23.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Notes
24 Environmental Impact, Challenges for Industrial Applications and Future Perspectives of Additive Manufacturing
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Additive Techniques; Positive and Negative Impact on Environment
24.3 Environmental Impacts Using 3D Printing; an Additive Manufacturing Technique
24.4 Applications of Additive Manufacturing
24.5 Challenges of Additive Manufacturing
24.6 Future Perspectives
24.7 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Predominant classification of AM techniques.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Various processes related to post‐processing with respect to natu...
Table 2.2 Various processes related to post‐processing in terms of basic ma...
Table 2.3 Effect of build direction on an AM parts [87].
Table 2.4 Commercial materials for different AM technologies.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Illustrations of nanomaterials/composites utilized in several AM ...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 US DoE target (2025) for PEM fuel cell flow field plates.
Table 4.2 Properties of most widely used polymer composite FFP.
Table 4.3 Properties of conventional metal FFPs against graphite.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Different ceramic materials manufactured by different AM processe...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Some of the studies on the additive manufacturing of electromagne...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Advantages and disadvantages of each healing method.
Table 8.2 Representative microencapsulation methods [12].
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Properties of three relating materials for reinforced fibers.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 3D‐printed batteries and supercapacitors assembled with 3D printi...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Summary of additively manufactured electrochemical sensors used ...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Bone tissue engineering scaffolds from polymer composites throug...
Table 15.2 Bone tissue engineering scaffolds from polymer composites throug...
Table 15.3 Bone tissue engineering scaffolds from polymer composites throug...
Table 15.4 Bone tissue engineering scaffolds through low‐temperature AM tec...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Different AM methods used for the fabrication of drug delivery d...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 CPs with their TE properties.
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Various terminologies used for the DED process.
Table 19.2 Chemical composition of Ti6Al4V.
Table 19.3 Microstructure and mechanical properties of LMD‐processed Ti6Al4...
Table 19.4 Microstructure and mechanical properties for different manufactu...
Table 19.5 Relationship between the operating conditions and the microstruc...
Table 19.6 Heat treatment strategies suitable for various operating conditi...
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 The velocity of printing.
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Analysis of
in situ
monitoring data.
Table 21.2 Results when examining
in situ
information and parameter informa...
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Design recommendation for minimum wall thickness and slim elemen...
Table 22.2 Design recommendation for holes; openings or small details in AM...
Table 22.3 Design recommendation for overhang and bridges in AM technologie...
Table 22.4 Design recommendation for clearances in the moving elements in A...
Table 22.5 Improvements according to the nanomaterial used as an additive i...
Table 22.6 Latest relevant articles and book chapters about CAD/CAE for AM....
Chapter 23
Table 23.1 A summary of primary techniques of 3D technique in FABLAB Qatar....
Table 23.2 Diagnostic tools fabricated by 3D printer.
Table 23.3 Manufacturing production capacity varies from the technology of ...
Table 23.4 Airflow measurement.
Chapter 24
Table 24.1 Pros and cons of binder jetting.
Table 24.2 Pros and cons of a material extrusion process.
Table 24.3 Pros and cons of powder bed fusion process.
Table 24.4 Pros and cons of the sheet lamination process.
Table 24.5 List of biomaterials.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Evolution of machine technology in the twentieth and twenty‐first...
Figure 1.2 Types of methods and techniques involved in AM.
Figure 1.3 Various steps involved in the product development stage.
Figure 1.4 Schematic of the powder bed fusion (PBF) process using nylon powd...
Figure 1.5 Schematic of the binder jetting (BJ) process using PMMA powder.
Figure 1.6 Schematic of the material extrusion (MEX) process using a spool f...
Figure 1.7 Schematic of the material jetting (MJ) process cured with the hel...
Figure 1.8 Schematic of the laminated object manufacturing (LOM) process.
Figure 1.9 Schematic of the direct energy deposition (DED) process using wir...
Figure 1.10 Schematic of the vat polymerization (VAT) process using a laser ...
Figure 1.11 Structural design of a printability checker.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Flow chart of AM processes.
Figure 2.2 Classification of AM processes.
Figure 2.3 Schematic representation of the SLA process showing with differen...
Figure 2.4 Schematic representation of the MJ method [23].
Figure 2.5 (a) Schematic representation of FDM extruder setup.(b) Actual...
Figure 2.6 Schematic representation of the laminated object manufacturing (L...
Figure 2.7 Schematic representation of the BJ process.
Figure 2.8 Schematic representation of the powder bed system.
Figure 2.9 Different process parameters related to the PBF system.
Figure 2.10 Schematic representation of the DED process, (a) wire feed, and ...
Figure 2.11 A schematic diagram of the WAAM process.
Figure 2.12 Schematic representation of the HIP process.
Figure 2.13 Topology optimization output geometries and final designs [87]....
Figure 2.14 (a), (b) Scanning electron microscopy, and (c) 3D micro‐CT image...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 A framework of the numerous sorts of nanoscale materials.
Figure 3.2 Mechanical assets of 3D‐printed MWCNTs/ABS tensile test specimens...
Figure 3.3 (a) The colored powders were utilized to generate the colorful th...
Figure 3.4 Hydrogel strengthening with strategic high‐porosity scaffolds mec...
Figure 3.5 (a) High‐resolution TEM images of Bi
2
Te
2.7
Se
0.3
nanoplates. (b) P...
Figure 3.6 Screen printing of Bismuth telluride nanocrystal‐based flexible T...
Figure 3.7 (a) 3D printable graphene/PLA feeding filament for hotmelt extrus...
