Nanotechnology for Environmental Remediation E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH GmbH
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Nanotechnology for Environmental Remediation
Comprehensive resource on using nanomaterials to alleviate environmental pollution
Contaminated land, soil and water pose a threat to the environment and health. These sites require immediate action in terms of assessing pollution and new remediation strategies. Nanotechnology for Environmental Remediation helps readers understand the potential of nanotechnology in resolving the growing problem of environmental contamination.
The specific aim of this book is to provide comprehensive information relating to the progress in the development of functional nanomaterials and nanocomposites which are used for the environmental remediation of a variety of contaminants. The work deals with the different aspects of nanotechnology in water, air and soil contamination and presents the recent advances with a focus on remediation. Core topics discussed in the work include:
- Nanotechnology that can be used to engineer and tailor particles for specific environmental remediation applications
- A big-picture conceptual understanding of environmental remediation methods for researchers, environmentalists and professionals involved in assessing and developing new nano-based strategies
- A detailed approach towards the different remediation procedures by various nanomaterials such as metal nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, and dendrimers
- The societal impact that nanotechnology has on the environment
Chemists and biotechnologists can use Nanotechnology for Environmental Remediation as a comprehensive reference work for thoroughly understanding this new type of technology and why it is so important when considering environmental remediation efforts. Due to the practical application of nanotechnologies, environmental organizations and agencies can also both utilize the work to explore new and more effective ways of doing things, both now and into the future as nanotechnology becomes more common.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Foreword
Preface
1 Science and Technology of Nanomaterials: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Classification of Nanomaterials
1.3 Classes of Nanomaterials
1.4 Properties of Nanomaterials
1.5 Characterization of Nanomaterials
1.6 Current State of Nanotechnology
1.7 Safety Issues of Nanotechnology
1.8 Conclusion
References
2 Nanoremediation: A Brief Introduction
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Mechanism of Nanoremediation
2.3 Nanotechnology for Disinfection
2.4 Nanotechnology for Removal of Heavy Metals and Ions
2.5 Nanotechnology for Removal of Organic Contaminants
2.6 Nanotechnology for Oil/Water Separation
2.7 Challenges in Nanoremediation
2.8 Conclusion
References
3 Nanotechnology in Soil Remediation
3.1 Impact of ENMs on the Environment and Microorganisms
3.2 Engineered Nanomaterials in Soil Remediation
3.3 Nanotechnology in Soil Remediation
3.4 Conclusion
References
4 Nanotechnology for Water Treatment: Recent Advancement in the Remediation of Organic and Inorganic Compounds
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Application of Nanotechnology
4.3 Conclusions
References
5 Nanotechnology in Air Pollution Remediation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Recent Developments in Nanotechnology for Air Pollution Remediation
5.3 Adverse Impact of the Nanomaterials in the Environment
5.4 Future Directions
Acknowledgment
References
6 Nanomaterials in Filtration
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Nanofiber in Air Filtration
6.3 Nanofiber in Wastewater Filtration
6.4 Conclusion
References
7 Nanoadsorbents for Environmental Remediation
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Properties and Synthesis of Nanomaterials
7.3 Different Classes of Nanoadsorbents for Removal of Contaminants from Wastewater
7.4 Conclusion
References
8 Visible‐Light Photocatalytic Degradation of Heavy Metal Ion Hexavalent Chromium [Cr(VI)]
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Modifications in TiO
2
for Visible‐Light Activity
8.3 Stability of the Photocatalyst
8.4 Conclusion
References
9 Phytonanotechnology for Remediation of Heavy Metals and Dyes
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Environmental Pollution and Health Impacts
9.3 Environmental Pollution and Remediation Strategies
9.4 Phyto‐nanotechnological Approach for Remediation of Environmental Pollutants
9.5 Prospect and Challenges to Phytonanoremediation
9.6 Concluding Remarks
References
10 Surface‐Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles for Environmental Remediation
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Fundamentals of Gold Nanoparticles
10.3 Significance of Gold Nanoparticles
10.4 Importance of Surface‐Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles
10.5 Applications of Gold Nanoparticles
10.6 Synthesis and Characterization of Rhodamine 6G‐Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles (Rh6G‐AuNPs)
10.7 Interaction of Rhodamine 6G‐Functionalized AuNPs with Heavy Metal Ion
10.8 Application of Rh6G‐AuNPs
10.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
11 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles for Environmental Remediation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Synthesis of Metal Oxide Nanoparticles
11.3 Environmental Remediation Using MeO NPs
11.4 Different MeO NPs in Remediation
11.5 Conclusion and Prospects
Acknowledgments
References
12 Functionalized Nanoparticles for Environmental Remediation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Nanoparticles for Environmental Remediation and Functionalization
12.3 Nanofiltration with Functionalized NPs
12.4 Nanophotocatalytic Degradation with Functionalized NPs
12.5 Chemical Degradation of Pollutants Assisted with Functionalized NPs
Acknowledgments
References
13 Dendrimers for Environmental Remediation
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Synthesis Methods
13.3 Physicochemical Properties of Dendrimers
13.4 Environmental Application of Dendrimers
13.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
14 Nanocrystals for Environmental Remediation
14.1 Introduction
References
15 Enzyme Nanoparticles for Environmental Remediation
