Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites E-Book
144,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH GmbH
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites
In-depth overview of thermal analysis of natural fiber-reinforced composites
In Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Thermal Properties and Applications, a team of distinguished researchers has delivered a comprehensive overview of the thermal properties of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites. The book brings together information currently dispersed throughout the scientific literature and offers viable and environmentally friendly alternatives to conventional composites. The book highlights the thermal analysis of natural fiber-reinforced composites with techniques such as Thermogravimetric Analysis, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis, Thermomechanical Analysis, Differential Scanning Calorimetry, etc. This book provides:
- A thorough review of the thermal characterization of natural fiber-based hybrid composites
- Detailed investigation of the thermal properties of polymer composites reinforced with various natural fibers such as flax fiber, pineapple leaf fiber, sisal, sugar palm, grass fiber and cane fiber
- Discussions on the thermal properties of hybrid natural fiber-reinforced composites with various thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers
- Influence of nanofillers on the thermal stability and thermal decomposition characteristics of the natural fiber-based hybrid composites
Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Thermal Properties and Applications is a must-read for materials scientists, polymer chemists, and professionals working in the industry. This book is ideal for readers seeking to make an informed decision regarding materials selection for applications involving thermal insulation and elevated temperature. The suitability of natural fiber-reinforced composites in the automotive, mechanical, and civil engineering sectors is highligted.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 599
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
1 Thermal Characterization of the Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites: An Overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Thermal Characterization
1.3 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
2 Thermal Properties of Hybrid Natural Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Thermal Properties
2.3 Conclusions
References
3 Thermal Properties of the Natural Fiber-Reinforced Hybrid Polymer Composites: An Overview
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Thermal Properties of Natural Fiber Composites
3.3 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
4 Thermal Properties of Sugar Palm Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Thermal Analysis of Sugar Palm Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
4.3 Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Sugar Palm Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
4.4 Potential Applications
4.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
5 Thermal Properties of Sisal Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Thermal Properties of Sisal Fiber-Reinforced Polymeric Composites
5.3 Thermal Properties of Hybrid Sisal Fiber/Synthetic Fiber-Reinforced Polymeric Composites
5.4 Thermal Properties of Sisal/Other Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polymeric Composites
5.5 Conclusions
References
6 Thermal Properties of Flax Fiber Hybrid Composites
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Techniques for Thermal Analysis of Natural Fiber Composites
6.3 General Properties and Composition of Flax Fibers
6.4 Thermal Analysis of Flax Fibers
6.5 Thermal Analysis of Flax Fiber Composites
6.6 Conclusions
References
7 Thermal Properties of the Pineapple Leaf Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Thermal Properties of Polymers
7.3 Improving the Thermal Properties of Epoxies
7.4 The Thermal Properties of PALF Composites
7.5 Concluding Remarks
References
8 Thermal Properties of the Grass/Cane Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Hybrid Composite Materials
8.3 Cane/Grass Fiber Hybrid Composites
8.4 Properties of Cane/Grass Fiber Hybrid Composites
8.5 Thermal Properties
8.6 Applications of Grass/Cane Hybrid Composites
8.7 Conclusion
References
9 Thermal Properties of the Banana Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Fabrication of Banana Fiber-Based Hybrid Composite
9.3 Thermal Properties of Banana Fiber-Based Composites
9.4 Specific Heat of Banana Fiber Hybrid Composites
9.5 Thermal Conductivity of Banana Fiber Hybrid Composites
9.6 Thermal Diffusivity
9.7 Applications
9.8 Conclusions
References
10 Thermal Properties of Kenaf Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Hybrid Composites
10.3 Thermal Properties
10.4 Conclusion
References
11 Thermal Properties of Hemp Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Thermal Properties Measurements and Importance
11.3 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
12 Thermal Properties of Cellulose Nanofibers and Their Composites
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Nanocellulose
12.3 Cellulose Nanofibers (CNFs)
12.4 CNF Preparation
12.5 Surface Functionalization of CNFs
12.6 CNF-Based Composites
12.7 Thermal Properties of CNF Composites
12.8 Current Status: CNF-Based Composites
12.9 Outlook and Future Perspective
References
13 Influence of Graphene Nanoparticles on Thermal Properties of the Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Graphene
13.3 Polymer/Graphene Composites
13.4 Polymer/Natural Fiber Composites
13.5 Polymer/Natural Fiber/Graphene Composites
13.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
14 Influence of Nanoclay on the Thermal Properties of the Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Effect of Nanoclay on the Thermal Stability of Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
14.3 Effect of Nanoclay on the Inflammability of Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
14.4 Effect of Nanoclay on the Melting and Crystallization (DSC) of Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
14.5 Effect of Nanoclay on the Glass Transition Temperature of Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
14.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
15 Effect of CNT Fillers on Thermal Properties of the Bamboo Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials and Methods
15.3 Results and Discussion
15.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
16 Effect of Metal Oxide Fillers on Thermal Properties of the Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Materials and Methods
16.3 Results and Discussion
16.4 Conclusion
References
17 Influence of Chemical Treatments on the Thermal Properties of Natural Fiber-Reinforced Hybrid Composites (NFRHC)
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Chemical Modifications for Natural Fibers Applied in Hybrid Composites
17.3 Concluding Remarks
References
18 Physical, Mechanical, and Thermal Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Hybrid Polymer Composites
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Preparation of Composite Material
18.3 Characterization of Composite Material
18.4 Results and Discussion
18.5 Conclusions
Conflicts of Interest
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Classification of the natural fibers.
Table 1.2 Reported thermal based works of natural fiber-reinforced hybrid co...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Reinforced sugar palm fiber with different polymer composites.
Table 4.2 Characteristic temperature of sugar palm-unsaturated polyester com...
Table 4.3 Summary of previous work on DMA of sugar palm hybrid composites.
Table 4.4 Thermal properties and application highlights of selected studies ...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Chemical composition (%) and thermal degradation of sisal fiber.
Table 5.2 Decomposition pattern (%) of raw and chemically treated sisal fibe...
Table 5.3 Effect of biosynthesized alumina nanopowder on the thermal stabili...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Thermal conductivity of epoxy resin composites with different rein...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Properties of PALF properties.
Table 7.2 The literature survey of the thermal properties of the epoxy in th...
Table 7.3 The details of the thermogravimetric analysis of epoxy/PALF compos...
Table 7.4 The details of the dynamic mechanical analysis of epoxy/PALF compo...
Table 7.5 The details of the differential scanning calorimetric of epoxy/PAL...
Table 7.6 The details of the Thermal conductivity of epoxy/PALF composites.
Table 7.7 The details of the thermal conductivity of epoxy/natural fiber com...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Physical and mechanical properties of banana fiber and other fiber...
Table 9.2 Thermal stability of natural fiber-based polymer composites.
Table 9.3 The result TGA of banana, PALF, and glass hybrid composites.
Table 9.4 Percentage errors related to effective thermal conductivity values...
Table 9.5 The specific heat and thermal diffusivity values of the hybrid com...
Table 9.6 Various applications of banana-based hybrid composite and other co...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Mass loss percentage of composites from kenaf fiber/PVC/TPU.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Forms of nanocellulose with general values of dimensions (diamete...
