Nanovaccinology as Targeted Therapeutics E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 484

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022

Beschreibung

NANOVACCINOLOGY AS TARGETED THERAPEUTICS The book presents the early-stage development of nanovaccines that could well be the new generation of vaccines which have a great potential for the prevention and treatment of many diseases. Nanovaccinology as Targeted Therapeutics explores recent breakthroughs in the exciting new field of micro- and nanofabricated engineered nanomaterials. In addition to spectroscopic characterizations, significant topics for interdisciplinary research, especially in the fields of nanogels, which deal with polymer chemistry, nanotechnology, materials science, pharmaceuticals, and medicine are explored, where their small dimensions prove highly advantageous. Nanovaccinology could potentially revolutionize conventional therapy and diagnostic methods due to its superior effectiveness over its macro-sized counterparts in almost all biomedical areas. Strong interest in this novel class of material has driven many studies to discover biogenic production methods and new areas of potential utilization in this area. Therefore, it is important to keep abreast of the development of these biomedical research aspects highlighted in the 19 chapters of this book written in diverse fields of studies, and their emerging applications utilized in next-generation techniques. Audience Biotechnologists, nanotechnologists, materials scientists, biochemists, medical biologists, drug delivery and formulation chemists, virologists and pharmacists.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

1 Nanotechnology in Vaccine Development and Constraints

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Nanoparticles, an Alternative Approach to Conventional Vaccines

1.3 Nanoparticles as Vaccine Delivery Vehicle

1.4 Nanotechnology to Tackle the Challenges of Vaccine Delivery

1.5 Constraints and Challenges of Nanovaccines

1.6 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

2 Nanomedicine and Nanovaccinology Tools in Targeted Drug Delivery

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Nanomaterial-Based Drug Delivery Tools

2.3 Targeted Drug Delivery Applications

2.4 Commercial Nanodelivery Tools

2.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects

Acknowledgments

References

3 Nanovaccinology and Superbugs

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Need for Nanovaccines

3.3 Types of Nanovaccines

3.4 Mechanism of Action of Nanovaccines

3.5 Limitations of Nanovaccines

3.6 Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

4 Current Research Trends on SARS-CoV2 Virus Against Nanovaccine Formulation

4.1 Introduction

4.2 COVID-19/SARS-CoV2 Pathophysiology

4.3 Development of Nanovaccines Against SARS-CoV2

4.4 Biomimetic Nanovaccines Against SARS-CoV2

4.5 Translatable Subunit Nanovaccine Against SARS-CoV2

4.6 Separable Microneedle Patch Nanovaccine

4.7 Polymer-Based Nanovaccines

4.8 Pharmaceutical Challenges of SARS-CoV2 Nanovaccines

4.9 Future Prospects of SARS-CoV2 Nanovaccines

4.10 Challenges and Limitations

4.11 Conclusion and Outlook

References

5 Nanovaccinology Against Infectious Disease

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Nanovaccinology Against Bacterial Disease

5.3 Nanovaccinology Against Viral Disease

5.4 Nanovaccinology Against Cancer

5.5 Nanovaccinology Against Parasite-Born Disease

5.6 Nanovaccinology Against Autoimmune Disorders

5.7 Conclusion and Outlook

Acknowledgments

References

6 Preclinical and Commercial Trials of Cancer Diagnosis via Nano-Imaging and Nanovaccinology

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Role of Nano-Imaging in Cancer Diagnosis, Progression, and Treatment

6.3 Challenges in the Translation of Nanotechnology-Based Imaging Methods Into Clinical Application

6.4 Nanovaccines for Cancer Immunotherapy

6.5 Functionalities of Nanocarriers for the Delivery of Cancer Vaccines

6.6 Nanovaccine Strategies in Cancer

6.7 Preclinical and Clinical Trials of Applications of Nanoimaging and Nanovaccinology in Cancer

6.8 Recent Developments in the Trials of Nanovaccinology in Cancer

6.9 Perspectives and Future Directions

6.10 Conclusions

References

7 Biomedical and Electronic Tune-Ups of 2C4NA Nanocrystalline Sample

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Computational, Tribological, Fluorescence, and Influx Study

7.3 Antidiabetic (AD) Study, Anticancer Study, and Anti-Inflammatory Study

7.4 Conclusion

References

8 Biological, Electronic-Filter, Influx and Theoretical Practicalities of 2-Chloro-6-Nitroaniline (2C6NA) Crystals for Biomedical and Microelectronics Tasks

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Computational and Influx

8.3 Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antidiabetic, DPPH, FRAP, Anticancer

8.4 Conclusion

References

9 Antidiabetic, Anti-Oxidant, Computational, Filter, and Tribological Characterizations of Bis Glycine Lithium Bromide Monohydrate Nano (32 nm) Scaled Crystals

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Experimental

9.3 Results and Discussions

9.4 Conclusion

References

10 Device Utility, Energy, and Bioutility of N2MNM4MBH Macro, Nano Models

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Synthesis and XRD

10.3 Influx

10.4 Computational

10.5 Conclusion

References

11 Biocurative, Tribological, Electro-Functionalities of ZnOMIZN Nanoparticles

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Antibacterial Activity

11.3 XRD and Magnetic Effect

11.4 Tribological Data for Nano Sample Coatings of ZnO-MIZN

11.5 Filter Utility

11.6 Conclusion

References

12 Nanotubular Device Effect, Super Cell Effectiveness, Hirshfeld Energy Analysis and Biomedicinal Efficacy of 2-Fluoro-5-Nitro-Aniline (2F5NA) Crystals