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Sources of Various Enzymes Used for Environmental Remediation
15.3 Various Enzyme‐Immobilized Nanoparticles for Environmental Remediation
15.4 Importance of Enzyme Nanoparticles in Remediation
15.5 Challenges in the Bioremediation Through Enzyme Nanoparticles
15.6 Conclusion
References
16 Nanofibers for Environmental Remediation
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Cellulose
16.3 Use of Nanofibers in Contaminant Removal Processes
16.4 Conclusion
References
17 Bio‐inspired Nanocomposites for Remediation of Pharmaceutical Pollutants
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Environmental Hazards from Pharmaceuticals
17.3 Mechanism for Synthesis of NMs
17.4 Different Biofabricated NMs Used for Removal of Pharmaceutical Pollutants
17.5 Basic Degradation Mechanism of Pharmaceuticals
17.6 Concluding Remarks
References
18 Nanomaterials and Their Thin Films for Photocatalytic Air Purification
18.1 Indoor and Outdoor Air Purification Technologies
18.2 Mechanisms of Photocatalytic Degradation for Air Purification
18.3 Photocatalysts Used for Air Purification
18.4 Building Strategies for More Efficient Photocatalysts for Air Purification
18.5 Conclusion and Perspectives
References
19 Aerogel for Environmental Remediation
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Aerogel Applications in Air Cleaning
19.3 Aerogel Applications for Water Treatment
19.4 Conclusion and Outlook
Acknowledgment
References
20 Environmental Toxicology of Nanomaterials: Advances and Challenges
20.1 Environmental Toxicology and Nanotechnology
20.2 Environmental Toxicity of Nanomaterials – An Overview
20.3 Nanotoxicology: Current Approaches, Issues, and Challenges
20.4 Conclusion
Disclaimer
References
21 Societal Impact of Nanomaterials
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Societal and Environmental Impact of Nanomaterials
21.3 Health and Safety Associated with Nanomaterials
21.4 The Food Sector
21.5 On Intellectual Property
21.6 Nanotechnology and Developing Countries
21.7 On Social Justice and Civil Liberties
21.8 Conclusions
References
22 LCA of Nanomaterials for Bioremediation
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Nanobioremediation
22.3 Effects of Nanobioremediation
22.4 Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles
22.5 What Is LCA
22.6 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Applications of some metallic and metal oxide nanoparticles.
Table 1.2 Applications of carbon‐based nanoparticles.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Different categories of nanomaterials.
Table 4.2 Representative studies of nanotechnology‐based remediation of dif...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Carbon‐based nanoadsorbents for the removal of different environm...
Table 7.2 Silicon‐based nanoadsorbents for the removal of environmental con...
Table 7.3 Metal‐based nanoadsorbents for the removal of environmental conta...
Table 7.4 Polymers‐based nanoadsorbents for removal of contaminants.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Modified photocatalysts preparation along with necessary paramete...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Heavy metals remediation potential of plant‐based nanomaterials....
Table 9.2 Dyes remediation potential of plant‐based nanomaterials.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Relative fluorescence and average fluorescence lifetime values o...
Table 10.2 Determination of Cr
3+
ion in real water samples.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Functionalized NPs for nanofiltration.
Table 12.2 Functionalized NPs for photocatalysis.
Table 12.3 Functionalized NPs for chemical degradation of pollutants.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Summary of dendrimers and their functionalized composite employe...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 The comparative studies of degradation in the presence of pure m...
Table 14.2 Comparative studies for degradation of dyes in the presence of m...
Table 14.3 The comparisons of antibacterial activity of different materials...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Source of various enzymes and corresponding nanosubstrates for e...
Table 15.2 Applications of enzyme nanoparticles.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Results of dye removal from water, data from scientific works ab...
Table 16.2 Results of Pb(II) removal from water, data from scientific works...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Photocatalysts that are most commonly used for photocatalytic ai...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Aerogel for removal of pollutant along with their sorption capac...
Table 19.2 Different types of aerogels for removal of metal ions.
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Notable application of nanomaterials for bioremediation [6, 15,3...
Table 22.2 Biologically synthesized nanoparticles [29, 30].
Table 22.3 Nanomaterials for which LCA has been performed.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Applications of nanotechnology.
Figure 1.2 Scheme of (a) zero‐, (b) one‐, (c) two‐, and (d) three‐dimensiona...
Figure 1.3 Different types of organic nanoparticles.
Figure 1.4 Schematic diagram of different carbon‐based nanoparticles.
Figure 1.5 Toxicity mechanism of nanoparticles mediated by reactive oxygen s...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Environmental remediation approaches.
Figure 2.2 Photocatalytic degradation mechanisms of metal and organic contam...
Figure 2.3 Design strategies of special wettability surfaces and the mechani...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 The incorporation of nanotechnology for sustainable development....
Figure 3.2 Effect of nanomaterials on bacteria.
Figure 3.3 Nano‐sized iron particle.
Figure 3.4 Coriander growth at different concentrations of nTiO
2
.
Figure 3.5 DDT adsorption by MWCNT.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Model of a carbon nanotube.
Figure 5.2 TiO
2
nanowire‐based filter.
Figure 5.3 Use of functionalized nanomaterials.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Representation of a variety of persistent environmental pollutant...
Figure 7.2 Illustration of various wastewater treatment techniques.