Table 12.2 CNF-based flame retardant composites and their thermal properties...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Effect of nanoclay on the properties of natural fiber polymer com...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Summary of the TGA of epoxy nanocomposites.
Table 15.2 Flexural and tensile characteristics of epoxy hybrid nanocomposit...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Information collected from cone calorimeter experiments for epoxy...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Thermal and physical properties of some thermoset and thermoplast...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Ultimate tensile strength, maximum force, breaking load, and ener...
Table 18.2 Comparison of flexural strength, maximum shear stress, and hardne...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Various thermal analysis techniques and their applications. DFA, ...
Figure 1.2 Thermal characterizations of the polymer and polymer-based compos...
Figure 1.3 Thermal characterization of polymer and polymer-based composite w...
Figure 1.4 Thermal characterizations of the polymer and polymer-based compos...
Figure 1.5 Test modes in TMA.
Figure 1.6
T
g
measured from the various thermal characterization techniques:...
Figure 1.7 Thermal characterizations of the polymer and polymer-based compos...
Figure 1.8 Thermogram from the DSC.
Figure 1.9 Thermal characterizations of polymer and polymer-based composites...
Figure 1.10 A typical TGA curve of the hybrid composite with kenaf and bambo...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 (a) TGA sugar palm/glass fiber composite (b) DTG Sugar palm/glass...
Figure 2.2 DSC curves of PHBV and its composites.
Figure 2.3 Model curve of TMA.
Figure 2.4 Temperature dependence of (A) storage modulus, (B) loss modulus, ...
Figure 2.5 Basic structure of melt flow index tester.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Thermogram of buriti fiber [32].
Figure 3.2 TGA of roselle fiber (RF)/sugar palm fiber (SPF)-based TPU compos...
Figure 3.3 DTA of
sugar palm
(
SP
)/glass (G) fiber-based thermoplastic polyur...
Figure 3.4 TGA thermogram of jute/banana fiber-reinforced epoxy hybrid compo...
Figure 3.5 Schematic showing the thermal degradation of various components i...
Figure 3.6 TGA and DTG curves of bio-PTT and bio-PTT-based hybrid nanocompos...
Figure 3.7 DSC thermogram of (a) vascular bundles and (b) fiber strands of d...
Figure 3.8 (a) DSC thermogram of PLA/acetylated microfibrillated cellulose c...
Figure 3.9 The storage modulus of flax, jute, and flax + jute in PLA composi...
Figure 3.10 (a) Photographs of the different orientation of kenaf fiber mat ...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Number of published outputs, based on hybrid composites (between ...
Figure 4.2 Photographs of (a) the sugar palm tree, (b) sugar palm fibers nat...
Figure 4.3 TGA and DTG curves of the samples: (a) raw SPF, bleached fiber; (...
Figure 4.4 DTG thermogram and summary of decomposition of sugar palm fibers ...
Figure 4.5 Decomposition route of hybrid sugar palm/glass fiber/unsaturated ...
Figure 4.6 Fiber treatment for sugar palm fiber in the particulate form.
Figure 4.7 Alkaline-treated sugar palm/glass fiber yarn reinforced polyester...
Figure 4.8 Layup segmentation and reinforcement layout schematic diagram....
Figure 4.9 The schematic diagram of bumper system.
Figure 4.10 Military applications of fiber composites to naval ships and sub...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 (a) Sisal plant and (b) sisal fiber.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Typical thermal degradation patterns for lignocellulosic fibers....
Figure 6.2 Stiffness vs. strength (a) and ultimate strain (b) of different b...
Figure 6.3 Dynamic modulus of PLA and PLA/flax composites with 10, 20, and 4...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Photograph of a pineapple plant.
Figure 7.2 (a) Cross-sectional view of the PALF and (b) PALF fiber bundle.
Figure 7.3 Heat transfer through rectangular slabs of three different materi...
Figure 7.4 The composite material heat interaction.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Classification of fibers.
Figure 8.2 Classification of hybrid composite materials.
Figure 8.3 Thermal conductivity of hybrid composites.
Figure 8.4 TGA thermograms of Sansevieria grass fibers.
Figure 8.5 DSC analysis of the grass fiber composites.
Figure 8.6 Specific heat capacity of polymer matrix and elephant grass fiber...
Figure 8.7 Thermal diffusivity of polymer matrix and elephant grass fiber co...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Banana hybrid composite material.
Figure 9.2 Effect of fiber loading on (a) thermal stability of the banana gl...
Figure 9.3 Weight (%) temperature for TGA test.
Figure 9.4 Specific heat capacity of composite with (a) volume fraction of f...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 TGA curves of magnesium hydroxide/kenaf/epoxy hybrid composites....
Figure 10.2 (a) Storage modulus, (b) loss modulus, and (c) damping factor of...
Figure 10.3 DTG plot of kenaf fiber hybrid composites.
Figure 10.4 FESEM of K-GNP-MgOH quaternary composites at (a) 100× and (b) 10...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Hemp fiber mat and basalt fabric (a) nonwoven hemp mat and (b) b...
Figure 11.2 TGA curves of the different hemp fabric treated and untreated (N...
Figure 11.3 TGA curves of neat UP and hemp/UP and treated and glass hybridiz...
Figure 11.4 TGA traces of flax, jute, kenaf, and curaua fibers [20].
Figure 11.5 DSC thermograms of PP, PPM, and composites with different types ...
Figure 11.6 Thermal conductivity against aspect ratio of hemp/PCL composites...
Figure 11.7 Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of neat PLA and hemp/PLA ...
Figure 11.8 Linear coefficient of thermal expansion of different PU-based co...
Figure 11.9 Storage modulus of hemp/HDPE composites of untreated hemp fiber ...
Figure 11.10 Storage modulus of hemp/HDPE composites with NaOH-treated hemp/...
Figure 11.11 SEM micrographs of (a) untreated, (b) acetone-treated, (c) 8% N...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Schematic illustration of the origin of cellulose nanofibrils (C...
Figure 12.2 Schematic diagram of CNF production “tree” [11].
Figure 12.3 Schematic representation of the most commonly used surface modif...
Figure 12.4 (a) Schematic illustration of experimental processes, (b)
Scanni
...
Figure 12.5 Applications of cellulose nanofiber-based composites.
Figure 12.6 Schematic of the preparation of transparent and thermally stable...
Figure 12.7 Thermal conductive properties of CNFG composite films: thermal c...
Figure 12.8 Thermal insulating performance of biomimetic structural ZrP/RGO/...
Figure 12.9 Schematic summary of sustainable CNF-based composites.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Thermal analysis of untreated bamboo fibers (UBF) and 6 wt% NaOH...
Figure 13.2 Schematic diagram shows the fabrication and materials of hybrid ...
Figure 13.3 Effect of Graphene nanoplatelets (GNP) on the storage modulus (
E
Figure 13.4 Thermal analysis of curaua fibers (CF) and graphene oxide-coated...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 (a) TGA and (b) DTG plot of different hybrid composites.
Figure 14.2 TGA thermograms of different percentage of nanocomposites.
Figure 14.3 Images of control fabric and fabrics finished with
polymer dimet
...
Figure 14.4 DSC curves of 20% organo-nanoclay-treated or organo-nanoclay-unt...