12.1 Introduction

12.2 XRD and Computational

12.3 Bioutility

12.4 Conclusion

References

13 Nano, Peptide Link, Pharma Impact and Electron Density of AMPHB Macro, Nano Crystalline Samples

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Characterizations

13.3 Conclusion

References

14 Super Lattice, Computational Interactions and Bio-Uses of CPDMDP Crystals

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Computational

14.3 Synthesis

14.4 XRD

14.5 Influx of CPDMDP of Both Scales

14.6 Antidiabetic Activity of Macro, Nano CPDMDP Crystals

14.7 Antioxidant Activity

14.8 Conclusion

References

15 Biological Effect Nanotubular, Vanderwall’s Impact, of 4-Methyl-2-Nitroaniline (4M2NA) Nanocrystals

15.1 Introduction

15.2 XRD and Computational Data

15.3 Biological Activity: Antidiabetic (AD), Anti-Inflammatory (AI), and Antifungal (AF) Effect

15.4 Conclusion, Outlook, and Future Aspects

References

16 Biomedical, Tribological, and Electronic Functionalities of Silver Nanoparticles

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Tribological Data

16.3 Influx

16.4 HeLa Cell Line, Bacterial and Fungal Utility

16.5 Conclusion

References

17 Commercialization of Nanovaccines: Utopia or a Reality?

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Development of Nanovaccines

17.3 Novel Adjuvants and Delivery System for Nanovaccines

17.4 Success Story

17.5 Nanovaccines in Human Health

17.6 Nanovaccines in Animal Health

17.7 Constraints in the Development and Application

17.8 Issues Related to Product Application

17.9 Characteristics of Nanoparticles Applicable to Public Health

17.10 Conclusion

References

18 Functionalization of Nanobiomaterials in Nanovaccinology

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Characteristics of Functionalized Bionanoparticles

18.3 Functionalization of NPs

18.4 Nanomaterials for Vaccine Synthesis

18.5 Role of the Surface of NPs on Vaccine Development

18.6 Nanovaccines: Routes of Administration

18.7 Nanovaccines for Different Applications

18.8 Emulsions

18.9 Nanogels

18.10 Virus-Like Particles (VLP)

18.11 Applications of Novel Nanovaccines

18.12 Applications of Functionalized Nanovaccines

18.13 Pros and Cons of Using Vaccines

18.14 Future Aspects

18.15 Conclusions

References

19 Oral Nanovaccines Delivery for Clinical Trials and Commercialization

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Barriers to Oral Vaccines

19.3 Evolution of Oral Nanovaccines

19.4 Oral Delivery of Nanovaccines

19.5 Immune Response to Oral Nanovaccines

19.6 Oral Nanovaccines Carriers

19.7 Formulation Strategies and Characterization of Oral Nanovaccines

19.8 Regulations and Challenges for Oral Nanovaccines Delivery

19.9 Future Perspectives

19.10 Conclusion

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 A list of targeted delivery tools used against pathogens and diseases.

Table 2.2 Some commercial nanomaterial products approved by FDA and EMA.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Types of nanovaccines against superbugs.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 WHO-approved SARS-CoV2 vaccines.

Table 4.2 SARS-CoV2 vaccines in Phase 4 clinical trials.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Antibacterial effect of 2C6NA nanocrystals.

Table 8.2 Fungal approach of 2C6NA nanocrystals.

Table 8.3 Antioxidant and antidiabetic data of 2C6NA nanocrystals.

Table 8.4 Details of samples received for the study.

Table 8.5 Concentrations used for the study.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Data of SXRD of BGLBMH crystals.

Table 9.2 Milling of BGLBMH crystals for nanoscaling.

Table 9.3 AD of macro, nano BGLBMH crystals.

Table 9.4 Influx of macro, nano BGLBMH crystals.

Table 9.5 AO of macro, nano BGLBMH crystals.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Energy densities of crystals of N2MNM4MBH.

Table 10.2 Antidiabetic effects of both scales.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 ZnO-MIZN—antibacterial activity.

Table 11.2 Phase composition, structural, and microstructural parameters as obta...

Table 11.3 Magnetic properties of biogenic ZnO nano powders.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Interaction energies and surface info of 2F5NA.

Table 12.2 Biouses of 2F5NA crystals.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Antidiabetic data for macro and nano AMPHB crystals.

Table 13.2 Anti-inflammatory data for macro and nano AMPHB crystals.

Table 13.3 Anti-fungal activity for macro and nano AMPHB crystals.

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 XRD of CPDMDP macro crystals.

Table 14.2 Influx of macro, nano CPDMDP crystals.

Table 14.3 AD of macro, nano CPDMDP crystals.

Table 14.4 AO of macro, nano CPDMDP crystals.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Results of viability test for HeLa cell line after treatment by AgNPs...

Table 16.2 Bactericidal activity of silver nanoparticles synthesized by Mangifer...

Table 16.3 Fungicidal activity of silver nanoparticles synthesized by Mangifera ...

Chapter 18

Table 18.1 NPs associated nanovaccines and their applications.

Table 18.2 Natural andsynthetic sources of nanovaccines.

Chapter 19

Table 19.1 Commercially available oral vaccines with details.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 The interactions of NPs with the target antigen. Reproduced (adapted)...

Figure 1.2 Antigens are delivered to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) using surfa...

Figure 1.3 The size comparison of various biological systems used in nanovaccino...

Figure 1.4 A schematic illustration of various NPs that have been used as vaccin...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 An illustration of key nanomaterial-based drug delivery tools.

Figure 2.2 A schematic showing the nanomaterial-based targeted delivery of drug/...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Schematic representation of biomimetic membranes and adjuvants as vac...

Figure 3.2 Schematic representation of outer membrane vesicle (OMV) coated AuNPs...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Types of biomimetic nanovaccines [10].

Figure 4.2 Schematic representation of separable microneedle patch [19].

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 (a) FE-SEM image, and (b) dynamic light scattering data of the nanova...

Figure 5.2

In vitro

cumulative release of lipopolysaccharides (antigen) (blue) a...

Figure 5.3 Mucoadhesion exhibited by the nanovaccine (NV) in comparison to xylog...

Figure 5.4 AFM microscope three-dimensional images: (a) PLGA (Uncoated nanoparti...

Scheme 5.1 Combining mannose receptor-mediated nanovaccines and gene-regulated P...

Scheme 5.2 Schematic showing BTs as nanovaccines for cancer immunotherapy. (a) T...

Scheme 5.3 Schematic illustration for vaccine delivery processes after IV and SC...

Figure 5.5 Schematic illustration to show the structure of (a) tumor CM@CaPyro N...

Figure 5.6 Schematic of the tannic acid-formulated nanovaccine and the process o...

Figure 5.7 Characterization of the conjugates. (a) Representative TEM image of a...