Figure 7.3 Schematic for the application of mesoporous silicas for metal ion...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 General photocatalytic mechanism of TiO
2
. NHE, normal hydrogen el...
Figure 8.2 Mechanism of reduction of Cr(VI) using gold/titania−platinum plas...
Figure 8.3 Mechanism showing removal of total amount of chromium using PCS.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Phytonanoparticles synthesis and their characterization technique...
Figure 9.2 Phyto‐nanotechnological approach for remediation of environmental...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 X‐ray diffraction profile of Rh6G‐AuNPs.
Figure 10.2 (a–e) HR‐TEM image of Rh6G‐AuNPs in different magnifications; (i...
Figure 10.3 SEM images of Rh6G‐AuNPs in different magnifications (a–d).
Figure 10.4 X‐ray photoelectron spectrum of Rh6G‐AuNPs: (a) survey spectrum;...
Figure 10.5 Raman spectrum of (a) free Rh6G dye molecule; (b) AuNPs only; an...
Figure 10.6 TGA analyses (a) and DSC spectrum (b) of Rh6G‐AuNPs in an airstr...
Figure 10.7 (a) Fluorescence emission intensity changes of Rh6G‐AuNPs upon t...
Figure 10.8 Time‐resolved fluorescence decay of Rh6G‐AuNPs (1.0 mg) in the a...
Figure 10.9 Zeta‐potential analyses of Rh6G‐AuNPs upon the addition of the d...
Figure 10.10 Fluorescence emission intensity changes of an aqueous solution ...
Figure 10.11 (a) Evaluation of cytotoxicity of Rh6G‐AuNPs (0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3....
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Different synthetic routes of metal oxide nanoparticles.
Figure 11.2 Different adsorption mechanisms of metal oxide nanoparticles.
Figure 11.3 Schematic illustration of the basic principle involved in photoc...
Figure 11.4 Schematic representation of photocatalytic degradation using TiO
Figure 11.5 Schematic illustration of the biocidal mechanisms of TiO
2
NPs....
Figure 11.6 Mechanisms for removing heavy metal ions by (a) adsorption and (...
Figure 11.7 Schematic representation of the use of magnetic nanoparticles em...
Figure 11.8 Transmission electron microscope (TEM) images depicting antibact...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Summary of NPs and NMs for environmental remediation and related...
Figure 12.2 Fe
3
O
4
@SiO
2
‐chitosan‐doped nanofiltration membranes for the remov...
Figure 12.3 Graphene/Pt Janus micromotors for tetracycline removal. (a) Sche...
Figure 12.4 Photocatalytic mechanism of curcumin functionalized AgNPs for de...
Figure 12.5 Ag/AgCl/ZnFe
2
O
4
nanocubes for photocatalytic degradation of bact...
Figure 12.6 TiO
2
@Pt@CeO
2
hollow NPs nanocubes for photocatalytic degradation...
Figure 12.7 Plasmonic AgNPs over plasmonic SiO
2
NPs nanocubes for photocatal...
Figure 12.8 BiOI/AgI/Fe
3
O
4
/Au Janus micromotors for Rhodamine B degradation:...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Typical structure of dendrimers.
Figure 13.2 General mechanism of contaminants degradation via photocatalysis...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Photocatalysis mechanism.
Figure 14.2 Photocatalytic mechanism in nanocomposite system.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Enzyme nanoparticles for environmental remediation.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Cellulose chain showing cellobiose unit and hydroxyl groups carb...
Figure 16.2
Left
: Photo of the suspension of cellulose nanocrystals and CNC ...
Figure 16.3 Schematic representation of the organization of plant tissue up ...
Figure 16.4 Illustration of surface modification of cellulose nanofibrils.
L
...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Pictorial representation for the mechanism of biogenic NP synthe...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Schematic illustration of mechanisms for degradation of pollutan...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Application of aerogel for environmental remediation.
Figure 19.2 Aerogel for CO
2
capturing [36].
Figure 19.3 Aerogel for volatile organic solids.
Figure 19.4 Aerogel for oil.
Figure 19.5 Aerogel for heavy metals removal [83].
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Environmental toxicology sub branches.
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Life‐cycle assessment of nanobioremediation.
Figure 22.2 Effects of the interactions between environment, contaminants, a...
Figure 22.3 Framework of life cycle analysis studies.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Foreword
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Nanotechnology for Environmental Remediation
Edited by Sabu Thomas, Merin Sara Thomas, and Laly A. Pothen
Editors
Prof. Dr. Sabu ThomasMahatma Gandhi UniversitySchool of Chemical SciencesPriyadarshini Hills P.O.686 560 Kottayam, KeralaIndia
Dr. Merin Sara ThomasMar Thoma CollegeDepartment of ChemistryKuttapuzha P.O.689 103 Tiruvalla, KeralaIndia
Dr. Laly A. PothenMahatma Gandhi UniversityCentre for Nanoscience & NanotechnologyPriyadarshini Hills P.O.686 560 Kottayam, KeralaIndia
Cover © PanAek Photographer/Shutterstock
All books published by WILEY‐VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.
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© 2022 WILEY‐VCH GmbH, Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany
All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.