Figure 14.5 Storage modulus (
E
′) and loss modulus (
E
″) plot of kenaf/epoxy a...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 FTIR spectrum of SWCNT-based epoxy hybrid nanocomposites.
Figure 15.2 TGA curves: (a) modified and unmodified SWNCT and (b) SWCNT-base...
Figure 15.3 Effect of amino functionalization on thermal conductivity of epo...
Figure 15.4 Tensile stress–strain graphs of SWCNT/BF epoxy hybrid nanocompos...
Figure 15.5 Flexural stress–strain graphs of SWCNT/BF epoxy hybrid nanocompo...
Figure 15.6 Tensile fracture of epoxy hybrid nanocomposites: (a) p-SWCNT/BF ...
Figure 15.7 Impact strength and Vickers hardness of epoxy hybrid nanocomposi...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 FTIR spectra of epoxy hybrid nanocomposites.
Figure 16.2 Heat release rate as a function of time for the experimented sam...
Figure 16.3 Total heat release rate as a function of time for the experiment...
Figure 16.4 TGA curves of epoxy nanocomposites.
Figure 16.5 Tensile properties of epoxy nanocomposites: (a) stress–strain cu...
Figure 16.6 SEM micrographs of epoxy nanocomposites: (a) pure epoxy, (b) BNF...
Figure 16.7 Flexural properties of epoxy nanocomposites: (a) stress–strain c...
Figure 16.8 Compression properties of epoxy nanocomposites: (a) stress–strai...
Figure 16.9 Impact strength of epoxy nanocomposites.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Typical thermogravimetric curves showing the main components of ...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Comparison of variations in the flexural strengths (a) and shear...
Figure 18.2 Variation of the water absorption coefficient of LDPE-fib...
Figure 18.3 TGA and DTA of LDPE with resin composite (a), LDPE–glass fiber (...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
Pages
iii
iv
xiii
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Thermal Properties and Applications
Edited by Senthilkumar Krishnasamy, Senthil Muthu Kumar Thiagamani, Chandrasekar Muthukumar, Rajini Nagarajan, and Suchart Siengchin
Editors
Dr. Senthilkumar KrishnasamyDepartment of Materials and Production EngineeringThe Sirindhorn International Thai-German Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS)King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok1518 Wongsawang Road, BangsueBangkok, 10800Thailand
Dr. Senthil Muthu Kumar ThiagamaniDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringKalasalingam Academy of Research and EducationKrishnankoil, 626 126Anand Nagar, Tamil NaduIndia
Dr. Chandrasekar MuthukumarSchool of Aeronautical SciencesHindustan Institute of Technology & SciencePadur, Kelambakkam
Chennai, 603103, Tamil NaduIndia
Prof. Rajini NagarajanDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringKalasalingam Academy of Research and EducationKrishnankoil, 626 126Anand Nagar, Tamil NaduIndia
Prof. Suchart SiengchinDepartment of Materials and Production EngineeringThe Sirindhorn International Thai-German Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS)
King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok1518 Wongsawang Road, BangsueBangkok, 10800Thailand
Cover Image: © derrrek/Getty Images
All books published by WILEY-VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.
Library of Congress Card No.: applied for
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche NationalbibliothekThe Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.
© 2022 WILEY-VCH GmbH, Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany
All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.
Print ISBN: 978-3-527-34883-1ePDF ISBN: 978-3-527-83155-5ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-83157-9oBook ISBN: 978-3-527-83156-2
Preface
We are glad to present the book entitled “Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Thermal Properties and Applications” to thermal analysts, materials scientists, materials engineers, material chemists, and researchers working in the field of bio-composites.
This book focuses on exploring the thermal properties of hybrid composites reinforced with natural fibers. As per literature, the thermal properties of these composites could be analyzed by the techniques such as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermomechanical analysis (TMA), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). In lieu of this, all the chapters are designed to cover a broad audience with the aforementioned techniques on hybrid composites reinforced with natural fibers.
This book consists of 18 chapters and is structured as follows: Chapters 1, 2, and 3 present the overview of thermal properties of natural fiber reinforced thermoset and thermoplastic hybrid composites. Chapters 4 to 11 discuss the thermal properties of hybrid composites made up of different natural fibers such as sugar palm, sisal fiber, flax fiber, pineapple leaf fiber, grass/cane fiber, banana fiber, kenaf fiber and hemp fiber. Chapters 12 to 16 provide insights on the effect of nanofillers (e.g. graphene, nanoclay, CNT, metal oxide) on thermal properties of natural fiber reinforced hybrid composites. Chapter 17 discusses the effects of chemical treatments of hybrid composites on thermal properties. Chapter 18 provides an overview of physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of hybrid polymer composites.
We thank our parents and sincerely appreciate the publisher, the typesetting professional associated with this book, and thank all the contributing authors for their valuable time and efforts in submitting their work to this book.
1Thermal Characterization of the Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites: An Overview
Chandrasekar Muthukumar1, Senthilkumar Krishnasamy2,3, Senthil Muthu Kumar Thiagamani3, Rajini Nagarajan3, and Suchart Siengchin4
1Hindustan Institute of Technology & Science, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Kelambakkam, Chennai 603103, Tamilnadu, India
2King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Center of Innovation in Design and Engineering for Manufacturing (CoI-DEM), 1518 Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
3Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Krishnankoil 626126, Tamil Nadu, India
4King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, The Sirindhorn International Thai-German Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), Department of Materials and Production Engineering, 1518 Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
1.1 Introduction
Hybrid composite is fabricated by adding two or more fibers into a single polymer system [1]. The resulting material has a unique feature that combines the advantages of each fiber. Since different fibers are added together, the benefits of one particular type of fiber property could be compensated with the other fiber lacking a specific property. The performance of hybrid composites could be influenced by many factors [2–7]:
Fiber length
Fiber loading
Fiber orientation
Fiber layer sequence
Fiber/matrix interfacial bonding
Failure strain of fiber
The hybrid effect is termed as an apparent synergistic improvement of properties due to different fibers in a single matrix system. The selection of fibers and their properties is of main importance to achieve the enhanced properties for the hybrid composites. Besides the physical, chemical, and mechanical stabilities of fiber, the matrix system also defines the strength of the hybrid composites. The different types of hybrid composites are characterized as follows [8–12]:
Tow by tow: the fibers are mixed up randomly or regularly.
Sandwich hybrid composites: one material is sandwiched between two different layers.
Inter-ply or laminated: two or more fiber layers are alternatively stacked regularly.
Intimately mixed fibers: various types of fibers are mixed up randomly.
Though the hybrid composites have many advantages, the prime challenges are replacing the synthetic fiber-reinforced composites using biocomposites. Biocomposites exhibit functional and structural stability during storage and degrade upon disposal into the environment. “Engineered natural fiber” is one of the exciting concepts to obtain the enhanced strength in the biocomposites, which involves the blending of the leaf and stem fibers. The correct blending of these two fibers exhibits optimum balance in mechanical properties, resulting in balanced stiffness–toughness properties [13–15].
