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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Network Routing: Fundamentals, Applications and Emerging Technologies serves as single point of reference for both advanced undergraduate and graduate students studying network routing, covering both the fundamental and more moderately advanced concepts of routing in traditional data networks such as the Internet, and emerging routing concepts currently being researched and developed, such as cellular networks, wireless ad hoc networks, sensor networks, and low power networks.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
About the Authors
Foreword
Preface
Overview
Organization of the Book
Organization of the Chapters
How to use this Book in a Course
Supplementary Resources
Acknowledgement
About the Companion Website
Part I: Fundamental Concepts
1 Introduction to Network Routing
1.1 Introduction to Networks
1.2 Network Architecture and Standards
1.3 Glimpse at the Network Layer
1.4 Addressing in TCP/IP Networks
1.5 Overview of Routing
1.6 Delivery, Forwarding, Routing, and Switching
1.7 Routing Taxonomy
1.8 Host Mobility and Routing
References
Abbreviations/Terminologies
Questions
Exercises
2 Basic Routing Algorithms
2.1 Introduction to Routing Algorithms
2.2 Routing Strategies
2.3 Static Shortest Path Routing Algorithms
2.4 Dynamic Shortest Path Routing Algorithms
2.5 Stochastic Routing Algorithms
References
Abbreviations/Terminologies
Questions
Exercises
3 Fundamental Routing Protocols
3.1 Routing Protocols
3.2 Distance Vector Routing
3.3 Link State Routing
3.4 Path Vector Routing
3.5 Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Routing
References
Abbreviations/Terminologies
Questions
Exercises
Part II: Routing with Quality‐of‐Service and Traffic Engineering
4 Quality‐of‐Service Routing
4.1 Introduction
4.2 QoS Measures
4.3 Differentiated and Integrated Services
4.4 QoS Routing Algorithms
4.5 QoS Unicast Routing Protocols
4.6 QoS Multicast Routing Protocols
4.7 QoS Best‐Effort Routing
References
Abbreviations/Terminologies
Questions
5 Routing and MPLS Traffic Engineering
5.1 MPLS Fundamentals
5.2 Traffic Engineering Routing Algorithms
5.3 Minimum Interference Routing Algorithm
5.4 Profile‐Based Routing Algorithm
5.5 Dynamic Online Routing Algorithm
5.6 Wang
et al
.’s Algorithm
5.7 Random Races Algorithm
References
Abbreviations/Terminologies
Questions
Exercises
Part III: Routing on the Internet
6 Interior Gateway Protocols
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Distance Vector Protocols
6.3 Link State Protocols
References
Abbreviations/Terminologies
Questions
Exercises
7 Exterior Gateway Protocol
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Exterior Gateway Protocol
7.3 Border Gateway Protocol
References
Abbreviations/Terminologies
Questions
Exercises
Part IV: Other Routing Contexts
8 Routing in ATM Networks
8.1 Introduction
8.2 PNNI Routing
References
Abbreviations/Terminologies
Questions
Exercises
9 Routing in Cellular Wireless Networks
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Basics of Cellular Wireless Networks
9.3 Resource Allocation
9.4 Routing in GSM Networks
9.5 Challenges in Mobile Computing
References
Abbreviations/Terminologies
Questions
Exercises
10 Routing in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Table‐Driven (Proactive) Routing Protocols
10.3 On‐Demand (Reactive) Routing Protocols
10.4 Hybrid Routing Protocols
10.5 Hierarchical Routing Protocols
10.6 Geographic Routing Protocols
10.7 Power‐Aware Routing Protocols
References
Abbreviations/Terminologies
Questions
Exercises
11 Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks
11.1 Basics of Wireless Sensor Networks
11.2 Routing Challenges in Wireless Sensor Networks
11.3 Flat Routing Protocols
11.4 Hierarchical Routing Protocols
11.5 Location‐Based Routing Protocols
11.6 Multipath Routing Protocols
11.7 Query‐Based Routing Protocols
11.8 Negotiation‐Based Routing Protocols
11.9 QoS Routing Protocols
References
Abbreviations/Terminologies
Questions
Exercises
12 Routing in 6LoWPAN
12.1 Introduction
12.2 6LoWPAN Fundamentals
12.3 Interoperability of 6LoWPAN
12.4 Applications
12.5 Security Considerations and Research Areas
References
Abbreviations/Terminologies
Questions
Exercises
Part V: Advanced Concepts
13 Security in Routing
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Attack Surface
13.3 Networked Battlefield
13.4 Mobile Agents
13.5 Cognitive Security
References
Abbreviations/Terminologies
Questions
Exercises
14 Reliability and Fault‐Tolerant and Delay‐Tolerant Routing
14.1 Fundamentals of Network Reliability
14.2 Fault Tolerance
14.3 Network Management for Fault Detection
14.4 Wireless Tactical Networks
14.5 Routing in Delay‐Tolerant Networks
References
Abbreviations/Terminologies
Questions
Exercises
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 01
Table 1.1 Comparison of network topologies.
Table 1.2 A few major networks standardized by IEEE.
Table 1.3 Layer‐wise protocols in the ISO OSI model.
Table 1.4 IP address class.
Chapter 03
Table 3.1 Distance vector table at time T0.
Table 3.2 Intermediate distance vector table at time T1 after receiving tables for updates from neighboring nodes.