Print ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐34927‐2ePDF ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐83416‐7ePub ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐83415‐0oBook ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐83414‐3
Foreword
One of the greatest challenges facing the modern world is environmental pollution and degradation caused by multiple sources. Several conventional methods and tools are being used to address this issue. Nanotechnology, considered the “bleeding edge” of science, is currently being studied to be deployed as an effective weapon against environmental pollution. Compared to the conventional techniques and approaches, which are not fully effective, nanotechnology opens up new avenues on this front.
This book on Nanotechnology for Environmental Remediation, edited by Sabu Thomas, Merin Sara Thomas, and Laly A. Pothan, attempts to introduce nanotechnology as an effective tool for environmental remediation. Several authors from across the world have contributed chapters on the application of nanotechnology in countering air pollution, filtration, and water treatment, in addition to the application of various nanoadsorbents, metal oxide nanoparticles, functionalist nanoparticles, dendrimers, nanocrystals, enzyme nanoparticles, and nanofiber, for environmental remediation.
Even though most of the strategies presented have not moved much beyond the research stage, the book grippingly demonstrates the tremendous potential that nanomaterials hold as effective alternatives over conventional methods in ensuring environmental remediation.
Poland, 17 December 2021
Prof. Józef T. Haponiuk
Department of Polymer Technology
Gdansk University of Technology
Preface
Nanotechnology has emerged as a cutting‐edge branch of science that provides potential solutions to numerous modern‐day challenges facing humanity. It offers diverse applications in different fields. Therefore, it is only natural that researchers all over the world have turned to this branch of science to address issues, including those posed by environmental pollution. Nanotechnology is now being applied to protect the environment through pollution prevention and treatment. The process of environmental clean‐up or “remediation” involves removal of excess heavy metals and other toxic contaminants from the environment.
While traditional physical, chemical, and biological remediation processes are useful; these are only partially effective in solving the huge problems of environmental pollution. Herein comes the need to develop nanotechnology‐based alternative methods for the complete remediation of contaminants from the environment. Nanotechnology has the potential to provide effective alternatives to many current practices.
Across 22 chapters, this book seeks to introduce readers to promising currents and tides in the emerging field of nanoremediation. A group of research stalwarts who have been working with advanced tools of nanotechnology, nanoadsorbents, and phytonanotechnology in the fields of soil remediation, water treatment, treatment of air, and so on have come together on a single platform to provide researchers and students in green chemistry with a panoply of novel ideas backed by their work.
Kottayam, 12 January 2021
Sabu Thomas
Merin Sara Thomas
Laly A. Pothen
1Science and Technology of Nanomaterials: Introduction
Merin Sara Thomas1,2, Sabu Thomas2,3,4 and Laly A. Pothen2,5
1Mar Thoma College, Department of Chemistry, Kuttapuzha P.O., Tiruvalla, Kerala, 689103, India
2Mahatma Gandhi University, International and Interuniversity Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Priyadarsini Hills P.O., Kottayam, Kerala, 686560, India
3Mahatma Gandhi University, School of Chemical Sciences, Priyadarsini Hills P.O., Kottayam, Kerala, 686560, India
4Mahatma Gandhi University, School of Energy Materials, Priyadarsini Hills P.O., Kottayam, Kerala, 686560, India
5CMS College Kottayam (Autonomous), Department of Chemistry, CMS College Road, Kottayam, Kerala, 686001, India
1.1 Introduction
The term nanotechnology refers to the organized study of materials having at least one dimension in the nanometer range (1–100 nm). Nanomaterials are characterized by their specific optical properties, magnetic properties, electrical properties, etc. These materials are widely used in biomedical, environmental, and electrical applications because of their unique properties. The properties of nanomaterials are, however, dependent on the length scales on the order of nanometers.
Opening up a new vista of study of nanoscience in the field of physics in the year 1959, Richard Feynman, a German scientist pointed out, “There is plenty of room at the bottom” [1]. Nanoscience discusses the management of nanomaterials, systems, and devices at atomic, molecular, and macromolecular levels, whereas, nanotechnology is the bunch of techniques involved in design, synthesis, characterization, and application of structures, materials, devices, and systems by manipulating shape and size at nanometer scale. Nanotechnology is the manufacturing of tools and nanodevices by controlling the matter at the atomic level.
Nanotechnology has a wide variety of applications in various fields, such as medicine, environmental remediation, and food science. Figure 1.1 depicts different applications of nanotechnology.
Figure 1.1 Applications of nanotechnology.
1.2 Classification of Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are classified, based on their geometry, into zero‐dimensional, one‐dimensional, two‐dimensional, and three‐dimensional nanomaterials. Figure 1.2 represents the schematic sketch for each category.
1.3 Classes of Nanomaterials
Based on their origin, nanomaterials are mainly classified into organic nanoparticles (NPs), inorganic nanoparticles, and carbon‐based nanoparticles.
Figure 1.2 Scheme of (a) zero‐, (b) one‐, (c) two‐, and (d) three‐dimensional nanostructured materials with different morphologies.
Source: Nikolova and Chavali [2]/MDPI/Licensed under CC 4.0.
Figure 1.3 Different types of organic nanoparticles.
Source: Gessner and Neundorf [3]/MDPI/Licensed under CC 4.0.
1.3.1 Organic Nanoparticles
Organic nanoparticles are solid particles derived from organic compounds. Dendrimers, ferritin, liposomes, and micelles come under this category (Figure 1.3). The biodegradability and nontoxicity of these materials are remarkable. Organic nanoparticles are mainly used in the biomedical field for drug delivery applications.