The mechanical and physical characteristics of the natural fiber are influenced by many factors: (i) maturity of the plant fiber, (ii) harvesting time and region, (iii) soil condition, (iv) rain, (v) sun, etc. Since the natural fibers are nonabrasive and hypoallergenic, they could be processed efficiently. Amongst the various properties of natural fibers, the low density and the cellular structure allow them to exhibit better thermal properties. However, the amorphous hemicellulose on the fiber surface can be a potential threat to the better interfacial bonding between the matrix and the fiber, thereby reducing the properties. Hence, the mechanical and thermal properties of the biocomposites could be further enhanced through chemical treatments [16]. Natural fiber has cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin susceptible to degradation on exposure to elevated temperature [17–19]. Thus, many studies exploring the thermal properties of the biocomposites have been published over the years [20–22]. By botanical type, the natural fibers are classified into six major types (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1 Classification of the natural fibers.
Seed
Bast
Leaf
Core
Grass and seed
Others
Kapok
Jute
Banana
Flax
Canary
Roots
Coir
Ramie
Pineapple
Kenaf
Barley
wood
Cotton
Flax
Curaua
Hemp
Wheat
Oil palm
Hemp
Sisal
Jute
Grass
Rice
Kenaf
Abaca
Corn
1.2 Thermal Characterization
The thermal analyses encompass a family of techniques that would share a common feature, whereby any material's response could be measured through heating or cooling. Thus, a significant connection is held between the temperature and the physical property of the materials. The most common thermal techniques that have been used by researchers and by industrial organizations for thermal characterization are thermomechanical analysis (TMA), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). These techniques are not only used for measuring the physical properties with respect to the temperature changes but also used in the following areas: (i) to substantiate mechanical properties and thermal history of the biocomposites, (ii) to estimate the service life of composites in different environments, and (iii) as one of the quality control approaches in polymers and their manufacturing industries. Figure 1.1 shows some of the essential thermal analysis techniques and the characteristics measured [23–25]. In terms of research, thermal behavior of the biocomposites has been investigated by varying fiber volume fractions [26–28], varying fiber layering patterns [29, 30], using different types of chemical treatments [31, 32], adding different kinds of fillers [19, 33, 34], and using polymer blends [35, 36].
For instance, Table 1.2 presents some of the experimental works carried out on thermal properties using different natural fibers.
1.2.1 DMA
Figure 1.2 presents the step-by-step process involved in the DMA of the polymers and polymer-based composites. Output parameters such as storage modulus (E′ or G′), loss modulus (E″ or G″), and damping factor (tan δ) obtained as the function of temperature are shown in Figure 1.3a. As the polymer or composite is heated in the temperature range with the simultaneous application of oscillatory load, it undergoes displacement or strain where some energy gets stored in the material, while some energy is dissipated as heat due to the internal friction. The resultant strain measured by applying the oscillatory load is represented as loss modulus, storage modulus, and phase angle or damping factor. The ability of the tested material to store the energy is termed as the storage modulus while the tendency of the material to dissipate heat energy is termed as the loss modulus. Storage modulus represents the stiffness of a polymer or composite and is often related to Young's modulus. Loss modulus is related to the molecular chain motions such as transition and relaxation within the polymer during the heating process and applied load. Tan δ is a dimensionless number obtained through the ratio of loss modulus to the storage modulus. Lower tan δ indicates higher stiffness and better interfacial bonding between fiber and polymer matrix, which restricts the molecular mobility within the polymeric chains.
Figure 1.1 Various thermal analysis techniques and their applications. DFA, dielectric analysis.
Table 1.2 Reported thermal based works of natural fiber-reinforced hybrid composites.
Hybrid composites
Details of study
References
Thermoset polymers
Flax/sugar palm/epoxy
DMA
[6]
Flax/woven aloe vera/epoxy
TGA, DMA
[20]
Sisal/cattail/polyester
Thermal conductivity
[37]
Date palm/coir fiber/epoxy
TGA
[38]
Sisal/jute/sorghum/polyester
TGA
[39]
Coir/
Luffa cylindrica
/epoxy
DMA
[40]
Bamboo/kenaf/epoxy
TGA, DMA, DSC
[41]
Ramie/sisal/epoxy Sisal/curaua/epoxy
TGA, DSC
[42]
Flax/aloe vera/hemp/epoxy
TGA, DMA
[43]
Kenaf/pineapple leaf fiber/phenolic
TGA
[44]
Thermoplastic polymers
Sugar palm/roselle/polyurethane
TGA
[45]
Jute/bamboo/polyethylene
DSC, TGA
[46]
Sugar palm/roselle/polyurethane
TGA
[47]
Seaweed/sugar palm fiber/thermoplastic sugar palm starch agar
TGA
[48]
Coir/pineapple leaf fiber/polylactic acid (PLA)
TGA
[49]
Coir/pineapple leaf fiber/ PLA
TGA, TMA
[50]
Biodegradable polymers
Sisal/hemp/bioepoxy
DMA, TGA
[29]
Kenaf/sisal/bioepoxy
TGA, DSC, DMA
[51]
Sisal/hemp/bioepoxy
TGA
[52]
Figure 1.2 Thermal characterizations of the polymer and polymer-based composite through DMA, step-by-step process.
Polymers are viscoelastic and can be classified into crystalline, amorphous, and semicrystalline (has both crystalline and amorphous characteristics) depending upon the composition. It is because of this characteristic that polymers or polymer-based composite undergoes phase change during the simultaneous application of the load and heating process (Figure 1.3b). Figure 1.3a shows the typical data obtained from DMA. Glass transition temperature (Tg) is the tangent obtained in the phase change region between glassy state and rubbery state. Tg can be below the melting temperature for a polymer, which has both crystalline and amorphous characteristics. The material tends to get softer rather than melting at Tg. DMA is particularly useful in identifying the cross-linking density of the polymer, as shown in Figure 1.3b. It can be noticed that polymers with a high cross-linking density have higher Tg and greater loss modulus and storage modulus, while it is vice versa for polymers with low cross-linking density [53].
1.2.2 TMA
TMA is a common technique used for investigating the dimensional change of material under the combination of temperature and a fixed load. Figure 1.4 presents the step-by-step process involved in the TMA of the polymers and polymer-based composites. Dimensional change of material (at nanoscale) under the influence of temperature and load can be measured in various testing modes shown in Figure 1.5. Changes in the free volume of material depending upon the heat absorption or heat release with respect to the temperature can also be determined with this technique.
Figure 1.6a–c shows that the Tg measurement for a polymer or a polymer composite can be derived from the TMA, DSC, and DMA.
Figure 1.3 Thermal characterization of polymer and polymer-based composite with DMA. (a) Typical curve. (b) Viscoelastic characteristics of the polymer.
Source: Saba et al. [53].
1.2.3 DSC
Figure 1.7 presents the step-by-step process involved in the DSC of the polymers and polymer-based composites. In DSC, the sample is heated around 30 to the elevated temperature beyond 300 °C with the constant supply of liquid nitrogen in a controlled chamber. Heat flow from the sample is measured as a function of the temperature shown in Figure 1.8. The changes in crystalline properties (Tg), melting temperature (Tm), and cold crystallization temperature (Tc) due to the introduction of two or more natural fibers in the hybrid composite can be evaluated.