Figure 5.8 Characterization of Gold nanoparticles (GN-particles). Transmission E...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Advantages of nanocarriers in vaccines for cancer therapy.

Figure 6.2 Pathways in cancer immunotherapy.

Figure 6.3 Mechanism of action of nanovaccines.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Molecule and ball, space filling of 2C4NA crystal [50–52].

Figure 7.2 ORTEP of 2C4NA crystal [50–52].

Figure 7.3 ORTEP—unit cell of 2C4NA crystal [50–52].

Figure 7.4 3 × 3 × 3 Super cell lattice of 2C4NA crystal [50–52].

Figure 7.5 20 nm nanotubular of 2C4NA crystal [50–52].

Figure 7.6 Vanderwall’s medium of 2C4NA crystal [50–52].

Figure 7.7 Miller’s indices 4 × 4 × 4 unit cell 4 × 4 × 4 of 2C4NA crystal [50–5...

Figure 7.8 Miller’s indices dipeptide linked of 2C4NA crystal [50–52].

Figure 7.9 Hirshfield finger printed effect of 2C4NA crystal [50–52].

Figure 7.10 FL 379 nm—nanoscaled 2C4NA crystal.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Molecular structural of 2C6NA crystals [50–52].

Figure 8.2 Ball and stick of 2C6NA crystals [50–52].

Figure 8.3 Space filled of 2C6NA crystals [50–52].

Figure 8.4 Atibacterial activity of 2C6NA nanocrystals.

Figure 8.5 HeLa cell of 26CNA of 25, 100, 400 microg/ml.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 PXRD of BGLBMH crystals.

Figure 9.2 FL of nano BGLBMH crystals.

Figure 9.3 Software based thermal ellipsoidal plot-promolecular generation syste...

Figure 9.4 Software based thermal ellipsoidal plot-promolecular generation syste...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Unit cell by ORTEP [50–52].

Figure 10.2 4 × 4 × 4 super lattice [50–52].

Figure 10.3 16 nm nano tubular effect on N2MNM4MBH [50–52].

Figure 10.4 Energized titled crystal with colored effect by software [50–52].

Figure 10.5 Ribbon structure of N2MNM4MBH crystals [50–52].

Figure 10.6 COX structure [50–52].

Figure 10.7 COX ribbon structure bonded with molecule of N2MNM4MBH crystals [50–...

Figure 10.8 Cyclooxygenase with ball orientation with crystal [50–52].

Figure 10.9 AA of diabetic representation of titled crystal of both scalings.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Bio activity of ZnO NPs—

E. coli

.

Figure 11.2 Bio activity of ZnO NPs—

S. aureus

.

Figure 11.3 PXRD of MIZN NPs.

Figure 11.4 Evolution of XRD patterns of biogenic MIZN NPs.

Figure 11.5 Magnetization-field hysteresis curves of biogenic MIZN-NPs.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 2F5NA crystals—molecular model.

Figure 12.2 2F5NA crystals—unit cell [50–52].

Figure 12.3 2F5NA crystals—3D crystal model.

Figure 12.4 2F5NA crystals—3 × 3 × 3 model [50–52].

Figure 12.5 2F5NA crystals—HFA without surface effect.

Figure 12.6 2F5NA crystals—HFA d

i

effect [50–52].

Figure 12.7 2F5NA crystals—HFA d

e

effect.

Figure 12.8 2F5NA crystals—HFA d

norms

effect [50–52].

Figure 12.9 2F5NA crystals—shape index effect.

Figure 12.10 2F5NA crystals—HFA curvedness effect [50–52].

Figure 12.11 2F5NA crystals—fragment patched effect.

Figure 12.12 2F5NA crystals—fingerprint effect [50–52].

Figure 12.13 2F5NA crystals—peptide link effect [50–52].

Figure 12.14 2F5NA crystals—nanotube with acidic link effect [50–52].

Figure 12.15 2F5NA crystals—weak interactions [50–52].

Figure 12.16 2F5NA crystals—5 × 5 × 5 slab [50–52].

Figure 12.17 (a, b) 2F5NA crystals—Ortep of crystal and unit cell frame work wit...

Figure 12.18 2F5NA crystals—interactions mapping with different energies [50–52]...

Figure 12.19 Void, electron, deformed densities, potential and frontier orbitals...

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Nanotubular fabricated AMPHB crystals with order in 20 nm scaling [5...

Figure 13.2 Thermal ellipsoidal 50% of AMPHB crystalline molecule [50–52].

Figure 13.3 Acidic frame built on crystal structure of AMPHB [50–52].

Figure 13.4 Peptide bonds in the G framed network of the crystal proceed for rot...

Figure 13.5 Vanderwall’s efficiency of AMPHB by software—projection, force field...

Figure 13.6 AMPHB—optimized force field for the fabricated device with crystal [...

Figure 13.7 Cloned effect with electron density of AMPHB by software [50–52].

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Molecule–CPDMDP—Ball and stick depiction.

Figure 14.2 CPDMDP—3D effect [50–52].

Figure 14.3 CPDMDP—Halosian effect.

Figure 14.4 Molecule—50% Vanderwall’s plan [50–52].

Figure 14.5 CPDMDP—Unit cell of 0.1Å with 1x pixel size and box bounded with 0.5...

Figure 14.6 CPDMDP—Nano tubular generation built with C-H atoms of 2 × 3 order [...

Figure 14.7 CPDMDP—Hirshfeld analysis with finger print effectiveness [50–52].

Figure 14.8 CPDMDP—Vanderwall’s effect with coloured potential effect [50–52].

Figure 14.9 CPDMDP—Super crystal lattice with 3 × 3 × 3 scheme (a) Crystalline v...

Figure 14.10 CPDMDP – Crystalline voids, electron density and deformation densit...

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 (a), (b) Molecular diagram and unit cell by software for 4M2NA cryst...

Figure 15.2 3D-pattern for 4M2NA crystals [50–52].

Figure 15.3 Solvent surface for 4M2NA crystals.

Figure 15.4 Molecular potential for 4M2NA crystals [50–52].

Figure 15.5 (a) Hirshfeld - dnorms for 4M2NA crystals, (b) Hirshfeld - di for 4M...

Figure 15.6 (a) Hirshfeld—curvedness for 4M2NA crystals, (b) Hirshfeld—fragmente...