1.3.2 Inorganic Nanoparticles
Inorganic nanoparticles are mainly of two types – metal nanoparticles and metal oxide nanoparticles. Metal nanoparticles are synthesized from metals. They can be synthesized from almost all metals, such as aluminum (Al), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), gold (Au), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), silver (Ag), and zinc (Zn). These are characterized by their specific properties, such as high surface area‐to‐volume ratio, pore size, surface charge, and surface charge density.
The applicability of metal nanoparticles can be improved by the use of metal oxide nanoparticles. Table 1.1 gives a brief idea about applications of some metallic and metal oxide nanoparticles.
1.3.3 Carbon‐Based Nanoparticles
If the complete skeleton of a nanoparticle is carbon, this class can be categorized into carbon‐based nanoparticles. Fullerenes, graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon nanofibers, carbon black, etc., come under this category. Figure 1.4 represents the schematic diagram of different carbon‐based nanoparticles, and Table 1.2 gives the applications of carbon‐based nanoparticles.
1.4 Properties of Nanomaterials
1.4.1 Size and Surface Area
The interaction of nanomaterials mainly depends on their size and surface area. With decrease in size of nanomaterials, the surface area‐to‐volume ratio of nanomaterials increases and the reactivity of the surface becomes enhanced [60]. Each and every property of nanostructures depends on their size, shape, and surface area.
Table 1.1 Applications of some metallic and metal oxide nanoparticles.
Metals
Application of metallic and metal oxide nanoparticles
Titanium dioxide (Ti)
Solar cells, food wraps, medicines, pharmaceuticals, lacquers, construction, medical devices, gas sensing, photocatalyst, agriculture, paint, food, cosmetic, sterilization, antibacterial coatings
[4]
Zinc and zinc oxide (Zn)
Medical and healthcare goods, sunscreens, packaging,
ultraviolet
(
UV
)‐protective materials, such as textiles [
5
,
6
]
Aluminum (Al)
Automobile industry, aircraft, heat shielding coatings, military application, corrosion, fuel additive/propellant [
7
,
8
]
Gold (Au)
Sensory probes, cellular imaging, electronic conductors, drug delivery, therapeutic agents, organic photovoltaics, catalysis, nanofibers, textiles
[9]
Iron (Fe)
Magnetic imaging, environmental remediation, glass and ceramic industry, memory tape, resonance imaging, plastics, nanowires, coatings, textiles, alloy, and catalyst applications
[10]
Silica (Si)
Drug and gene delivery, adsorbents, electronic, sensor, catalysis, remediation of the environmental pollutants, additive in rubber and plastic industry, filler, electric and thermal insulators [
11
,
12
]
Silver (Ag)
Antimicrobial coatings, textiles, batteries, surgery, wound dressings, biomedical devices, photography, electrical devices, dental work, burns treatment
[13]
Copper (Cu)
Biosensors and electrochemical sensors, plastic additives, such as antibiotic, antimicrobial, and antifungal agents, coatings, textiles, nanocomposite coating, catalyst, lubricants, inks, filler [
14
,
15
]
Cerium (Ce)
Chemical mechanical polishing/planarization, computer chip, corrosion, solar cells, fuel oxidation catalysis, automotive exhaust treatment
[16]
Manganese and its oxides (Mn)
Molecular meshing, solar cells, batteries, catalysts, optoelectronics, drug delivery ion‐sieves, imaging agents, magnetic storage devices, water treatment and purification
[17]
Nickel (Ni)
Fuel cells, membrane fuel cells, automotive catalytic converters, plastics, nanowires, nanofibers, textiles, coatings, conduction, magnetic properties, catalyst, batteries, printing inks
[18]
Source: Attarilar et al. [19]/Frontiers Media/Licensed Under CC 4.0.
1.4.2 Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties of different nanomaterials vary with respect to the nature of materials. Nanomaterials possess excellent mechanical properties due to the unique features of nanoparticles, such as volume, surface, and quantum effects. The addition of nanoparticles to other systems will improve the grain boundary and promote the mechanical properties of materials [61, 62]. Al Ghabban et al. [63] found that addition of 3 wt% nano‐SiO2 to concrete can enhance its compressive strength, bending strength, and splitting tensile strength. Addition of up to 0.1 wt% of nanochitosan to electrospun poly lactic acid (PLA) fibers led to an increase in tensile strength of the PLA/chitosan nanoparticles (nCHS) nanocomposite membranes. Lower concentration of nCHS in the nanocomposite gave superior tensile strength compared to the neat PLA membrane [64]. The key factors that improved the mechanical properties of the composites with such a low concentration of the filler are uniform stress distribution, minimized formation of stress‐concentration centers, increased interfacial area for stress transfer from the polymer matrix to the fillers, and the decreased fiber diameter [65]. However, at higher loading, above 0.1 wt% the tensile strength seemed to be lowered. This is because of the aggregation of nCHS particles having large surface area and surface energy, which leads to the poor dispersion of nCHS in PLA matrix [66].
Figure 1.4 Schematic diagram of different carbon‐based nanoparticles.
Source: Yuan et al. [20]/Springer Nature/Licensed under CC 4.0.
Table 1.2 Applications of carbon‐based nanoparticles.