Figure 3.8 (a) Supercapacitor device fabrication from multilayered 3D printi...
Figure 3.9 Schematic representation of woodpile‐shaped microlattice electrod...
Figure 3.10 3D‐printed microlattices (a and b) before and (c and d) after fr...
Figure 3.11 (a) 3D printing of stamping dies, (b) Ti
3
C
2
T
x
and Ti
3
CNT
x
based ...
Figure 3.12 Illustration of steps involved in Li–S battery cathode 3D printi...
Figure 3.13 (a) 3D printing‐assisted fabrication procedure of NVP–rGO‐based ...
Figure 3.14 (a) Anodic and cathodic inks for 3D printing of micro battery, (...
Figure 3.15 (a) Illustration of synthesis and fabrication of Ti
3
C
2
T
x
MXene/n
Figure 3.16 Inkjet printing assisted the fabrication process of (a) Temperat...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Key components of a PEM fuel cell stack.
Figure 4.2 Classification of flow field plate materials.
Figure 4.3 Process flow of additive manufacturing technology.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Comparison of AM process and other conventional process for ceram...
Figure 5.2 Different categories of CAM processes. T3DP, thermoplastic 3D pri...
Figure 5.3 Direct and indirect AM to produce ceramic materials with desired ...
Figure 5.4 Illustration of (a) thin wall structures by DED, (b) cylindrical ...
Figure 5.5 Schematic of DED process.
Figure 5.6 Schematic illustration of the SLS system.
Figure 5.7 Complex ceramic‐based components produced by the SLS technique....
Figure 5.8 Schematic representation of multistep processing CAM techniques....
Figure 5.9 (a) Alumina parts manufactured by PBF process.(b) Complex str...
Figure 5.10 (a) The binder jetting printing process of complex‐shaped alumin...
Figure 5.11 (a) A schematic illustration of sheet lamination process of cera...
Figure 5.12 Preparation plan of filaments for ceramic FFF.
Figure 5.13 (a) Schematic representation of the material jetting (MJ) and, (...
Figure 5.14 Alumina and zirconia parts fabricated by photopolymerization....
Figure 5.15 Ceramic components fabricated by stereolithography approach repr...
Figure 5.16 Schematic representation of (a, b) DLP 3D printer, and the desig...
Figure 5.17 An example of asymmetric structure of ceramic material manufactu...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 (a) Selective Laser Melting (SLM).
Figure 6.2 Printed surfaces for SLA, SLS, FDM, and MJ samples.
Figure 6.3 Incident wave propagation with (a) positive refractive index, (b)...
Figure 6.4 EM metamaterials manufactured using the FDM method. Woodpile stru...
Figure 6.5 Helical‐structured acoustic metamaterials. (a) A cylindrical heli...
Figure 6.6 Multimaterial manufacturing processes using the FFF printing meth...
Figure 6.7 Mechanical metamaterials manufactured using PμSL....
Chapter 7
Schematic 7.1 History of AM (additive manufacturing) and its biomedical appl...
Figure 7.1 Types of nanomaterials and their utilization in additive manufact...
Figure 7.2 Role of hydrogels in biomedical applications.
Figure 7.3 (I) (a) Appearance of bionic ear after printing, (b) bionic ear p...
Figure 7.4 Schematic representation of GO‐modified β‐TCP...
Figure 7.5 Schematic representation of fabricating HBC polymer scaffolds wit...
Figure 7.6 (I) (a) Image of an HBC hydrogel, (b) rheological curves, (c) FTI...
Figure 7.7 (a) images (photographs) (b) BFMI (bright field microscopic image...
Figure 7.8 Different types of AM (additive manufacturing). (a) Binder jettin...
Figure 7.9 Schematics of (a) PEGDA and alginate based double network hydroge...
Figure 7.10 3D printing of bionic ear (a) bionic ear CAD drawing, (b) differ...
Figure 7.11 Schematic representation of electrochemical biosensing of ZnFe
2
O
Figure 7.12 (a) Schematic representation of printed interdigitated electrode...
Figure 7.13 (a) Methyl red salt dye (Dark grey) and green dye (Light gray)‐p...
Figure 7.14 (a, b) 3D‐printed scaffolds (CHI2PEC2); (c, d) CHI2PEC2S swellin...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Estimated performance durability by material.
Figure 8.2 Predicted phases of the colloids according to the sign of the spr...
Figure 8.3 Self‐healing with a microcapsule system.
Figure 8.4 Schematic of preparing of self‐healing
colorless polyimide
(
CPI
) ...
Figure 8.5 Morphological and chemical transformation of the scratch test on ...
Figure 8.6 (a) Schematic of the fabrication process for the self‐healing ele...
Figure 8.7 Electrical properties of self‐healing LCGO/AgNW composite. (a) CV...
Figure 8.8 (a,b) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of the (a) PIL‐UPy ...
Figure 8.9 (a) Strain–stress curves of the ionogel membranes, (b) ionic cond...
Figure 8.10 Transparent and flexible self‐healing polyurethane composed of h...
Figure 8.11 (a) Experimental method for electrical resistance change as a fu...
Figure 8.12 Self‐healing optical microscopy and photography images of the PU...
Figure 8.13 Photography of 3D objects fabricated of PUA‐N1 by DLP 3D printin...
Figure 8.14 Different 3D printed sensors. (a−d) Models for 3D printing. (e−h...
Figure 8.15 (a, b) Illustration of structure and optical images of 3D‐printe...
Figure 8.16 Self‐healing PDMS material and manufacturing by introducing MMDS...