Figure 15.7 Hirshfeld—finger print whole for internal Vs external for 4M2NA crys...

Figure 15.8 Hirshfeld—crystal voids for 4M2NA crystals [50–52].

Figure 15.9a Hirshfeld—electron density for 4M2NA crystals [50–52].

Figure 15.9b Hirshfeld—deformation density for 4M2NA crystals [50–52].

Figure 15.9c Hirshfeld—electrostatic potential for 4M2NA crystals [50–52].

Figure 15.10a Super cell lattice of 4 × 4 × 4 of 3 axes for 4M2NA crystals [50–5...

Figure 15.10b Acidic framework and peptide linkage for 4M2NA crystals [50–52].

Figure 15.11 Optimized force field for 4M2NA crystals [50–52].

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 The evolution of conventional vaccines and nanovaccines.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

Begin Reading

Index

End User License Agreement

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Scrivener Publishing

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Publishers at Scrivener

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Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Nanovaccinology as Targeted Therapeutics

Edited by

Kaushik Pal

University Centre for Research and Development (UCRD), Department of Physics, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India

This edition first published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA

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Preface

Nanovaccinology as Targeted Therapeutics explores recent breakthroughs in the exciting new field of micro- and nanofabricated engineered nanomaterials. In addition to spectroscopic characterizations, significant topics for interdisciplinary research, especially in the fields of nanogels, which deal with polymer chemistry, nanotechnology, materials science, pharmaceuticals, and medicine are explored, where their small dimensions prove highly advantageous. Nanovaccinology could potentially revolutionize conventional therapy and diagnostic methods due to its superior effectiveness over its macro-sized counterparts in almost all biomedical areas. Strong interest in this novel class of material has driven many studies to discover biogenic production methods and new areas of potential utilization in this area. Therefore, it is important to keep abreast of the development of these biomedical research aspects highlighted in the 19 chapters of this book written in diverse fields of studies, and their emerging applications utilized in next-generation techniques.

The last few decades have witnessed progress being made in the treatment of chronic human diseases via precise site-specific drug delivery. Infectious diseases are the leading cause of deaths worldwide, having a significant impact on public health and the socioeconomic development of the human population. The serious threat to public health and safety posed by the rapid development of drug resistance by pathogens to currently available therapies, as well as the significant side effects that result from their prolonged treatment, are reviewed throughout this book. In addition, trends and future prospects of tools utilized in nanomedicine and nanovaccinology research for targeted drug delivery are explored as well.

In Chapter 1, a special emphasis is given to the investigations exploring recent achievements of polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, emulsions, and carbon-based nanomaterials in vaccine delivery systems. The biocompatibility, toxicity, and stability of nanotechnology-based vaccine delivery systems are also discussed. Chapter 2 discusses novel biomedical therapy approaches to nanomedicine and nanovaccine drug delivery tools, which, although relatively new, are transforming biomedical research at a rapid pace. They are critical platforms for controlled delivery of therapeutic drugs to the targeted sites. Chapter 3 is a unique attempt to analyze the possibilities of producing nanovaccines against notorious superbugs that pose a serious threat to humans, as many of the currently available antibiotics are not effective in treating the diseases they cause. Nanotoxoids, liposomes, VLPs, OMVs, etc., are included in some of the approaches to get biomimetic nanovaccines. Their advantages and limitations when compared to traditional vaccines are progressively illustrated.

Chapter 4 highlights the fact that nanotechnology has accelerated the evolution of newer vaccines that are safe and highly effective in eradicating SARS-CoV2. Simultaneously, nanovaccines have recently been developed in which new drugs can be accommodated through nanoparticle carriers. The similar nanosize of the nano-scaled materials and pathogens ensures optimal trigger response of the immune system, resulting in satisfactory cellular and humoral immunity responses. Targeted delivery of nanoparticles results in enhanced antibody response, improved stability coupled with longer duration drug release and prolonged immunogenic memory. Chapter 5 looks at the usefulness of nanovaccines for treatment of the deadliest diseases, including cancer, tumors, bacterial, viral and parasitic diseases, and autoimmune diseases. Moreover, it also provides information about the importance of nanoscience in the invention of various safe, potent, stable, inert and biocompatible drug discoveries.

Chapter 6 focuses on the current preclinical and clinical trials in nanoimaging and nanovaccines that are applicable to cancer immunotherapy. The recent advances in anti-cancer nanovaccines using nanocarriers constitute a delivery breakthrough expected to play a vital role in improving the stability and immunogenicity of antigens. Chapter 7 demonstrates a novel way of using nanoscale 2C4N crystals against diabetes, fungal, and inflammatory diseases, and for drug analysis with optimization; and gives the order of the lattice with ORTEP. Chapter 8 illustrates the ways in which the presence of aniline in a compound enhances antidiabetic, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory activity, which is a novel trend in recent work for nanocrystalline specimen with an IC50 value of 43 nm.

Chapter 9 denotes the recent use of macro- and nanoscale crystals of BGLBMH mainly as a novel antidiabetic agent as well as antioxidant utility with its monoclinic, P21/c form of system with band gap of 3.139 eV. Chapter 10 focuses on the organic, crystalline N2MNM4MBH efficacy at a macro/nano-level for drug use in alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase enzymes against diabetes. Chapter 11 discusses the use of ZnO nanoparticles from Mangifera indica as ZnO-MIZN for E. coli, S. typhi and S. aureusinhibition zones in mm and for novel biouse as antibiotic and antidiabetic agents. Chapter 12 discusses the novel use of 2F5NA crystals in nanotube production, and antidiabetic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory interactive lattice with HF/B3LYP.

Chapter 13 discusses the use of 2-Amino-4-methylpyridinium 4-hydroxybenzoate (AMPHB) crystalline macro- and nano-scaling for nanotube generation as well as device fabrication, and as an antidiabetic, antifungal and anti-inflammatory therapeutic. Chapter 14 describes a crystalline sample of CPDMDP with base monoclinic system used for computational interaction that acts as a novel base for antidiabetic and antioxidant vaccine, with the presence of pyrazole. Chapter 15 discusses the novel modus operandi of preparing a 4M2NA crystalline sample by evaporation for an antidiabetic–insulin response and an antifungal, anti-inflammation effect with proper optimization. Chapter 16 discusses the use of Mangifera indica–AgO-MIZN of 43 nm used as a vaccine/drug for cancer and bacterial and fungal infections.