Carbon‐based nanoparticles
Applications
Fullerenes
Photovoltaics [
21
,
22
], catalysis [
23
,
24
], biomedicine
[25]
, rechargeable batteries
[26]
Graphene
Light emitting diode
[27]
, superconductor
[28]
, drug carrier [
29
,
30
], hydrogen storage materials
[31]
, battery [
32
,
33
]
Carbon nanotubes
Electrical emitters
[34]
,
air and water filtration
[
35
,
36
],
biomedical
[37
–
39]
, solar collection
[40]
; catalyst supports [
41
,
42
]; and coatings
[43]
Carbon nanofibers
Electrocatalytic applications
[44]
, CO
2
adsorption
[45]
, batteries [
46
,
47
], supercapacitors [
48
,
49
],
biomedical
[
50
,
51
], biosensors [
52
,
53
]
Carbon black nanoparticles
Elastomer‐reinforcing agent in rubber
[54]
, inks, coatings, dyes
[55]
, electrical conductivity agent in batteries [
56
,
57
], UV stabilizer
[58]
, heavy metal removals
[59]
1.4.3 Optical and Electrical Properties
The optical properties of NPs can be utilized for the construction of optoelectronic devices. Semiconductor nanomaterials are widely used in photovoltaics and photocatalysis. The size and shape of the nanoparticles are the key factors determining the optical properties. The surface modifications also affect the optical properties of nanoparticles [67]. Size and shape of modifiers also influence the optical properties of nanoparticles. The optical properties mainly depend on the internal electronic structure and are responsible for the color of the nanoparticles. The color of nanomaterial varies with its size and is characteristic of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) that occurs by the interaction of outer electron band of nanomaterial with light wavelengths [68]. Usually, metallic nanoparticles show very high optical properties [68]. Noble metal nanoparticles show outstanding plasmonic properties. Sakhno et al. [69]reported that nanocomposites of transparent polymer matrices containing nanoparticles of noble metals are specially designed for photonics, linear and nonlinear optics, laser physics, and sensing applications. They found that presence of Au and Ag NPs improved the photosensitivity of nanocomposite.
Modern electronics are based on the electrical properties of nanoparticles, such as conductivity, semiconductivity, and resistivity, and these properties are always interconnected with optical properties.
1.4.4 Magnetic Properties
Magnetic properties of nanomaterials depend on the particle size, composition of the nanostructure, and synthesis methods [70]. It is a surface‐dependent property and influenced by surface roughness and surface impurity [71]. Nanoparticles of less than 35 nm show the best magnetic properties. They also have peculiar magnetic properties, such as low Curie temperature, high magnetic susceptibility, and superparamagnetism [72, 73]. Metal nanoparticles, alloys, oxides, and ferrites are some examples of nanomaterials with magnetic properties.
1.5 Characterization of Nanomaterials
The different physicochemical properties of nanostructures can be studied by various characterization techniques. Some of the instrumental tools and techniques are discussed here.
1.5.1 Surface Morphology, Surface Area, Size, and Shape of Nanoparticles
Microscopic techniques are mainly used to study the morphology of nanostructures. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning probe microscopy, and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) are various microscopic techniques used.
The TEM is used as a strong analytical tool for structural and chemical characterization at the nanoscale. The detailed structural analysis of nanomaterials can be obtained from TEM imaging, diffraction, and microanalytical techniques [74]. A field emission source armed with a high‐intensity probe beam is a characteristic of TEMs that permit elemental analysis in samples with spatial resolution 1 nm [74]. The crystal structure imaging and structure analysis of nanomaterials with a spatial resolution of 0.045 nm can be done with the help of high‐resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). The interatomic distances and crystalline defects can also be studied by HRTEM imaging.
AFM is a type of scanning probe microscope, which is used to measure morphology and mechanical properties of materials at nanoscale level. The three‐dimensional analysis and visualization of nanomaterials can be achieved by AFM analysis. The applicability of AFM analysis can be extended to image biological entities, analyze material interactions, study molecular force interaction, manipulate molecules on surface, investigate material nanomechanics, and mechanically fabricate 3D nanostructures.
Dynamic light scattering (DLS) is also called photon correlation spectroscopy or quasielastic light scattering. DLS technique provides information regarding hydrodynamic size, shape, structure, aggregation state, biomolecular confirmation, size distribution, and polydispersity of molecules. The basic principle of DLS is the measurement of scattered intensity at a fixed scattering angle with time. DLS is commonly used for the characterization of colloidal suspensions or dispersions, polymer solutions, and gels.
Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analysis, as well as differential mobility analyzer, can be used for surface area measurements of nanoparticles. BET analysis gives idea about the surface area, pore volume, and pore diameter of the nanomaterials.
1.5.2 Elemental and Mineral Composition
X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), otherwise known as electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA), is a necessary analytical weapon for the characterization of chemical composition of variety of materials.
The crystallographic studies of nanomaterials can be done by using XRD analysis and it is a nondestructive technique. XRD is used to determine interlayer spacings, elucidate structural strains, and detect impurities. The elemental analysis can be done by using inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP‐MS) and atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS).