Figure 8.17 Characterization of the self‐healing property. (a) Self‐healing ...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 PLA and recycled PLA‐printed grids were used in the shape morphin...
Figure 9.2 Shape change of a multilayer printed structure: as printed (left)...
Figure 9.3 Conductive shape PCL‐based shape memory part and actuation under ...
Figure 9.4 Effect of the use of grayscales on the actuation of printed parts...
Figure 9.5 Actuation of the smart alginate‐based hydrogel according to the s...
Figure 9.6 Front and side view of LCE‐PDMS parts underwater at 30, 90, and 1...
Figure 9.7 Actuation of a single materials and composite structures: (a) SMA...
Figure 9.8 Programming of shape change triggered by temperature.
Figure 9.9 Printed parts after curing and sintering.
Figure 9.10 Printed samples after sintering and removal of the porogenic age...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Landmarks and history in the additive manufacturing process.
Figure 10.2 Types of additive manufacturing process based on various perspec...
Figure 10.3 Schematic depiction of polyjet printing.
Figure 10.4 Schematic depiction of stereolithography (SLA).
Figure 10.5 Schematic depiction of direct light processing (DLP).
Figure 10.6 Schematic depiction of selective laser sintering (SLS).
Figure 10.7 Schematic depiction of fused deposition modeling (FDM).
Figure 10.8 Schematic depiction of (a) laminated object manufacturing (LOM) ...
Figure 10.9 Intricate models produced by 4D printing. (a) Simple flowers mad...
Figure 10.10 (a) Inkjet manufacturing of the photosensitive film, (b) distin...
Figure 10.11 Tissue gallows and bio‐implants made by powder‐based AM: (a) mo...
Figure 10.12 (a) 3D‐printed NiCr cable resistant PLA composites, (b) 3D‐manu...
Figure 10.13 (a) 3D‐manufactured paper‐based stretchy circuits prototype and...
Figure 10.14 (a) 3D‐fabricated superior magnetic receptive soft composite; (...
Figure 10.15 Illustration of 4D‐fabricated appliances for diverse applicatio...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Additive manufacturing technologies.
Figure 11.2 Typical additive manufacturing methods.
Figure 11.3 Woven fiberglass reinforced with PTFE polymer, tape product.
Figure 11.4 (a) 3D schematic graph of TENG and PENG in a system; (b) Woven F...
Figure 11.5 Working principle: (a) initial state, (b, c) contact state with ...
Figure 11.6 Measurement results: (a) TENG,
I
sc
, acceleration 1 m/s
2
, and (b)...
Figure 11.7 Measurement results: (a) TENG,
I
sc
, and (b)
V
oc
. (c) PENG,
I
sc
, ...
Figure 11.8 Real application: (a) TENG,
V
oc
; (b) PENG,
V
oc
; (c) Eight LED wa...
Figure 11.9 3D schematic diagram of the hybrid arc‐shaped braces structure: ...
Figure 11.10 (a) A SEM of FGRP, 5
μ
m; (b) Wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction ...
Figure 11.11 Working principle: (a–c) initial, contact mode, and in releasin...
Figure 11.12 Measurement results: (a) EMG,
I
sc
; (b) TENG,
I
sc
; (c) EMG,
V
oc
...
Figure 11.13 Measurement results: (a)
I
sc
; (b)
V
oc
with different accelerati...
Figure 11.14 Finger tap application: (a) finger tap; (b) in pressing; (c) EM...
Figure 11.15 (a) 3D graph of FGRP with hollow cylinder structure, (b) the pu...
Figure 11.16 Working principle: (a) three status; (b)
I
sc
; (c)
V
oc
.
Figure 11.17 Measurement results: (a) initial state, and in heavy deformatio...
Figure 11.18 Real application: (a)
I
sc
; (b)
V
oc
with continuous fierce tappi...
Figure 11.19 Ultrasonic response application: (a)
V
oc
at 70 kHz; (b)
V
oc
at ...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 An overview of 2D hexagonal boron nitride (2D hBN) structures. (...
Figure 12.2 3DP hBN NCs structures. (a) 3D printed complex structure using a...
Figure 12.3 An hBN/PVA NCs fiber processing (a) Diagram of the a‐BN/PVA comp...
Figure 12.4 (a) CAD of the scaffold shape for compression tests. SLA 3D macr...
Figure 12.5 (a) Scheme representation and (b) optical microscope picture of ...
Figure 12.6 MAX Phases elements.
Figure 12.7 MXene synthesis procedure scheme.
Figure 12.8 (a) 3D printing is used to fabricate smart TOCNFs/Ti
3
C
2
fiber. (...
Figure 12.9 Novel technique for AM of MXene based structures and
micro super
...
Figure 12.10 (a) 3D printing of micro supercapacitors with inter digital arc...
Figure 12.11 (a) Fabrication of nanocarbon electrode using Fused Filament Fa...
Figure 12.12 Structure of TMDs of composition MX
2
.
Figure 12.13 Diagram of liquid exfoliation mechanism: (a) Intercalation of i...
Figure 12.14 The (a) preparation method for
scanning electrochemical microsc
...
Figure 12.15 Schematic diagram of 3D‐printed activated electrode with the he...
Figure 12.16 Graphene synthesis procedure.
Figure 12.17 (a) LLDPE/GNPS co‐powders and filaments preparation (b) FDM 3D‐...
Figure 12.18 (a) GNPPLA composite manufacturing, extrusion, and 3D printing ...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Diagram demonstration of EES production procedures with connecte...
Figure 13.2 Schematic drawing of inkjet printing.