Chapter 17 discusses the recently surfaced nanotechnology used to resolve vaccine failures that mainly arise as a result of weak immunogenicity of vaccines, in-vivo instability, the need for multiple jabs, and toxicity. Liposomes, emulsions, polymeric nanoparticles, and graphene oxide nanosheets are some examples of nanovaccines. The chapter more or less summarizes the hopes as well as the gaps that need to be filled in order to achieve the targeted proposals. Chapter 18 implies that the old vaccine strategy fundamentally involves the method of utilizing either inactivated (killed) or live attenuated antigens. Live attenuated vaccines for clinical disease arise from mutated/same genotypes, while nanoparticles with higher surface properties enable them to strengthen the immune system and immunological response. Finally, Chapter 19 comprehensively covers the evolution of nanovaccines and their morphology, carriers used, formulation as well as characterization, and the role of nanovaccines in immunotherapy, with an emphasis on recent advances.

Though development of nanovaccines is still in the infancy stage, with only a few in the early phases of clinical trials, we firmly believe this new generation of vaccines has great potential for the prevention and treatment of many diseases. The information provided in this book further highlights some of the improvements in this span of work, focusing on the factors that limit nanovaccines’ efficiency in optimization. Remarkable strategies to employ assemblies of the various biogenic schemes of nanovaccines are also illustrated in this book. Thus, it may become clear to all readers that vaccinology‐enabled renewable energy technologies are starting to scale up dramatically. As it matures and becomes more cost-effective in the decades to come, bio-nanotechnology could eventually replace the traditional, environmentally unfriendly biomaterials and improve the performance of the biogenic industry through utilization of nanomedicine to manufacture nontoxic, highly durable materials that are cost-effective. To aid in this discovery process, this book provides an overview of key current developments that will direct future research attempts towards utilization of such tailored nanovaccinology that will play an essential role in achieving the desired goal of cheap and efficient vaccine production.

This book also covers the hottest topics based on nanovaccinology applications in the field of therapeutics and nanodetectors as per biomedical applications. It is enhanced by the welcomed contributions of biotechnologists, nanotechnologists, biochemists, medical biologists, pharmacists, materials scientists as well as academicians and research scholars. There is every indication that with appropriate liability and regulation along-side the topics, commercial production of manufactured novel composite materials can be realized. Furthermore, the diverse brilliant innovations and explorations highlighted throughout the entire book can modulate spectroscopic performances with technical excellence in the inter- and cross-multidisciplinary research of high competence.

Lastly, I would like to express my overwhelming gratitude to all the authors and co-authors for their excellent research contributions to this book. I also wish to thank the entire team at Wiley-Scrivener for their consistent support during even the most difficult stages of its publication. I am confident that within a short period of time the eBook series will be very popular in university and institute libraries worldwide, and hopefully will be highly cited in coming years.

Dr. Kaushik PalMay 2022

1Nanotechnology in Vaccine Development and Constraints

Tahmina Foyez1and Abu Bin Imran2*

1Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Health and Life Sciences, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

2Department of Chemistry, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Abstract

Generally, vaccinations are the most efficient prophylactic measures against infectious diseases. Despite the obvious advantages of vaccines, optimizations are required due to poor immunogenicity, instability, toxic effect, and the necessity for multiple dose of a vaccine. Nanotechnology have currently been introduced into vaccination research to address these difficulties. The nanotechnology in vaccine development can improve immune responses. Particle size at the nanoscale is critical for this benefit. Nanoparticles (NPs) used in the formulation of vaccine can improve stability of antigen and immunogenicity while also allowing for targeted distribution. A variety of NPs vaccines have been permitted for human use, with composition, size, shape, and surface qualities. However, obstacles are present because of a lack of proper knowledge of NPs activity in vivo, which can be used as a delivery mechanism to improve antigen processing to boost immunity. We have discussed the recent achievements of nanotechnology in vaccine delivery systems in this chapter, emphasizing the different carriers, such as polymeric NPs, liposomes, emulsions, and carbon-based nanomaterials. The basic knowledge of in vivo biocompatibility, toxicity, and stability of nanotechnology-based vaccine delivery systems has also been discussed.

Keywords: Nanotechnology, nanovaccinology, antigen, antibody, nanoparticles

1.1 Introduction

Currently, infectious diseases are the primary cause of mortality. They are caused by microorganisms like viruses, bacteria, fungi, or other parasites. The human immune system fights and removes foreign invading particles [1, 2]. A vaccine is a living, dead, attenuated, inactivated form of a pathogenic microbe, such as a bacterium or virus, or a component of the pathogenic microbe’s structure, which enhances antibody production in the host body but is incapable of causing severe illness [3]. It develops immunity to control and adjust our immune systems from over-reactivity or underactivity [4, 5]. Vaccines have become an everyday part of life, providing a high-impact benefit to human by preventing or managing a wide range of diseases. Vaccine development has a long and glorious history that started late in the 18th century. Louis Pasteur’s laboratory’s first attempts to vaccine development [6]. The development of vaccines is crucial to the successful control of many deadly diseases. However, efficient preventative and therapeutic vaccinations for totally healing lethal diseases and major microbial infections have yet to be produced. On the other hand, critical challenges that need to be addressed include the design, manufacture, and global distribution of vaccines. To design a vaccine, the antigen, adjuvant, manufacturing method, and delivery strategy should be established. Antigen is a pathogen-derived foreign substance that can elicit an immunological response within the host. A vaccine can be classified into four types based on its antigen: live-attenuated vaccine, inactivated vaccine, subunit vaccine, and peptide-based vaccine. Adjuvants are immunomodulatory agents that are used to boost immune reaction. The first adjuvant, aluminum was designed to boost the production of antibodies, making it an excellent choice for vaccine development [7, 8]. If genetic and structural information about microorganisms is known, vaccinations can be developed quickly. Nanotechnology platforms are particularly beneficial in current vaccine development and have accelerated the testing of novel prospective vaccines. Recently nanoparticles (NPs), as vaccine delivery vehicles, have received tremendous attention. Nanovaccine formulations not only improve antigen integrity and immunity, but they also provide selective distribution and sustained release. A wide range of NPs antigens with varying physicochemical properties have been authorized for clinical use [9–11]. The primary goal of using NPs delivery methods is to delay antigen presentation and uptake by dendritic cells (DCs), resulting in immediate DC activation [9, 11, 12]. Antigen and adjuvant are also protected from early enzyme and protease degradation by NPs [13]. Vaccine antigens can be administered to the target site by enclosing them in NPs or conjugated particles (Figure 1.1). NPs can be designed with peptide, protein, polymer, and other targeting ligands for vaccine formulations due to their unique physical and chemical properties, including as greater surface area, variable shape and size with various surface charges, and other targeting ligands. Although NPs have the benefits listed above, they also have drawbacks, such as a lack of mechanical stability under physiological conditions due to protein corona development and unfavorable interactions with the endothelial system [14, 15]. Biocompatible NPs have improved physical stability while avoiding unwanted interactions with immune cells and boosting blood supply [16, 17], which imitate biological membranes. The nanovaccines that use carrier biomimetic NPs allow prolonged circulation and avoid cytotoxicity when delivered to the body [18].