1.5.3 Structures and Bonds in Nanoparticles
The chemical bonding in nanostructures like metal–oxygen bond can be studied by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT‐IR) and XPS. Surface configuration of nanoparticles is also provided by XPS, which is used for the characterization of doped graphitic carbon nanomaterials [75]. X‐ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) can also be used to get specific qualitative information about metal/metalloid species, as well as about their quantitative distribution [76]. Raman spectroscopy can also give specific information regarding the molecular interaction among nanoparticles. But low sensitivity is a problem of this technique and this can be overcome by the use of surface‐enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) [77]. SERS can be used at super‐low concentration, even down to single‐molecule level.
1.6 Current State of Nanotechnology
Nowadays, nanoscience and nanotechnology have been found to achieve incredible interest in the academic and research field. Nanotechnology finds its application in various interdisciplinary areas of chemistry, physics, life sciences, medicine, and engineering. It was found that nanotechnology has an impact on the chemical, energy, electronics, and space industries. Nanotechnology has the potential to overcome several limitations associated with conventional technology. Nanomaterials are characterized by their surface and mechanical properties. These advantages are taken into consideration in material science.
The unique size of nanomaterials helps it to pierce into cells of animals, and thus, these materials are widely used in biology and medicine for targeted drug delivery and detection of diseases. Researchers found that the nanoparticles are capable of protecting drug from degradation because of their shield‐like properties.
In industry, nanoscale materials are used in consumer products, such as cosmetics and sunscreens, fibers and textiles, dyes, and paints [78]. Electronic engineering field also finds emerging applications of nanoscale materials because of the utility of nanostructured materials as smaller, faster data storage devices [79]. Optical devices have also taken the advantage of data storage devices because that can produce images of atomic and molecular processes at surfaces [80].
1.7 Safety Issues of Nanotechnology
In spite of the wide applicability of nanomaterials, the safety of nanomaterials is still debated. The risks of nanomaterials and their products are uncertain. The alarms about the potential hazards of nanomaterials are based on their exceptional surface area, catalytic and magnetic properties, and the impact of these properties in biological systems and the environment. Due to these peculiar properties', nanomaterials are highly reactive and transformed into other forms. The transformations may occur through agglomeration, redox reactions, dissolution, exchange of surface moieties, and reactions with biomacromolecules. For example, the use of nanoparticles may lead to the release of respirable particles with unusual nanostructures; the degradation of nanoproducts at the end of their life may lead to previously encapsulated nanostructured materials being released into the environment.
Figure 1.5 Toxicity mechanism of nanoparticles mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation.
Source: Sengul and Asmatulu [81]/with permission of Springer Nature.
Researchers found that exposure to nanoparticles leads to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in toxicity [81]. Accumulation of iron oxide, ZnO, TiO2 nanoparticles in lung, liver, spleen, etc., leads to oxidative stress resulting in inflammation, low cell viability, cell lysis, and disturbance of the blood coagulation system.
Figure 1.5 is the model that describes extracellular sources of ROS as exposure routes for the engineered nanoparticles. Intracellular ROS can be generated from the mitochondria, which later causes lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, and protein denaturation [81].
In food sector, nanopackaging may lead to some hazardous effects due to poor packaging. These hazardous effects depend on toxicity of the nanomaterial used, nature of packaging matrix, degree of migration, and ingestion rate of the particular food [82, 83]. Presence of some inorganic nanoparticles, such as silver nanoparticles, may also get agglomerated in various internal organs of animals [84].
1.8 Conclusion
In this chapter, we have provided a short understanding of nanoscience and nanotechnology, properties of nanomaterials, and different characterization techniques. This chapter also covers the current state of nanomaterials and their risk assessment. Nanomaterials are smart materials with a wide range of applications in the field of biology, medicine, optoelectronics, food technology, etc. But there are some risk factors also associated with this field. The safe and sustainable use of nanomaterials is desirable.
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2Nanoremediation: A Brief Introduction
Renjitha P. Rajan1, Merin Sara Thomas1, Sabu Thomas2,3,4, and Laly A. Pothen4,5
1Mar Thoma College, Department of Chemistry, Kuttapuzha P.O., Tiruvalla, Kerala, 689103, India
2Mahatma Gandhi University, International and Interuniversity Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Priyadarsini Hills P.O., Kottayam, 686560, Kerala, India
3Mahatma Gandhi University, School of Chemical Sciences, Priyadarsini Hills P.O., Kottayam, Kerala, 686560, India
4Mahatma Gandhi University, School of Energy Materials, Priyadarsini Hills P.O., Kottayam, Kerala, 686560, India
5CMS College Kottayam (Autonomous), Department of Chemistry, CMS College Road, Kottayam, Kerala, 686001, India
2.1 Introduction
Nowadays, there is an increased rate of pollution, and problems related to it are due to rapid civilization and industrialization. Growing pollution is causing damage to our environment and living things. Therefore, the need for new technologies to remove pollutants from the environment has increased. The area that focuses on the study of cleaning up or removing pollutants from the environment is known as remediation [1]. The general objective of the remediation technique is to reduce the risks to the environment and human health due to the contamination of the environment by various pollutants. The nanotechnology‐related approach toward the cleaning of environment is termed as nanoremediation, which is a modern and promising area for remediation.
In recent years, nanoremediation has played an important role in research and development. Its main objective is to clean the contaminated waste, thereby protecting the environment and human health from contamination.