1.2.4 TGA
Figure 1.9 presents the step-by-step process involved in the TGA of the polymers and polymer-based composites. It is an effective technique for evaluating thermal decomposition characteristics of the polymers and polymer composite reinforced with the natural fibers or the synthetic fibers. It provides the quantitative mass change of the sample due to the heating under the controlled atmosphere. A natural fiber obtained from the plants and trees is made up of the constituents such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, wax, moisture, and ash. The percentage of constituents can vary from one fiber to another, which has a significant influence on the thermal decomposition characteristics of natural fiber and their composites. Also, these fiber constituents are volatile and can decompose at elevated temperatures.
Figure 1.4 Thermal characterizations of the polymer and polymer-based composite through TMA, step-by-step process.
Figure 1.5 Test modes in TMA.
Source: Saba and Jawaid [54].
Figure 1.6Tg measured from the various thermal characterization techniques: (a) TMA, (b) DSC, and (c) DMA.
Source: Saba and Jawaid [54].
Figure 1.7 Thermal characterizations of the polymer and polymer-based composite through DSC, step-by-step process.
A few milligram of sample is placed in the TGA chamber and heated from room temperature to as high as 700 °C at a defined ramp rate in the presence of nitrogen to prevent oxidation inside the chamber. The thermal stability of a polymer-based composite is usually assessed from the thermogram (TG curve) and the derivative thermogram (DTG curve) obtained from the TGA, as shown in Figure 1.10. Parameters such as the onset, endset, inflection temperature, and residue percentage at the end of the heating process in the TGA chamber are usually compared to identify changes due to the reinforcement percentage and type of fiber. Degradation temperature at 5%, 10%, 20%, 40%, and 80% weight loss along with the residue can also be discussed.
Figure 1.8 Thermogram from the DSC.
Source: Chandrasekar et al. [55].
Figure 1.9 Thermal characterizations of polymer and polymer-based composites through TGA, step-by-step process.
In the case of a polymer, thermal decomposition usually occurs in single stage, whereas, for the natural fiber, thermal decomposition occurs in two or three stages depending on the fiber constituents. Initial mass loss between 50 and 150 °C is due to the evaporation of moisture in the fiber. The weight loss at a temperature range between 150 and 300 °C is associated with the decomposition of hemicellulose and lignin. The final weight loss between 300 and 700 °C is attributed to the decomposition of cellulose. Since the fiber constituents vary from one fiber to another, TGA has proved to be an excellent tool for determining the changes in thermal decomposition characteristics of the hybrid polymer composite reinforced with two or more natural fibers. Thermal stability is also evaluated by residue percentage at the end of the heating process. The higher the residues, the better the thermal stability of the composite.
Figure 1.10 A typical TGA curve of the hybrid composite with kenaf and bamboo fibers. (a) Thermogram. (b) Derivative thermogram.
Source: Chee et al. [41].
1.3 Conclusion
Thermal characterization of the hybrid composites using various commercially available techniques such as DMA, TMA, DSC, and TGA has been discussed. The following are the conclusions:
DMA is useful in determining the creep properties and interfacial interactions of the composites and measuring their stiffness, material behavior with respect to the phase transitions, damping, and relaxation processes in a range of frequencies and temperatures.
TMA helps in defining the material structure with respect to the dimensional and volumetric change, surface roughness, molecular structure, cure, and cross-linking polymerization under both static and dynamic loads.
DSC is considered as one of the primary tools for thermodynamic analysis and cure kinetics. It gives useful information on the phase transitions upon heating and quantifies the glass transition temperature, melting temperature, and crystallization temperature related to the polymers and polymer-based biocomposites.
TGA has been widely used to illustrate the thermal stability of the composites, which provides the quantitative mass change of the sample due to heating. It also provides vital information on the decomposition characteristics of the constituents of the composites at elevated temperatures.
The forthcoming chapters of this book would give extensive information on the above-discussed thermal characterization techniques with respect to different natural fibers and polymers targeted for various applications.
Acknowledgment
This study was financially supported by the King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok (KMUTNB), Thailand, through grant no. KMUTNB-BasicR-64-16 and through grant no. KMUTNB-64-KNOW-07.
References
1
Naveen, J., Jawaid, M., Amuthakkannan, P., and Chandrasekar, M. (2018). Mechanical and physical properties of sisal and hybrid sisal fiber-reinforced polymer composites.
Mechanical and Physical Testing of Biocomposites, Fibre-Reinforced Composites and Hybrid Composites
: 427–440.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102292-4.00021-7
.
2
Senthilkumar, K., Kumar, T.S.M., Chandrasekar, M. et al. (2019). Recent advances in thermal properties of hybrid cellulosic fiber reinforced polymer composites.
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules
141: 1–13.
3
Asim, M., Paridah, M.T., Chandrasekar, M. et al. (2020). Thermal stability of natural fibers and their polymer composites.
Cellulose
174: 175.
4
Nayak, S.Y., Sultan, M.T.H., Shenoy, S.B. et al. (2020). Potential of natural fibers in composites for ballistic applications – a review.
Journal of Natural Fibers
: 1–11.
5
Thiagamani, S.M.K., Krishnasamy, S., and Siengchin, S. (2019). Challenges of biodegradable polymers: an environmental perspective.
Applied Science and Engineering Progress
12: 149.
6
Chandrasekar, M., Shahroze, R.M., Ishak, M.R. et al. (2019). Flax and sugar palm reinforced epoxy composites: effect of hybridization on physical, mechanical, morphological and dynamic mechanical properties.
Materials Research Express
6 (10): 1–11.
7
Chandrasekar, M., Siva, I., Kumar, T.S.M. et al. (2020). Influence of fibre inter-ply orientation on the mechanical and free vibration properties of banana fibre reinforced polyester composite laminates.
Journal of Polymers and the Environment
: 1–12.
8
Matykiewicz, D. (2020). Hybrid epoxy composites with both powder and fiber filler: a review of mechanical and thermomechanical properties.
Materials (Basel)
13: 1802.
9
Ravishankar, B., Nayak, S.K., and Kader, M.A. (2019). Hybrid composites for automotive applications – a review.
Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites
38: 835–845.
10
Mochane, M.J., Mokhena, T.C., Mokhothu, T.H. et al. (2019). Recent progress on natural fiber hybrid composites for advanced applications: a review. 13 (2): 159–198.
11
Senthilkumar, K., Saba, N., Rajini, N. et al. (2018). Mechanical properties evaluation of sisal fibre reinforced polymer composites: a review.
Construction and Building Materials
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.143
.
12
Guna, V., Ilangovan, M., Ananthaprasad, M.G., and Reddy, N. (2018). Hybrid biocomposites.
Polymer Composites
39: E30–E54.
13
Dong, C. (2018). Review of natural fibre-reinforced hybrid composites.
Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites
37: 331–348.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0731684417745368
.
14
Li, M., Pu, Y., Thomas, V.M. et al. (2020). Recent advancements of plant-based natural fiber–reinforced composites and their applications.
Composites. Part B, Engineering
108254.
15
Thakur, V.K., Thakur, M.K., and Pappu, A. (2017).
Hybrid Polymer Composite Materials: Properties and Characterisation
. Woodhead Publishing.