Figure 1.1 The interactions of NPs with the target antigen. Reproduced (adapted) from [19]. Copyright 2013, Elsevier.

Nanotechnology has opened the way for developing novel vaccines based on nanomaterials, which have unique qualities and serve as antigenic delivery systems and immunomodulatory substances. Multiple research groups in the area are developing nanovaccines for a variety of diseases, and tremendous advantages from this nanotechnology are expected in the coming decades for both animal and human health.

1.2 Nanoparticles, an Alternative Approach to Conventional Vaccines

As an alternative to traditional vaccinations, the utilization of NPs exhibiting relevant antigenic moieties seems promising. These NPs might come from biological or synthetic sources. Inorganic NPs, polymer NPs, liposomes, virus-like particles (VLPs) NPs, and self-assembled protein NPs are among the antigen carriers currently being studied (Figure 1.2). Many biological systems, including infectious agents and biomolecules, are nanoscale in size [20]. NPs have been injected subcutaneously or intramuscularly, and they have the ability to pass through capillaries [21]. Recent advancements have made it possible to create NPs with distinct physical and chemical characteristics. The shape, size, solubility, surface composition, and so on can all be tuned and manipulated, allowing for the development of NPs with particular biological features. They can also be engineered to include a variety of compounds, including antigens, making them extremely valuable in vaccine development [22, 23]. Antigens can be incorporated into NPs through encapsulation or conjugation [24]. The native structure of antigens can be protected against proteolytic breakdown by NPs, and antigen transportation to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) can be improved [25]. Furthermore, NPs containing antigens have a local depot effect to ensure the presence of antigens in immune cells for a longer period of time [26]. Interestingly, carbon black (CB) NPs, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), poly lactic-co glycolic acid (PLGA) NPs, titanium dioxide (TiO2) NPs, and silicon dioxide (SiO2) NPs have all been shown to exhibit intrinsic immunomodulatory properties [27]. In point of fact, once ingested by APCs, these NPs transmit a signal that promote proteolytic degradation and the induction of oxidative stress, resulting in the release of lysosomal contents [28, 29]. These features indicate that NPs could be useful antigen transporters and innate immune stimulators in vaccinations.

Figure 1.2 Antigens are delivered to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) using surface-engineered NPs. Reproduced (adapted) from [30]. Copyright 2018, Frontiers.

1.3 Nanoparticles as Vaccine Delivery Vehicle

Liposomes, NPs having a phospholipid bilayer, have been used in the pharmaceutical industry since 1960 [31]. NPs have a diameter of 1 to 100 nm (Figure 1.3), whereas antigens or DNA segments have 1 to 10 nm [32]. Therefore, they are susceptible to being absorbed by biological systems, and it is the first step in eliciting immunogenicity. A nanovaccine is composed of NPs and can be composed of protein, lipid, metals, polymers, and other materials. The positive strategy of nanovaccines allows for not only antigen enhancement but also vaccine stability, immunogenicity, and effective target delivery. Due to advancements in nanovaccinology, many nanovaccines have already been licensed for clinical use, and others are in clinical trials [33–35]. Adjuvants and multiepitope antigens may be effectively co-delivered into target cells and APCs using nanovaccines, and the release of antigen in the cytoplasm and antigen cross-presentation can be precisely controlled.

Figure 1.3 The size comparison of various biological systems used in nanovaccinology. Reproduced (adapted) from [36]. Copyright 2016, IntechOpen.

1.4 Nanotechnology to Tackle the Challenges of Vaccine Delivery

1.4.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles

Polymeric NPs can be made by polymerizing monomeric units or by using synthesized polymers. The customizable qualities, size, composition, and surface properties of these NPs make them appealing in the medical industry because they allow for regulated release and drug molecule protection [37]. Poly (lactic acid) (PLA), poly (glutamic acid) (PGA), PLGA, and chitosan are the most frequently used polymeric NPs for vaccine formulation [19]. The chemical structure of polymeric NPs is designed to behave differently in different environments to control the release rate. The function and uses of other polymeric NPs vary substantially depending on the inherent chemical and biological effects in distinct materials [38]. PLGA is a biodegradable and biocompatible polymer that can undergo in vivo hydrolysis [39] and encapsulate and release different biomolecules over time [40–42]. Under physiological conditions, these NPs may incorporate antigens and inhibit their destruction for one month, which is crucial for vaccination [43]. Furthermore, PLGA NPs promote antigen processing and display to susceptible cells by promoting antigen uptake by APCs [44]. Other NPs, chitosan, and N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide/N-isopropyl acrylamide were also investigated as vaccines preparation [45–47]. Chitosan is a favorable and promising polymer for DNA vaccine formulation because of its cationic character, which allows attachment to the DNA, generating DNA–polymer interactions that protect DNA from enzyme hydrolysis. It is indeed extremely hydrophobic, inactive, and non-immunogenic, with bio adhesive properties that facilitate mucosal vaccination techniques. Chitosan has been further discovered to have natural adjuvant properties, stimulating dendritic cell maturation to enhance T helper 1 (Th1) responses [48]. Over the years, multiple developments have resulted from chitosan-based NPs delivery technology, including a therapeutic potential anti-tumor papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine [49], treatment methods for influenza A [50], highly contagious myocarditis [51], and some livestock diseases such as Newcastle disease (ND) virus [52, 53] and Noda virus [54]. Polymeric NPs have biocompatibility, antigen encapsulation and stability, regulated release of antigens, cellular retention in APCs, microbe characteristics, and delivery feasibility [55–57]. As the research advancements of polymer science continue, vaccine technologies will develop accordingly.