Figure 13.3 Schematic drawing of the assembly of GH–PANI/GP and fabricated s...
Figure 13.4 Schematics describing the consecutive printing procedures [42]....
Figure 13.5 3D printing process in stereolithography.
Figure 13.6 Various stages in freeze nano printing of MoS
2
–rGO [69]. (a), th...
Figure 13.7 Flow diagram for the Fused Deposition Process.
Figure 13.8 Schematic design of a fabricated supercapacitor.
Figure 13.9 Scheme of the binder‐jetting 3D printing process via reduced gra...
Figure 13.10 Scheme of the laminated object manufacturing.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Comparison of (a) subtractive, and (b) additive manufacturing....
Figure 14.2 Photogrammetry procedure or a 3D scanner and CAD software used t...
Figure 14.3 Representation of a 3D printing/additive manufacturing process....
Figure 14.4 Various techniques involved in photopolymerization.
Figure 14.5 Pictorial representation of (a) FDM and (b) DIW.
Figure 14.6 Pictorial representation of (a) powder bed fusion and (b) lamina...
Figure 14.7 Horizontally and vertically printed carbon black/ABS electrodes....
Figure 14.8 (a–f) Schematic representation of AJ nanoparticle 3D printing te...
Figure 14.9 (a–f) Schematic representation of functionalization of 3D‐printe...
Figure 14.10 Viability and growth of the bionic ear. 3D‐printed bionic ear i...
Figure 14.11 (a–f) Schematic representation of DIW of electrode and enzyme i...
Figure 14.12 (a) Cyclic voltammograms showing variation in the scan rates fo...
Figure 14.13 (a) Chronoamperometric (CA) plots representing various concentr...
Figure 14.14 Schematic illustrations of (A) 3D extruder used to fabricate Ni...
Figure 14.15 Cyclic voltammograms of a 3D‐printed Ni‐G‐PLA electrode before ...
Figure 14.16 Cyclic voltammetry curves of hexaamineruthenium(III) chloride. ...
Figure 14.17 CV curves of the 3DgrE electrode, 3DGr
ox
, and 3DG
red
at 10 mV/s...
Figure 14.18 (a) CV curves of the 3DgrE, 3DGr
ox
, and 3DGr
red
at 10 mV/s with...
Figure 14.19 Cyclic voltammograms of a 3D‐printed G‐PLA electrode before and...
Figure 14.20 (a) (A–E) Schematic presentation of G‐PLA 3D‐printed working, c...
Figure 14.21 Cyclic voltammogram recordings of G‐PLA, DMF/HNO
3
/NaBH
4
treated...
Figure 14.22 (a‐d) A 3D SACNT array electrochemical biosensor for the detect...
Figure 14.23 (a) Cyclic voltammetry curves of GA/uricase/chitosan/SACNT/Pt e...
Figure 14.24 Cyclic voltammograms of (a) GC, EPPG, and 3D‐printed electrodes...
Figure 14.25 Schematic representation of a electroplated 3D‐printed carbon e...
Figure 14.26 (a) Cyclic voltammograms of Cu@3D‐CE with the increase of gluco...
Figure 14.27 (a) Cyclic voltammograms of increase in glucose concentration f...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Extrusion‐based AM techniques for bone tissue engineering scaffo...
Figure 15.2 Compressive strength of composite scaffolds made from alginate/H...
Figure 15.3 Selective laser sintering (SLS) of PLLA/bioglass/dexamethasone f...
Figure 15.4 The biaxial bending strength (MPa) and inherent viscosity (dl/g)...
Figure 15.5 Schematic illustration of the working principle of SLA and DLA l...
Figure 15.6 SEM images of printed neat PTMC (a), PTMC−HAP (b), and PTMC−TCP ...
Figure 15.7 Schematic representation of (a) a low‐temperature printing set‐u...
Figure 15.8 Schematic demonstration of (a) flexible random coils of gelatin ...
Figure 15.9 Schematic representation of 4D printing of bone tissue scaffolds...
Figure 15.10 Young's modulus of scaffolds after 45 and 90 minutes of post‐cu...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Schematic of the main challenges in additive manufacturing of bi...
Figure 16.2 Polymer classification for SLS‐based 3D printing as per pyramid ...
Figure 16.3 Effects of SFNF addition on (a) gelation and (b–e) hydrogel mech...
Figure 16.4 Study investigating the bioprinting of a PLA nanofiber‐alginate ...
Figure 16.5 (a) The cell‐printing process, (b) the electric field for aligni...
Figure 16.6 3D printing of MXene on PEG gels. (a) hydrofluoric acid etching ...
Figure 16.7 3D bioprinting of the scaffolds (a) stereo lithography model, (b...
Figure 16.8 (a) 3D model dimension. (b) Images of 3D‐printed scaffolds, (c) ...
Figure 16.9 SEM image of FDM‐based 3D printed scaffolds: SEM images of (a) P...
Figure 16.10 Illustration of different type of extruder. (a) Filament‐fed ex...
Figure 16.11 (a) 4D bioprinting based on the deformation of materials. (b) 4...
Figure 16.12 4D‐printed structures imaging (a) the letters “GW,” (b) a cube,...
Figure 16.13 Demonstration of the magnetic responsivity of the hydrogel; the...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Patient‐specific on‐demand drug delivery by the AM method.
Figure 17.2 Visual representation of the drug delivery devices fabricated by...
Figure 17.3 Schematic indicating various AM methods used for the fabrication...
Figure 17.4 Figure illustrating the synthesis of printlets by the combinatio...