16
Thiagamani, S.M.K., Nagarajan, R., Jawaid, M. et al. (2017). Utilization of chemically treated municipal solid waste (spent coffee bean powder) as reinforcement in cellulose matrix for packaging applications.
Waste Management
69: 445–454.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.07.035
.
17
Shahroze, R.M., Ishak, M.R., Sapuan, S.M. et al. (2019). Effect of silica aerogel additive on mechanical properties of the sugar palm fiber-reinforced polyester composites.
International Journal of Polymer Science
2019: 1–4.
18
Shahroze, R.M., Ishak, M.R., Salit, M.S. et al. (2018). Effect of organo-modified nanoclay on the mechanical properties of sugar palm fiber-reinforced polyester composites.
BioResources
13: 7430–7444.
19
Shahroze, R.M., Ishak, M.R., Salit, M.S. et al. (2019). Sugar palm fiber/polyester nanocomposites: influence of adding nanoclay fillers on thermal, dynamic mechanical, and physical properties.
Journal of Vinyl & Additive Technology
26 (3): 236–243.
20
Arulmurugan, M., Selvakumar, A.S., Prabu, K., and Rajamurugan, G. (2020). Effect of barium sulphate on mechanical, DMA and thermal behaviour of woven aloevera/flax hybrid composites.
Bulletin of Materials Science
43: 58.
21
Sarasini, F., Tirillò, J., Sergi, C. et al. (2018). Effect of basalt fibre hybridisation and sizing removal on mechanical and thermal properties of hemp fibre reinforced HDPE.
Composites
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2018.01.046
.
22
Monteiro, S.N., Calado, V., Rodriguez, R.J.S., and Margem, F.M. (2012). Thermogravimetric behavior of natural fibers reinforced polymer composites – an overview.
Materials Science and Engineering A
557: 17–28.
23
Hatakeyama, T. and Hatakeyama, H. (2006).
Thermal Properties of Green Polymers and Biocomposites
. Springer Science & Business Media.
24
Menczel, J.D. and Prime, R.B. (2009).
Thermal Analysis of Polymers: Fundamentals and Applications
. Wiley.
25
Menczel, J.D., Judovits, L., Prime, R.B. et al. (2009). Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC).
Thermal Analysis of Polymers: Fundamentals and Applications
: 7–239.
26
Nurazzi, N.M., Khalina, A., Chandrasekar, M. et al. (2020). Effect of fiber orientation and fiber loading on the mechanical and thermal properties of sugar palm yarn fiber reinforced unsaturated polyester resin composites.
Polimery
65: 35.
27
Krishnasamy, S., Muthukumar, C., Nagarajan, R. et al. (2019). Effect of fibre loading and Ca(OH)
2
treatment on thermal, mechanical, and physical properties of pineapple leaf fibre/polyester reinforced composites.
Materials Research Express
6: 085545.
https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab2702
.
28
Senthil Muthu Kumar, T., Rajini, N., Obi Reddy, K. et al. (2018). All-cellulose composite films with cellulose matrix and Napier grass cellulose fibril fillers.
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules
112: 1310–1315.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.01.167
.
29
Krishnasamy, S., Thiagamani, S.M.K., Muthukumar, C. et al. (2019). Effects of stacking sequences on static, dynamic mechanical and thermal properties of completely biodegradable green epoxy hybrid composites.
Materials Research Express.
6: 105351.
https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab3ec7
.
30
Chandrasekar, M., Ishak, M.R., Sapuan, S.M. et al. (2018). Fabrication of fibre metal laminate with flax and sugar palm fibre based epoxy composite and evaluation of their fatigue properties.
Journal of Polymer Materials
35: 463–473.
31
Liu, K., Zhang, X., Takagi, H. et al. (2014). Effect of chemical treatments on transverse thermal conductivity of unidirectional abaca fiber/epoxy composite.
Composites. Part A, Applied Science and Manufacturing
66: 227–236.
32
Arrakhiz, F.Z., Elachaby, M., Bouhfid, R. et al. (2012). Mechanical and thermal properties of polypropylene reinforced with Alfa fiber under different chemical treatment.
Materials and Design
35: 318–322.
33
Senthil Muthu Kumar, T., Rajini, N., Siengchin, S. et al. (2019). Influence of
Musa acuminate
bio-filler on the thermal, mechanical and visco-elastic behavior of poly(propylene) carbonate biocomposites.
International Journal of Polymer Analysis and Characterization
24: 439–446.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1023666X.2019.1602910
.
34
Senthil Muthu Kumar, T., Senthilkumar, K., Chandrasekar, M. et al. (2019). Characterization, thermal and dynamic mechanical properties of poly(propylene carbonate) lignocellulosic
Cocos nucifera
shell particulate biocomposites.
Materials Resreach Express
6
https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab2f08
.
35
Ahmetli, G., Deveci, H., Soydal, U. et al. (2012). Epoxy resin/polymer blends: improvement of thermal and mechanical properties.
Journal of Applied Polymer Science
125: 38–45.
36
Hassan, E., Wei, Y., Jiao, H., and Muhuo, Y. (2013). Dynamic mechanical properties and thermal stability of poly(lactic acid) and poly(butylene succinate) blends composites.
Journal of Fiber Bioengineering and Informatics
6: 85–94.
37
Mbeche, S.M. and Omara, T. (2020). Effects of alkali treatment on the mechanical and thermal properties of sisal/cattail polyester commingled composites.
PeerJ Materials Science
2: e5.
38
Dixit, S., Joshi, B., Kumar, P., and Yadav, V.L. (2020). Novel hybrid structural biocomposites from alkali treated-date palm and coir fibers: morphology, thermal and mechanical properties.
Journal of Polymers and the Environment
28: 2386–2392.
39
Kumar, S.S. (2020). Effect of natural Fiber loading on mechanical properties and thermal characteristics of hybrid polyester composites for industrial and construction fields.
Fibers and Polymers
21: 1508–1514.
40
Krishnudu, D.M., Sreeramulu, D., and Reddy, P.V. (2020). A study of filler content influence on dynamic mechanical and thermal characteristics of coir and luffa cylindrica reinforced hybrid composites.
Construction and Building Materials
251: 119040.
41
Chee, S.S., Jawaid, M., Sultan, M.T.H. et al. (2019). Accelerated weathering and soil burial effects on colour, biodegradability and thermal properties of bamboo/kenaf/epoxy hybrid composites.
Polymer Testing
79: 106054.
42
Pereira, A.L., Banea, M.D., Neto, J.S.S., and Cavalcanti, D.K.K. (2020). Mechanical and thermal characterization of natural intralaminar hybrid composites based on sisal.
Polymers (Basel)
12: 866.
43
Murugan, M.A., Kumar, A.S.S., and Dineshkumar, C. (2020). Analysis of thermal, dynamic and mechanical properties of hybrid aloevera/hemp FRE bio-composites.
Mater. Today Proc.
22: 970–975.
44
Asim, M., Jawaid, M., Paridah, M.T. et al. (2019). Dynamic and thermo-mechanical properties of hybridized kenaf/PALF reinforced phenolic composites.
Polymer Composites
40: 3814–3822.