1.4.2 Inorganic Nanoparticles

Inorganic NPs have sparked a lot of interest in vaccine formulation because of their simplicity in drug loading and bioactivity properties. Furthermore, their thermochemical stability makes sterilization easier [58]. Inorganic materials are relatively nontoxic and can be manufactured in a variety of sizes, forms, and dimensions. Gold (Au) NPs are a popular inorganic nanomaterial used in vaccine delivery because of decreasing toxicity, increasing immunogenic activity, and providing vaccine storage stability [59]. Another extensively investigated composition for vaccine delivery is carbon NPs [60] which has good biocompatibility [61, 62]. Protein and peptide antigens can be coupled on CNTs for delivery, which has increased IgG response levels [62–65]. Mesoporous carbon NPs have been studied for use as an adjuvant in vaccinations [62]. Silica is another promising material for nanovaccinology because of its biocompatibility and having excellent properties as nanocarriers. Silica NPs’ size and form can be altered selectively to regulate their cellular interaction [66]. Many silanol groups on surface are advantageous for introducing additional functionalities, such as cell recognition, biomolecule absorption, improved cell contact, and cellular uptake [67–69]. It is revealed that DNA vaccine incorporated into SiO2-layered double hydroxide induces antibody response as well as boosts T-cell multiplication and pushes T helper (Th1) cells toward Th1 activation [70]. Superparamagnetic iron oxide NPs (SPIONs) is another inorganic material for nanovaccinology. SPION-based vaccine delivery system is modified to improve the stability of vector and APC targeting ability to ensure prolonged exposure in the target area [71]. Other nanomaterials have been used as vaccine delivery vectors and adjuvants, including silver (Ag) NPs and calcium phosphate NPs [71, 72].

1.4.3 Biomolecular Nanoparticles

The biomolecular materials have a number of advantages that make them attractive candidates for synthetic vaccine preparation. They are biologically inspired systems that are built on the basis of biomolecules. Biomolecular materials benefit from transporting a range of carriers and displaying diverse moieties on their surfaces [19]. Although a number of biomolecular NPs have been investigated, liposomes, virus-like particles (VLPs), micelles, and immunestimulating complexes (ISCOMs) (Figure 1.4) are the four most widely used materials for vaccine applications [60].

Figure 1.4 A schematic illustration of various NPs that have been used as vaccinations [60]. Reproduced (adapted) from [60]. Copyright 2013, Frontiers.

1.4.4 Liposome

Liposomes are sphere NPs comprised of lipid layers [73] which are formed when lipids with a hydrophilic part and a hydrophobic part combine in water. Liposomes can encapsulate a variety of medications and be utilized for regulated delivery for their substantial therapeutic uses [74]. There has been a lot of research done on liposomes and their vaccine potential. Liposomes have the advantage of being able to be modified to obtain desired immunostimulatory effects. A unique nanovaccine system targets inflammatory cells and increases innate immunity to T cells against a mimic antigen created by modifying liposomes to have lectin binding mannose on their surface and trapping monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) adjuvant [75]. While liposomes have been used to administer vaccines against various infections, one particularly intriguing application is tuberculosis prophylaxis, a fatal disease [76]. Virosomes have been used in clinical trials for a number of preventive purposes, including tetanus and hepatitis B vaccinations [77]. It is recently shown that virosomal immunizations could be programmed to selectively activate T lymphocytes, improving immunization protection against influenza infection [78].

1.4.5 Virus-Like Particles

Another biomolecular NPs known as VLP has a typical virus shape but lacks viral genome, rendering them inactive and unable of replication. They quickly and effectively produce a strong and prolong immunological response in the host [79]. Hepatitis B protection is provided first with a VLP-based human vaccination[80]. VLPs have recently been used as vehicles for several human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines. According to a recent study, HPV vaccinations based on VLPs elicit a strong cross-protective antibody response [81]. During chronic infection, cytotoxic T cells are essential for removing damaged cells and regulating microbe load. They can really be highly effective in vaccines because they target the T-cell response.

1.4.6 Micelles

The cores of micelles, another type of biomolecular NPs, are hydrophobic in contrast to liposomes and VLPs [82]. They are widely used with weakly water-soluble drugs delivery or encapsulated amphiphilic compounds [83]. Micelles have been used in two different ways as vaccine delivery systems. First, protein vaccines may be simply covalently attached to the hydrophilic micelle. HIV vaccines have been attached to adjuvant-loaded micelles using this approach, resulting in significant APC activation in vitro [84]. Model peptide antigens coupled to polymer-lipid microspheres are demonstrated to attach protein albumin and travel to the lymphatic vessels, where they significantly raise T-cell numbers and act as an anticancer vaccination [85]. Endosome disruption can be triggered by polymer-based micelles, allowing vaccines to be transported to the cytoplasm, resulting in significant cytotoxic T-cell responses [86]. Molecules with similar or identical hydrophobic moieties can also be self-assembled and form heterogeneous micelles. This phenomenon has been utilized to create protein amphiphile microspheres capable of transporting several antigens to the same cell [87].

1.4.7 Immunostimulating Complexes

ISCOMs are biomolecular structures. They are made up of cholesterols, phospholipids, and Quil A saponins. ISCOMs have an immunostimulatory effect because they contain Quil A saponins, which are well-known adjuvants. ISCOMs have been studied for around 35 years to be highly effective as a synthetic vaccine [88]. Still, they can cause significant, unfavorable injection-site reactions [89], limiting their use to animal vaccinations [90]. ISCOMA-TRIX is identical to the traditional ISCOM except that the Quil A saponins are first filtered to give a specified group of saponins that do not induce substantial inflammation [91]. ISCOMA-TRIX has been demonstrated to produce immune responses in mice and rabbits [92].