Figure 17.5 (a) Customized printlets fabricated by inkjet 3D printing. (b) E...
Figure 17.6 Schematic indicating the loading of drugs into the drug delivery...
Figure 17.7 Fabrication of biodegradable composite scaffolds by combining PT...
Figure 17.8 Visual representation of the oral drugs with greater porosity an...
Figure 17.9 Schematic indicating the fabrication of different drug delivery ...
Figure 17.10 FDM printing of tablets having varied sizes and shapes with dif...
Figure 17.11 Floating capsules loaded with amoxicillin having prolonged drug...
Figure 17.12 Figure illustrating the types of additively manufactured micron...
Figure 17.13 Schematic indicating the AM of microfluidic architecture hollow...
Figure 17.14 Schematic indicating the drug loading and releasing mechanism o...
Figure 17.15 Visual representation of the drug‐releasing pattern of the addi...
Figure 17.16 Schematic illustrating (a) coaxial FDA printing of drug rod hav...
Figure 17.17 Figure illustrating the drug release behavior of AM drug delive...
Figure 17.18 Schematic indicating the drugs and their delayed release patter...
Figure 17.19 Visual representation of additively manufactured sustained rele...
Figure 17.20 Schematic illustrating the pulsatile drug release pattern of ad...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Schematic representation of the TE system's conversion of waste ...
Figure 18.2 Schematic representation of (a) Seebeck effect and (b) Peltier e...
Figure 18.3 Schematic diagrams representing: (a) fabrication through electro...
Figure 18.4 (a) Normalized conductance, (b) thermopower, and (c) power facto...
Figure 18.5 (a) Seebeck coefficients
S
(μV/K) versus...
Figure 18.6 Comparison of manufacturing approaches (a) additive, (b) subtrac...
Figure 18.7 An outline of the different additive manufacturing (AM) processe...
Figure 18.8 A schematic model of stereolithography apparatus (SLA).
Figure 18.9 Schematic illustration of a typical FDM model.
Figure 18.10 Schematic illustration of the SLM procedure.
Figure 18.11 Schematic representation of the manufacturing technique of TE s...
Figure 18.12 Schematic procedure of 3D manufacturing of CB/BTBA/PLA TE compo...
Figure 18.13 TE characteristics of CB/BTBA/PLA TE composites (a) Seebeck coe...
Figure 18.14 Schematic illustration of the procedure of fused filament fabri...
Figure 18.15 Depictions of 3D‐printed TE with complex geometries: (a) concen...
Figure 18.16 (a) Schematic representation of WC/PLA TE composites fabricatio...
Figure 18.17 The TE characteristics of WC/PLA composites are (a) electrical ...
Figure 18.18 Photographs showing different shapes of synthesized TE material...
Figure 18.19 Schematic design for processing the multi‐segmented BiSbTe TE m...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Powder bed fusion (PBF).
Figure 19.2 Laser metal deposition process.
Figure 19.3 Process flow of remanufacturing and repair strategies
.
Figure 19.4 Ti6Al4V wall structure built of 105 mm on a 3‐mm‐thick Ti6Al4V s...
Figure 19.5 AM‐built impeller with internal lattice – design concept from a ...
Figure 19.6 EBSD map of (a) the
α
phase and (b) numerical reconstructio...
Figure 19.7 High‐resolution EBSD maps of the Ti6Al4V wall deposit: (a) just ...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Evaluation of the original 3D printing production technique [1]....
Figure 20.2 (a) 3D metropolis R&D Laboratory; (b) 3D concrete printing house...
Figure 20.3 Digital fabrication with respect to conventional construction.
Figure 20.4 Method of additive producing.
Figure 20.5 Additive producing method.
Figure 20.6 As shown in polyurethane theoretical mechanism process.
Figure 20.7 Shows a urethane construction for the chemical response.
Figure 20.8a As shown in complex wall cut process.
Figure 20.8b As show in polyurethane foam for the 3D scan.
Figure 20.9 Shows the basic concept of 3D printing.
Figure 20.10 Method of Stereolithography.
Figure 20.11 Method of amalgamated Deposition Modeling.
Figure 20.12 Process of selective laser sintering.
Figure 20.13 Manufacturing process of Laminated Object.
Figure 20.14 Sand printed molds.
Figure 20.15 Process for three‐dimensional concrete prints.
Figure 20.16a Shows in FE‐SEM images of printed in polyurethane composite ma...
Figure 20.16b Polyurethane layer thickness performance of printing direction...
Figure 20.17 Concrete extrusion nozzle.
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Conceptual views of AI, ML, and DL.
Figure 21.2 Classification of machine learning.
Figure 21.3 The top image shows a scale layer scanner with support elements ...
Figure 21.4 Senvol ML software interface.
Figure 21.5 CogniCAD performance and evaluation categories.
Figure 21.6 Additional verification AMiRIS, high‐quality exterior module....
Figure 21.7 Additional proofs of AMiRIS, external quality module.
Figure 21.8 Super powder approach visualization.
Figure 21.9 This picture suggests the BGS device dashboard, where we can see...
Figure 21.10 Effect from Senvol ML software program displaying so‐called “ex...
Figure 21.11 Outputs from Senvol software program for learning (Senvol ML) e...
Figure 21.12 Senvol ML software tool demonstrates to the user which specific...
Figure 21.13 Heat statistics map.
Figure 21.14 The Senvol ML computer vision algorithm analyzes images with hi...
Figure 21.15 Raw statistics from an X‐ray CT scan are shown in the top pictu...
Figure 21.16 Artificial intelligence in additive manufacturing.
Figure 21.17 AI functioning with additive productivity.