45
Radzi, A.M., Sapuan, S.M., Jawaid, M., and Mansor, M.R. (2019). Water absorption, thickness swelling and thermal properties of roselle/sugar palm fibre reinforced thermoplastic polyurethane hybrid.
Composites
: 1–7.
46
Liew, F.K., Hamdan, S., Rahman, M.R. et al. (2020). Thermo-mechanical properties of jute/bamboo/polyethylene hybrid composites: the combined effects of silane coupling agent and copolymer.
Polymer Composites
41 (11): 4830–4841.
47
Radzi, A.M., Sapuan, S.M., Jawaid, M., and Mansor, M.R. (2019). Effect of alkaline treatment on mechanical, physical and thermal properties of roselle/sugar palm fiber reinforced thermoplastic polyurethane hybrid composites.
Fibers and Polymers
20: 847–855.
48
Jumaidin, R., Sapuan, S.M., Jawaid, M. et al. (2017). Thermal, mechanical, and physical properties of seaweed/sugar palm fibre reinforced thermoplastic sugar palm starch/agar hybrid composites.
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules
97: 606–615.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.01.079
.
49
Siakeng, R., Jawaid, M., Ariffin, H., and Sapuan, S.M. (2018). Thermal properties of coir and pineapple leaf fibre reinforced polylactic acid hybrid composites.
IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering
368
https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/368/1/012019
.
50
Siakeng, R., Jawaid, M., Asim, M. et al. (2020). Alkali treated coir/pineapple leaf fibres reinforced PLA hybrid composites: evaluation of mechanical, morphological, thermal and physical properties.
Express Polymer Letters
14: 717–730.
51
Yorseng, K., Rangappa, S.M., Pulikkalparambil, H. et al. (2020). Accelerated weathering studies of kenaf/sisal fiber fabric reinforced fully biobased hybrid bioepoxy composites for semi-structural applications: morphology, thermo-mechanical, water absorption behavior and surface hydrophobicity.
Construction and Building Materials
235: 117464.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117464
.
52
Senthilkumar, K., Ungtrakul, T., Chandrasekar, M. et al. (2020). Performance of sisal/hemp bio-based epoxy composites under accelerated weathering.
Journal of Polymers and the Environment
: 1–13.
53
Saba, N., Jawaid, M., Alothman, O.Y., and Paridah, M.T. (2016). A review on dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced polymer composites.
Construction and Building Materials
106: 149–159.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.075
.
54
Saba, N. and Jawaid, M. (2018). A review on thermomechanical properties of polymers and fibers reinforced polymer composites.
Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
67: 1–11.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2018.06.018
.
55
Chandrasekar, M., Ishak, M.R., Sapuan, S.M. et al. (2017). A review on the characterisation of natural fibres and their composites after alkali treatment and water absorption.
Plastics, Rubber and Composites
https://doi.org/10.1080/14658011.2017.1298550
.
2Thermal Properties of Hybrid Natural Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites
A. Vinod, Yashas Gowda, Senthilkumar Krishnasamy, M.R Sanjay, and Suchart Siengchin
Natural Composites Research Group Lab, The Sirindhorn International Thai-German Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, 1518 Pracharat 1 road, Wongsawang, Bangsue, Bangkok, 10800, Thailand
2.1 Introduction
The prolonged use of synthetic materials is causing harmful effects on the environment through production and disposal. The advent of hazards on the environment has influenced many industrialists and researchers to adopt ecofriendly materials like natural fibers as reinforcements in thermoplastic polymer composites. Over the past few decades, due to the industrial revolution, many natural fibers like jute, sisal, and hemp are used to develop components in the automotive, household, and civil constructions. This extensive use of natural resources has created a demand and an urge to identify new potential resources [1–5]. In this regard, many new natural fibers like Tridax procumbens, Saccharum bengalense, Parthenium hysterophorus, and Catharanthus roseus are identified as potential reinforcements in polymer matrices [6–9]. The plant fibers are considered as better reinforcements due to their remarkable properties like low density, biodegradability, availability, and processability. Plant fiber-reinforced lightweight structures in automobiles improved its performance by improving the fuel economy and reducing the landfill on disposal. The natural fibers have other good properties like excellent electrical, thermal, and acoustic insulation properties [9–11].
Despite their advantages, there are certain deficiencies like lower stiffness, lower thermal stability, strength degradation with respect to time, water sensitivity, lower impact resistance, and easily prone to bacterial and fungal attacks. In many cases, a single type of reinforcement cannot offer the desirable properties required for the application. To overcome the issue, hybrid composites are developed, which is a combination of two or more materials like natural–natural or natural–synthetic [12]. The reinforcements in hybrid thermoplastic polymer composite may be in the form of fillers, mats, or fibers. The hybridization of natural fiber composites provides an option for achieving a blend of high strength to weight ratio, good thermal stability, and durable components when compared to a single type of reinforcements. This approach of hybridization mainly helps in achieving cost-effectiveness and reduces the use of synthetic materials which pollutes the environment [13].
The thermal behavior of the composite is a vital property that defines the functionality of the materials in temperature-sensitive environments. Applications of composites in automobiles, aerospace, and industrial insulation are mostly prone to temperature fluctuation. It is essential to study the thermal aspects of the hybrid composite to develop a more sustainable and durable material that is suitable for commercialization [14]. Various techniques involving the thermal study of natural fiber hybrid composites are discussed in the forthcoming sections 2.2.1 to 2.2.4.
2.2 Thermal Properties
Thermal properties like thermal stability, glass transition temperature (Tg), storage modulus (E′), loss modulus (E″), and melt flow properties of composites, must be evaluated before using in versatile temperature-fluctuating applications [15, 16]. These properties help to tailor the properties of thermoplastic polymer composites to enhance their thermal aspects for suitability and sustainability in the application. Currently, there are various thermoplastic polymers like polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), polylactic acid (PLA), polyamide, and polyhydroxyalkonates (PHA), which are commonly used as a matrix in natural fiber hybrid composites [17, 18]. Thermoplastic polymers are very much sensitive to temperature, which results in phase transition in elevated temperatures. The phase transition temperatures of the thermoplastic polymers can be altered by reinforcing them with various natural fibers or with the combination of natural and synthetic fibers. These kinds of reinforcement block the heat flow and restrict the polymer chain movement by elevating the glass transition temperature (Tg), which subsequently raises the temperature-withstanding ability. These reinforcements play a vital role in controlling certain factors such as heat diffusion, thermal insulation capacity, melt flow, phase transition temperature, etc. Hence, it is very crucial to study the thermal properties of composites. A detailed survey about the thermal properties of hybrid natural fiber-based thermoplastic composites is given in the forthcoming sections 2.2.1 to 2.2.4. The current work will be very beneficial for the researchers, industries, scientists, and academicians to know about the recent advances in testing procedures, characterization principles, and thermal properties of recently identified hybrid thermoplastic composites.