1.4.8 Self-Assembled Proteins (SAPNs)

SAPNs are 20–30 nm icosahedrons. For the manufacture of NPs-based vaccinations, self-assembling technologies promote higher levels of protein quaternary structure. By genetic engineering technique, attaching the influenza virus with ferrintin, researchers could generate a stronger immunological response than the flu vaccine [93]. Another protein is the major vault protein (MVP). For studies of mucosal immunity, Vault NPs are utilized [94]. SAPNs have been shown to improve immunity in a various of diseases, including malaria [95], HIV [96], toxoplasma [97], and severe acute respiratory syndrome [98]. Then encapsulate two HIV protein epitopes onto SAPN surface produce epitope-specific neutralizing antibodies more efficiently. This suggests that SAPN could be used as a nanovaccine to trigger an immunological response against HIV [96].

1.4.9 Emulsions

Nano-sized emulsions are another type of NPs used as an adjuvant in vaccinations [99–101]. These NPs can be found with sizes ranging from 50 to 600 nm. It can either contain antigens in their core for optimal vaccination administration or be combined with the antigen [101]. MF59TM, an oil-in-water emulsion, which has been approved as a safe and effective vaccine adjuvant [102, 103], is one of the most regularly used emulsions. It has been undergone extensive research for application in influenza vaccines [103–105]. Another example is Montanide™ that has been used in Malaria vaccines [106, 107] and vaccines for foot-and-mouth disease [108]. Noncovalent click self-assembly has been used to produce a tailorable nanosized emulsion platform technology for antigen and medication delivery [109].

1.5 Constraints and Challenges of Nanovaccines

A successful vaccine requires a solid understanding of the physiological and immunological characteristics of any disease. Nanovaccines are widely using for treating numerous infectious and non-infectious diseases; their efficiency in stimulating our immune response to infections may be expected to be more significant. Understanding the properties of NPs and how they interact with cells can help to develop safer nanovaccines. NPs have toxicity, which must be addressed judiciously to maximize their utilization. The toxic effects and immunological responses generated by NPs are influenced by their composition, size, charge, shape, hydrophobicity, and route of exposure. NPs cause cellular injury in a size-dependent manner because smaller nanoparticles are more active, they can do more damage. NPs can easily penetrate alveoli, where they can aggregate and cause pulmonary inflammation [110, 111]. On the other hand, repetitive exposure to NPs damages the lung cells, allowing them to penetrate blood vessels and travel from lung tissue to other organs via systemic circulation. The shape of NPs plays a role in their toxicity; for example, nanofibers are shown to be more cytotoxic than spherical NPs of the same composition [112]. NPs with a low solubility or disintegration rate accumulate in cells and tissues, where they persist for a long time, such as rat nasal exposure to Au NPs lasted 15 days. Ag NPs aggregates accumulated in the lungs for 7 days [113]. NPs that penetrate the cell can increase the reactive oxygen species (ROS). The accumulating ROS interacts with the protein machinery of cell, affecting all metabolic activities in the cell. They also exhibit mitochondrial toxicity and nuclear DNA damage. Apoptosis occurs when a cell is exposed in this way [114]. As a result, high concentrations of NPs or their accumulation cause disturbance of cellular homeostasis. It can be concluded that NPs may cause tissue damage, resulting in local and systemic pathophysiological disorders. Some of the drawbacks of nanovaccines are related to their stability [115]. Increased production of nanovaccines is also an important concern due to their activity and cost-effective manufacturing process. Several loading of various components, such as antigens and adjuvants in a single nanoplatform, is complex and becoming more complicated. These drawbacks can cause side effects and/or poor immunogenicity, making them unsuitable for clinical use. Furthermore, the understanding of the details on how NPs interact with immune cells is not adequate. In fact, their adjuvant effect and ability to activate the immune system are still unknown at the molecular level and need to be better understood [116]. As a result, a deep study of nanotoxicity, immune response, and excretion of NPs over time should be conducted for safety and reliability purposes.

1.6 Concluding Remarks

A new approach of NPs-based vaccines has revealed remarkable potential in addressing the majority of the limitations of the existing vaccines. NPs can be used as an alternative adjuvant for both humans and animals. They work as both an antigen carrier and a stimulator of innate immune responses. Modern vaccination changed to a small subunit of the pathogen instead of a traditional whole pathogen. As the purified inactivated entire pathogens and subunit or recombinant antigens are insufficiently immunogenic on their own, the use of a powerful immunostimulatory system is required to boost the immunity. This can be accomplished via NPs based methods. To successfully apply this versatile NPs-based vaccination technology, a thorough study of the effects of NPs diameter, polarity, and other physical and chemical properties is necessary. The stability of NPs under different storage circumstances, as well as their immunogenicity over time, should be prioritized in research, since these aspects will have a direct impact on the market viability of vaccines. Recent advancements in NPs-based adjuvant and vaccine delivery systems can be utilized more widely to prevent and treat infectious diseases. Nanovaccines principles offer notable benefits such as targeted delivery, prolonged transmission, minimal side effects, and activation of a powerful immune response to various biological and external stimuli by overcoming all physiological barriers. They enable antigen stability, improve antigen processing and immunogenicity with targeted administration, and inhibit antigen and adjuvant burst release. In the realm of vaccine development, inorganic, polymeric, biomolecular, and other NPs have been found to enhance weakly immunogenic antigens. Nanovaccine are now being developed for the prevention of pathogenic diseases. The therapeutic and tolerogenic vaccines are used to treat cancer and autoimmune disorders, respectively, expand the possibilities of the synthetic vaccine platform. The development of new vaccines, such as single-dose, needle-free injection, gradual release, targeting, alternate administration techniques, and delivery channels will become more demanding in the near future.

Acknowledgments

A.B. Imran gratefully acknowledges the support of the Capacity Utilization Programme under Special Allocation for Science and Technology (BS-182 and PHY’S-467) from the Ministry of Science and Technology, Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. A.B. Imran is also thankful to the Committee for Advanced Studies and Research (CASR) in BUET. T. Foyez cordially acknowledge the support from North South University.

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