Figure 21.18 Benefits of extra AI‐based production.
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Proposed design methodology for AM.
Figure 22.2 Comparative of cost per part between complexity and number of pa...
Figure 22.3 Topology optimization process of a 3D‐printed drone concept; opt...
Figure 22.4 Additively manufactured patient‐specific implant images from nTo...
Figure 22.5 Jet Engine Air Brake from The Manufacturing Technology Center (C...
Figure 22.6 From left to right top to bottom. (a) Additively manufactured he...
Figure 22.7 Conformal lattices to a brake pedal surface image from nTopology...
Figure 22.8 Sport shoe design with lattice design approach, courtesy of Fern...
Figure 22.9 Examples of evaluation test for additive manufacturing.
Figure 22.10 Example of a manifold printed developed by the MTC and GEN3D....
Figure 22.11 Design and simulation tools used in the AM process. Extracted f...
Figure 22.12 Illustration of the envisioned integrated process‐structure‐pro...
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Shortage of PPE endangering frontline workers globally. Shortage...
Figure 23.2 Three node intersections: design, biology, and technology where ...
Figure 23.3 Flowchart reverse engineering.
Figure 23.4 A flowchart showing the additive manufacture process.
Figure 23.5 Selection of a process by material. 3D Printing Materials Guide ...
Figure 23.6 Steps of production of the PPE's. Brittany Henneberry, How to Ma...
Figure 23.7 3D products for coronavirus.
Figure 23.8 Door‐opener 3D model. Hands‐free door opener to prevent the spre...
Figure 23.9 3D Printing of PPE for COVID‐19 response: (a) 3D model nasophary...
Figure 23.10 3D printing the head frame of the face shield: (a) 3D model of ...
Figure 23.11 Face shield assembly instructions: (a, b) head frame surface fi...
Figure 23.12 Two other fabrication processes: (a, b) CNC router for manufact...
Figure 23.13 Powered air‐purifying respirator.
Figure 23.14 PAPR reverse engineering phase: (a) overview, (b) open the orig...
Figure 23.15 Final PAPR reversed engineering on testing phase: (a) Exploded ...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Nanotechnology‐Based Additive Manufacturing
Product Design, Properties, and Applications
Edited byKalim Deshmukh,S.K. Khadheer Pasha,Kishor Kumar Sadasivuni
Volume 1
Nanotechnology‐Based Additive Manufacturing
Product Design, Properties, and Applications
Edited byKalim Deshmukh,S.K. Khadheer Pasha,Kishor Kumar Sadasivuni
Volume 2
Editors
Kalim Deshmukh
University of West Bohemia
New Technologies Research Center
Univerzitni 8, 30614 Plzeň
Czech Republic
S.K. Khadheer Pasha
VIT‐AP University
Department of Physics
Near Vijayawada
522237 Andhra Pradesh
India
Kishor Kumar Sadasivuni
Qatar University
Center for Advanced Materials
Al‐Tarfa, University Street
Doha
Qatar
Cover Image: © BLACKDAY/Shutterstock
All books published by WILEY‐VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.
Library of Congress Card No.: applied for
British Library Cataloguing‐in‐Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche NationalbibliothekThe Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.
© 2023 Wiley‐VCH GmbH, Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany
All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.
Print ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐35230‐2
ePDF ISBN:978‐3‐527‐83545‐4
ePub ISBN:978‐3‐527‐83546‐1
oBook ISBN:978‐3‐527‐83547‐8
Editors
Kalim Deshmukh
University of West Bohemia
New Technologies Research Center
Univerzitni 8, 30614 Plzeň
Czech Republic
S.K. Khadheer Pasha
VIT‐AP University
Department of Physics
Near Vijayawada
522237 Andhra Pradesh
India
Kishor Kumar Sadasivuni
Qatar University
Center for Advanced Materials
Al‐Tarfa, University Street
Doha
Qatar
Cover Image: © BLACKDAY/Shutterstock
All books published by WILEY‐VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.
Library of Congress Card No.: applied for
British Library Cataloguing‐in‐Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche NationalbibliothekThe Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.
© 2023 Wiley‐VCH GmbH, Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany
All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.
Print ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐35231‐9
ePDF ISBN:978‐3‐527‐83545‐4
ePub ISBN:978‐3‐527‐83546‐1
oBook ISBN:978‐3‐527‐83547‐8
Preface
Additive manufacturing (AM) or three‐dimensional (3D) printing is a versatile and powerful technology that allows fabricating 3D structures of complex geometries using different software and computer‐aided designs (CAD). AM has opened up a whole new era of digital design and manufacturing with emerging revolutions in the world mainly due to the complexity of the computer‐designed objects as compared to the conventional machine parts. The evolution of 3D printing and AM technologies has changed design strategies, engineering, and manufacturing processes across various industries such as consumer products, aerospace, medical devices, construction, and automobiles. AM allows larger design flexibility, customized products, reduced waste, low cost, and efficient prototyping enabling their elevated performance that helps in the transition of the digital world. Compared to other manufacturing techniques, AM technologies enable the rapid fabrication of multifunctional materials and structures in the range from the nanoscale to microscale to macroscale. Thus, AM and 3D printing technologies are developing impressively and are expected to bring about the next industrial revolution.