2.2.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
TGA analysis is performed to measure the rate of change in mass with a function of temperature and time in a controlled environment and to predict the thermal stability and the composition of the composite. Instruments like Mettler Toledo (Model: TGA 2 SF) and Perkin Elmer (Model: TGA 8000 N5320011, N5320010, TGA 4000 system) are commonly used to perform the analysis [19]. A sample of 5 mg is placed in an aluminum crucible within a furnace. The test is carried out in a controlled environment at a heating rate of 10 °C min−1 within the range of 30–1000 °C depending upon the composite's composition. The resulting thermogram is the graphical representation of temperature vs. mass, which provides information about thermal stability, compositions of initial samples, and the intermediate compounds formed during heating. These result from physical phenomena like phase transitions, absorption and desorption, solid–gas reactions, and decomposition with respect to temperature. The TGA analysis also provides derivative thermogravimetry charts (DTG), which is the first derivative of thermogravimetry. Furthermore, it helps in the investigation of reaction kinetics, applied kinetics, oxidative degradation, and oxidative stability [20]. The highest peak of the DTG curve at any temperature gives the rate of loss in mass. In case of overlapping reactions, there are difficulties in predicting the initial and final degradation temperatures using TG curves, while the DTG curves provide precise information on initial and final degradation temperatures. A model TGA and DTG results are presented in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 (a) TGA sugar palm/glass fiber composite (b) DTG Sugar palm/glass fiber composite.
Source: Atiqah et al. [21].
Figure 2.1a,b shows the thermogravimetry results of sugar palm/glass fiber-reinforced thermoplastic polyurethane hybrid composites. DTG curves from Figure 2.1b show that the increased addition of SPF (30/10 SPF/GF) to the TPU matrix increased the weight loss at temperature Tmax 435 °C. Furthermore, it reduced the decomposition temperature of the TPU hybrid composites. It is concluded that the reduction in GF and increase in the SPF did not affect the thermal stability of composites [21]. A similar behavior is observed in jute–glass epoxy thermoset composites [22]. When glass fibers are hybridized with bamboo fibers in the polypropylene matrix, the resulting thermograms reveal an increase in thermal stability for 15% bamboo fiber/15% glass fiber/2% maleic anhydride coupling agent, due to increased bonding and the higher thermal stability of glass fibers [23]. Various studies showed that the hybridization of synthetic fibers with natural fibers provides desirable thermal stability, and the use of synthetic materials is reduced by the substitution of natural fibers. Moreover, the resulting thermal properties are comparable with those of synthetic reinforcements. Similarly, when glass fibers and short hemp fibers are hybridized in polypropylene, the TGA results reveal an increase in thermal stability with respect to the increase in glass fibers, due to the higher thermal stability of synthetic glass. The thermal stability of composite with 15% glass and 25% hemp is 474 °C with 18.5% residue [24].
Sugar palm fibers are hybridized with roselle fiber in the TPU matrix. The results indicated an increase in thermal stability for 50/50 RF/SPF. Hybridization also results in an improvement in the initial degradation phase and final degradation temperature [25]. In recent research, when areca fibers are hybridized with moringa fibers in polyethylene terephthalate matrix, the thermal stability is increased with a final degradation temperature at 640 °C, which was much higher than the single fiber-reinforced composites. The alkali treatment also helps in increasing thermal stability by inducing interactions with the matrix [26]. In a similar research, the hybridization of the PLA matrix using alkali-treated kenaf (KF) (15%) and aloe vera fibers (15%) improves thermal stability (343 °C), which is comparatively higher than that of single fiber-reinforced PLA composites [27]. Hence, the thermal stability is improved through the hybridization of natural–natural or natural–synthetic fibers in thermoplastic polymer matrices.
2.2.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is used to measure the heat flow to and from the sample as a function of temperature. The analysis is carried out by heating, cooling, or holding the sample at a constant temperature with respect to a reference sample [28]. The energy absorbed or released by the sample is measured in milliwatts. The procedure is carried out by placing 3–10 mg of samples in an aluminum crucible. The samples are later heated from room temperature to the required temperature at a rate of 10–20 °C min−1 in a controlled nitrogen or oxygen environment. Both powdered and flat samples can be used for analysis. For flat samples, care should be taken that the sample surface be at full contact with the crucible to enable proper heat conduction. DSC analysis is most commonly used to analyze the glass transition Tg, cold crystallization, recrystallization, melting, oxidation induction time, and decomposition. Furthermore, it can be used to analyze specific heat capacity, crystallinity, melting behavior, purity of crystalline non-polymeric substances, vaporization, sublimation, desorption, solid–solid transitions, polymorphism, oxidative stability, and compositional analysis [29]. A model DSC curve of polyhydroxy butyrate-co-valerate (PHBV) matrix hybridized with talc and wood fiber is presented in Figure 2.2. The results suggest a reduction in the melting temperature (Tm) due to the addition of talc, due to heterogeneous crystal morphology shifting toward the homogenization of the spherulite growth. The crystallization temperature (Tc) increased from 103 to 107 °C in the presence of talc, thereby indicating the increase in the crystallization rate of PHBV during the cooling stage which shows good interaction between the talc and PHBV.
Singh et al. [30] hybridized HDPE using oil-palm fiber and clay. The DSC results concluded that the crystallinity of the composites depends on the dispersion of the fillers, which acts as a nucleating agent in the polymer matrices. Furthermore, it was observed that the enthalpy of melting ΔHm was decreased from 183 to 143, and 137 J g−1 for composites reinforced with 25 wt% of fiber and clay, respectively, when compared to neat HDPE. This indicated the addition of 25% of fillers enhances the thermal stability of the HDPE [31]. Mariam et al. investigated the effect of hybridization on recycled polypropylene using wood floor and glass fibers and concluded that there was no significant difference in the melting temperature (Tm). Inducing wood floor fillers hindered the crystallinity %, which then increased due to the addition of glass fibers. Further, it can be observed that the addition of wood floor at a certain percentage can reduce the manufacturing cost without hindering the performance of the composite [32]. Thermoplastic starch can be hybridized with wood fiber and calcium carbonate filler, and based on the DSC curves the glass transition temperature and melting point were not significantly different. However, there was a slight increase in Tg and melting point due to the effect of hybridization [33].
Figure 2.2 DSC curves of PHBV and its composites.
Source: Singh et al. [30].
2.2.3 Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA)
Thermomechanical analysis (TMA) is used to measure the dimensional deformation in the samples during heating or cooling. In other words, it is used to determine the dimensional stability of the composites [34]. Most commonly, TMA analysis is used to measure the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), glass transition temperature Tg, young's modulus, and the swelling behavior of composites in solvents. The experiment is carried out by holding flat surface samples in two silica plates and expansion quartz probes. Extreme care must be taken that the sample must have flat contact with silica plates to obtain better results. The samples are later placed in a furnace, and the analysis is carried out in nitrogen, oxygen, or ambient air from 30 to 200 °C, in consideration of the composite at a heating rate of 10 °C min−1. Normally 1 N load is applied over the sample to measure the dimensional changes [35].
Figure 2.3 Model curve of TMA.
Figure 2.3 clearly shows solid transition phases of a composite through TMA curves. Idumah and Hassan [36] hybridized polypropylene using kenaf fiber and graphene nanoparticles (s) and concluded that the inclusion of 3% GNP in polypropylene/kenaf/MAPP (maleic anhydride polypropylene)/GNP decreases the CTE; however, CTE was increased above 3 Phr loading of GNP. Asim et al. [37] investigated the thermal, physical, and flammable properties of silane-treated kenaf (KF)/