The nanoremediation method involves the application of reactive materials for the detoxification and transformation of the contamination. These materials initiate both chemical reduction and catalysis of the pollutants. Protecting the environment from various sources of pollution is imperative not only to protect ecological health but also general public health. Environmental protection includes clean air for breathing, water for drinking and its use in agriculture and industry. Contaminants from the environment can be cleaned up using various pollution prevention technologies that allow for faster and more effective remediation. Different nanomaterials are used for this purpose. A material using nanoscale oxide is used on‐site to clean up oil spills from leaking underground oil tanks [2, 3], which is different from the previous remediation method. This approach allows an overall reduction of the contaminant. The presence of contaminants in environment can be detected and monitored by nanoscale devices. The sensors based on nanoparticles are very useful for air pollution monitoring. Figure 2.1 represents the different types of environmental remediation approaches [4].
Figure 2.1 Environmental remediation approaches.
Source: Guerra et al. [4]/MDPI/Licensed under CC BY 4.0.
The advantage of nanoremediation over other remedial techniques is that nanoparticles can enter a polluting area where even other entities cannot. This broadens its application in various fields.
2.2 Mechanism of Nanoremediation
Nanoremediation techniques can be explored to sense contaminants and treat water, soil, sediment or air, and other contaminated environmental materials. The process of nanoremediation mainly consists of contacting the contaminant through/with nanoparticle, detoxifying the contaminant followed by the immobilization of the contaminant [5]. Nanoremediation approaches can be effectively employed for disinfection, desalination, removal of heavy metals and ions, and the removal of organic contaminants. The high aspect ratio and the unique surface chemistry possessed by the nanomaterials enable them as effective platforms for environmental remediation [6].
2.3 Nanotechnology for Disinfection
Nanomaterials with antimicrobial properties can be used for disinfection and microbial control. Carbon‐based nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), fullerenes, and graphene, are well known for their antimicrobial activity. Carbon‐based nanomaterials fight against pathogens by photothermal mechanism or reactive oxygen species production. CNTs are found to be good against bacteria, pathogens, protozoa, etc. Functionalization of CNT improves its antimicrobial activity and hence disinfection capacity. Zeng et al. [7] reviewed graphene‐based antimicrobial nanomaterials used for water disinfection and microbial control.
Metals and metal oxide nanoparticles also possess antimicrobial activity. Researchers found that nanosilver‐based materials used as disinfectants are highly promising to enhance the effectiveness of the conventional water disinfection methods [8]. Metal oxide nanoparticles, such as titanium dioxide (TiO2) [9] and zinc oxide (ZnO) [10], are also very effective in disinfection.
Certain naturally occurring polymers, such as peptides, chitin, and chitosan, are well known for their antimicrobial activity. The nanoparticles and other nanostructures developed from them are widely used due to their low price and availability.
Talebian et al. [11] proposed nanotechnology‐based antimicrobial and antiviral formulations that can prevent SARS‐CoV‐2 viral dissemination. They found that nano‐based antimicrobial and antiviral formulations are not only suitable for disinfecting air and surfacesbut are also effective in reinforcing personal protective equipment, such as facial respirators.
2.4 Nanotechnology for Removal of Heavy Metals and Ions
Heavy metals, such as arsenic, chromium, cadmium, lead, mercury, zinc, and nickel, are regarded as environmental pollutants because they are nonbiodegradable. So, they get accumulated in nature and may enter into living system and cause severe toxic effects, such as kidney damage, abdominal pain, hypertension, dyspepsia, nausea, headache, nasal and lung cancer. There are several mechanisms available for the removal of metal ions and metals, such as physical adsorption [12, 13], surface complexation [14], ion exchange [13], electrostatic interaction [15], and hard/soft acid–base interaction [15].
A variety of nanoadsorbents can be used for heavy metal adsorbents, which are carbon based, polymeric, magnetic, or nonmagnetic based [16, 17], biopolymer based, metal oxide based [18, 19], and zeolites.
Carbon‐based nanomaterials are reliable for the removal of heavy metal ions due to their large specific surface area, ease of chemical or physical modification, and high adsorption capacity. CNTs possess many active sites for adsorption on the surface, interstitial channels, internal sites, and external groove sites [20]. The adsorption capacity of CNTs can be improved by physical or chemical modification [21]. Hayati et al. [22] used CNT modified with four generations of poly‐amidoamine dendrimer (PAMAM, G4) to remove Cu2+ and Pb2+ heavy metals from aqueous solution. They concluded that PAMAM/CNT nanocomposites are super‐adsorbent, which are able to uptake unique large quantities of heavy metal from single and binary component liquid phases. Adam et al. [23] prepared a composite of CNT by combining fullerene CNT with zinc ferrite (ZnFe2O4) to improve the adsorption capacity of fullerene CNT and found that crushing fullerene CNTs with ZnFe2O4 composite improved the adsorption performance of free fullerene CNTs by 25% for Hg(II), Pb(II) ions, Cd(II), and Sn(II) ions. Elsehly et al. [24] prepared CNT‐based filters by modifying CNT with ion‐beam irradiation, and the filters showed an enhancement of removal efficiency of Mn(II) up to 97.5% due to large disorder in the irradiated samples.
The biopolymer‐based heavy metal removal was found to be efficient, environment‐friendly, and cost‐effective. Charpentier et al. [16] used magnetic carboxymethyl chitosan nanoparticles for adsorption of heavy metal ions. They found that magnetic properties of the nanoparticles improved the adsorption capacity of heavy metal ions.