Nanotechnology, which combines diverse disciplines such as physics, chemistry, biotechnology, and engineering, has been proven to be an essential technology to bring innovation in the material science field. The integration of nanotechnology and AM can create a wide variety of materials with intelligent designs and structures for new and innovative applications. The present book offers innovative, breakthrough research developments and trends in various nanomaterials‐based AM. This book provides a thorough and clear understanding of the basics of AM techniques with an emphasis on fundamental processes, optimization of processes, product designs, and product parameters that can be considered for reducing the manufacturing cost, materials, and various applications. In addition, the book also covers recent developments in different types of nanomaterials‐based AM for various applications. Moreover, the environmental effect of AM technologies has also been discussed as it has a serious impact on our society and daily life and has significant involvement in technological growth. The main benefit of this book is its highly practical approach, i.e. it will provide “hands‐on” information and insights on various AM technologies.
This book provides a comprehensive and state‐of‐the‐art review on various AM technologies, their advantages, shortcomings, potential applications, and future directions. The applications of AM technologies in electronics, aerospace, construction, automobile, sports, and biomedical fields have been discussed, and in each case, the information regarding material considerations, the requirement of specific design, fabrication, and processing methods have been discussed in detail. This book will be an excellent reference source for graduate and postgraduate students, academic researchers, scientists, R&D professionals, and engineers working across different disciplines and industries for designing and obtaining technologically novel and economically viable additively manufactured materials or products for advanced technologies. Overall, with all the knowledge and important information in this field, it is anticipated that the content of this book will further provide a better understanding of AM technologies, offering the current state of the art in additively manufactured materials, products, and their applications.
We are highly grateful to all the authors for their zealous hard work and excellent contributions to the publication of this book. We also thank Dr. Martin Preuss, Daniela Bez, and other staff members of the Wiley‐VCH family for their dedicated support and valuable assistance during the publication of this book. Finally, we offer our sincere appreciation to Wiley‐VCH for the publication of this book.
31 October 2022
Kalim Deshmukh
New Technologies Research Center, University of West Bohemia
Univerzitní 8, 30614 Plzeň
Czech Republic
S.K. Khadheer Pasha
Department of Physics, VIT ‐ AP University
Amaravati, Guntur Andhra Pradesh 522501
India
Kishor Kumar Sadasivuni
Center for Advanced Materials, Qatar University
PO Box 2713, Doha
Qatar
1State‐of‐the‐Art Overview and Recent Trends in Additive Manufacturing: Opportunities, Limitations, and Current Market
Rajkumar Velu1, Murali K. Ramachandran2, and S. Anand Kumar1
1Indian Institute of Technology Jammu (IIT ‐ Jammu), Department of Mechanical Engineering, NH‐44, PO Nagrota, Jagti, Jammu and Kashmir, 181 221, India
2Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD), Engineering Product and Development, Digital Manufacturing and Design Laboratory, 8 Somapah Rd, Singapore, 487372, Singapore
1.1 Introduction
Additive manufacturing (AM) in general is known as rapid prototyping (RP) and popularly called 3D printing. Figure 1.1 represents the history of the machine technology of AM originated in the twentieth century (the 1960s and 1970s). However, the AM process was commercially successful during the 1980s. Charles Hull was the first patent recipient and made the system saleable to create a part or model in a layer by layer as 3D objects [1, 2]. It is also known for multiple names such as additive fabrication, direct digital manufacturing, rapid manufacturing, layer manufacturing, solid freeform process, and additive process. This technology assists engineers not only to visualize the model but also to fabricate innovative 3D‐printed parts [3, 4]. AM can assist software developers and management consultants in illustrating the business model and other related software solutions. Additionally, in a variety of sub‐functions that allow their clients and other stakeholders to provide input during the development process. Outwardly, the AM process includes various designs, form fit and checking, tools, patterns, conceptual parts, and models, as required with all the functional properties for industrial applications [5].
From the 1980s, AM was propelling toward rapid growth in a wide range of processing of advanced material systems using various energy sources and chemical reactions. Though the AM process involves rendering from the material, its classification originates from the physical structures of various materials, such as powder‐based, liquid‐based, and solid‐based processes. In 2010, the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM F42) framed standards to categorize AM processes (classification are described in Table 1.1) as follows: (i) VAT polymerization, (ii) material jetting (MJ), (iii) binder jetting, (iv) material extrusion (MEX), (v) powder bed fusion (PBF), (vi) sheet lamination (SHL), and (vii) direct energy deposition (DED). The materials used in these processes include the following:
Figure 1.1 Evolution of machine technology in the twentieth and twenty‐first centuries.
Figure 1.2 Types of methods and techniques involved in AM.
Table 1.1 Predominant classification of AM techniques.
S. No.
Classification of AM process
Energy or binders incorporated
Applications
1
VAT polymerization
Plastics and polymers Polymers: Photopolymer resin
Finer and smooth surface finish – jewelry, investment casting, dental and other medical applications
2
Material jetting
Photopolymers (liquid form) and cast wax
Multi‐material parts with accuracy and minimal material waste (medical and casting patterns)
3
Binder jetting
Full colored sandstone
Silica sand
Stainless steel
Inconel
Tungsten carbide
Fabrication of full color prototypes (like figurines), large sand‐casting cores and molds and some low‐cost metal parts
4
Material extrusion
High and low temperature polymer; advance materials (nylon, flexible filaments and carbon fiber filament)
Manufacturing industries (jigs, fixtures), medical (surgical tool, dental fixtures), pharmaceutical (customizable tablets) etc.
5
Powder bed fusion
Selective heat sintering – Nylon
Industry and medical sector (orthopedic parts such as Ti alloy cranial), aerospace (fuel nozzle), automotive industries (turbo charger, air duct etc.)
DMLS, SLM, SLS – stainless steel, titanium, aluminum, cobalt chrome, steel
EBM – titanium, cobalt chrome, stainless steel, aluminum and copper
6
Sheet lamination
Material has capability to roll – paper, plastic, and some sheet metals
Ceramics and composite fibers parts, full colored parts
7
Direct energy deposition
Uses only metals; neither polymers or ceramics. Metals – cobalt chrome, titanium
Aerospace brackets, tanks and ribs (near net shape parts); feature addition (print on existing parts) and to repair damaged parts (turbine blades or propellers)
Polymers such as
ABS
(
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
),
PLA
(
polylactide
) including soft PLA,
PC
(
polycarbonate
), polyamide (nylon), Nylon 12 (tensile strength 45 Mpa), glass‐filled nylon (12.48 Mpa), epoxy resin, wax, photopolymer resins;
Ceramics like silica/glass, porcelain, and silicon‐carbide;
Metals like Maraging steel 1.2709 (tensile strength 1100 Mpa), titanium alloy Ti6AI4V (tensile strength 1150 Mpa), 15‐5 PH stainless steel (tensile strength 1150 Mpa), cobalt chrome alloy, Co28Cr6Mo (tensile strength 1300 Mpa), aluminum AlSi10mg (tensile strength 445 Mpa), gold, and silver
[6]
.
Among the material rendering classification, the noteworthy and most successful technologies are PBF processes like selective laser sintering (SLS), direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), direct metal laser melting (DMLM)/electron beam melting (EBM), and selective laser melting (SLM) [7] to fabricate nonporous objects, high temperature‐resistant parts, and high‐resolution objects. AM is the disruptive technology that empowers the industry to fabricate low volume without compromising mechanical property [8]. Also, the process enhances the required property in the fabricated part by adjusting the material properties, and the entire process agglomerates in the digital form. Recently, engineering, communications, imaging, and architecture are undergoing to digital revolutions [9]. Despite this, AM remains the cause of digital flexibility and efficiency to manufacturing operations.
The basic working principle of AM technology involves creating a 3D model using CAD software like Solid Works, Creo, Auto CAD and Catia. From the 3D model, the materials are executed layer by layer in accurate geometrical shapes. The traditional manufacturing process involves removing material over milling, machining, carving, shaping, etc. But in contrast, as its name infers, AM adds material to build a part, which leads to product development in low time, cost, and human interaction. Also, the possibilities of achieving the complex shape and structure can be achieved, which is quite challenging to fabricate traditionally. RP helps engineers, scientists, and students to print parts for their wide range of applications rapidly [10]. Figure 1.3 represents various steps involved in the product development stages using RP. It elucidates that product fabrication is relatively rapid, and subsequent customized modifications and testing are highly possible.
Contextually, the AM process also collaborates with conventional or unconventional manufacturing techniques, called hybrid manufacturing. However, the challenging task is to check the material for AM process compatibility because the materials have physical, chemical, and molecular properties. Fabrication of any functional components using the AM process requires pre‐processing of materials either for solid or liquid or powder‐based technologies. Even though such challenging and tremendous parameters are involved, the AM process proved its stand during the COVID 19 pandemic. Wohler’s report 2021 stated that AM industrial growth increased to 7.5% during the pandemic situation [11].
Figure 1.3 Various steps involved in the product development stage.
In this chapter, the working concept of AM technology is illustrated and correlates to the current high potential applications. Further, a comprehensive review converges on AM materials and the recent trend in their development. Eventually, it addresses the research, industrial opportunities, challenges, and limitations with the current market value.
1.2 Classification of AM Processes
1.2.1 Powder Bed Fusion
The PBF process suits both metals and polymers and remains one of the predominant techniques of AM processes. In terms of industrialized AM processes, it is the first one that was created at the University of Texas in Austin, USA. Figure 1.4 shows the schematic diagram of the essential operation and characteristics of the PBF process [12, 13]. While PBF procedures are identical across all techniques, minute variations required to boost machine productivity that allow for processing a broad variety of material compositions and prohibit the use of certain unique features. The fusion of powder particles requires one or more thermal sources to induce the particles in specified regions. The powders are fused using a thermal, laser, electron beam, and agent or energy, predominantly Laser and electron beams are used for fabricating highly complex structures.
Figure 1.4 Schematic of the powder bed fusion (PBF) process using nylon powder and sintered by the laser power source.
Theoretically, the materials that melt and resolidify are capable of use in PBF processes. The most common combination of materials used for PBF processes is polymer–composite, metal–composites, and ceramics–composites. The polymer composites, in most cases, are divided into two types: thermoplastic and thermosets. Thermoplastic materials are well suited for the PBF process; they possess low thermal conductivity and melting temperature, whereas thermoset polymers exposed to high temperatures will mainly degrade but not melt. The most common material used is nylon because of consistent melting points, which makes them more reliable [14, 15]. The polymer‐composite parts from PBF are most applicable in biomedical research. Many scientists have scrutinized few polymers for their biocompatible and biodegradable characteristics [16]. Composites reinforced with hydroxyapatite and calcium silicate are used for fabricating bone replacement scaffolds. For use in medical applications, laser sintering has been used to create hydroxyapatite composite that mimics the actual human bone [17, 18]. For metal composites, materials capable of excellent weldabilities, such as typical stainless steel and tool steel and alloys like titanium‐based, nickel‐based, aluminum‐based, and cobalt‐chromium, are considered as candidate materials for PBF processes. However, the alloy that cracks under high solidification is unsuitable for metal laser sintering (MLS) [19]. The ceramic composite that commonly used in PBF methods are combination of materials such as oxides, carbides, and nitrides.