Table 3.3 The final distance vector table at time T1 after selecting lowest‐cost entries for each available destination.
Table 3.4 The distance vector table at time T2.
Table 3.5 Path vector routing table at startup.
Table 3.6 Path vector routing table after updating from advertisement from neighbor.
Table 3.7 Path vector routing table after stabilization.
Chapter 07
Table 7.1 States of EGP gateway along with messages related to the respective states.
Table 7.2 Topologies for AS connectivity.
Chapter 08
Table 8.1 The fields in the ATM cell header.
Table 8.2 ATM service categories.
Chapter 09
Table 9.1 Pin connection in a SIM.
Table 9.2 NOR flash vs NAND flash.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Comparison of a cellular wireless network and an ad hoc wireless network.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Difference between a wireless ad hoc network and a wireless sensor network.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Network downtime statistics for the last 6 months of an organization.
Table 14.2 Reliability and availability calculated for different time periods.
Table 14.3 Implementation of steps 5, 6, and 7 of the algorithm used in reliability calculation using minterms.
Table 14.4 Pros and cons of reliability methods.
Table 14.5 Network topologies with non‐fault‐tolerant and fault‐tolerant architecture.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 01
Figure 1.1 Bus topology.
Figure 1.2 Mesh topology.
Figure 1.3 Ring topology.
Figure 1.4 Star topology.
Figure 1.5 A network with two routers and two LANs connected to each router.
Figure 1.6 Methods of delivery.
Chapter 02
Figure 2.1 Sample network to demonstrate flooding.
Figure 2.2 A graph to explain Dijkstra’s algorithm.
Figure 2.3 Classification of dynamic routing.
Chapter 03
Figure 3.1 A sample network of interconnected routers.
Figure 3.2 Example of a network that leads to pinhole congestion.
Figure 3.3 A sample network to explain path vector routing.
Figure 3.4 Movement of a packet from source to destination in unicast.
Figure 3.5 Movement of a packet and its copies from source to all members of the multicast group.
Figure 3.6 Movement of packets and its copies from source to all the nodes in the network during broadcast.
Figure 3.7 Scope of operation for protocols supporting multicasting – IGMP and the multicast routing algorithm.
Chapter 04
Figure 4.1 Interior router and boundary router in a differentiated service architecture.
Chapter 06
Figure 6.1 UDP datagram for RIP message.
Figure 6.2 RIP header.
Figure 6.3 RIP version 1 message format.
Figure 6.4 RIP version 2 message format.
Figure 6.5 A sample network of routers.
Figure 6.6 OSPF routers and their areas.
Figure 6.7 Neighbor relation in point‐to‐point network versus multiaccess network.
Figure 6.8 Areas in IS‐IS depicting interconnections between level 1 and level 2 routers.
Figure 6.9 Level 1 (L1) and level 2 (L2) routers in the areas in IS‐IS routing to depict suboptimal routing from level 1 to level 2.
Figure 6.10 Creation of a pseudo node by DR.
Chapter 07
Figure 7.1 A network indicating the terminology and the types of router connectivity in BGP.
Figure 7.2 A network indicating stub and multihome routers in BGP.
Figure 7.3 Congestion in AS due to transit traffic.
Figure 7.4 AS confederation.
Figure 7.5 Route aggregation in BGP.
Figure 7.6 Classification of BGP path attributes.
Figure 7.7 Processing of well‐known mandatory attributes by BGP router.
Figure 7.8 Processing of optional transitive attributes by BGP router.
Figure 7.9 Processing of optional non‐transitive attributes by BGP router.
Figure 7.10 State diagram of BGP operation.
Figure 7.11 BGP session indicating various states.
Figure 7.12 A sample network of BGP with similar link connectivity between the routers.
Figure 7.13 A sample network of BGP with variation in link connectivity between the routers.
Figure 7.14 Route selection process.
Chapter 08
Figure 8.1 Multiplexing packets of variable size from three networks.
Figure 8.2 Multiplexing packets of fixed size from three networks.
Figure 8.3 UNI and NNI depicted in a typical ATM network.
Figure 8.4 ATM cell header for the user network interface (ATM switch–endpoint).
Figure 8.5 ATM cell header for the network node interface (ATM switch–ATM switch).
Figure 8.6 Cross‐section of a virtual connection indicating VC, VP, and TP.
Figure 8.7 Structure of an ATM switching table.
Figure 8.8 Three‐layered ATM protocol stack.
Figure 8.9 Bandwidth distribution for different service categories in ATM over circular time‐variant display.
Figure 8.10 Hierarchically configured nodes for PNNI routing.
Chapter 09
Figure 9.1 Cell splitting.
Figure 9.2 Cell sectoring.
Figure 9.3 Selective cells.
Figure 9.4 A seven‐cell frequency reuse pattern.
Figure 9.5 Cell coverage pattern.
Figure 9.6 Handover in the cellular network.
Figure 9.7 Umbrella cells to avoid frequent handovers.
Figure 9.8 Single‐hop and multihop routing.
Figure 9.9 Intercell multihop routing.
Figure 9.10 Architecture of a GSM network.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Basic wireless ad hoc network.
Figure 10.2 Unavailable node due to high interference.
Figure 10.3 Hidden node.
Figure 10.4 Resolving the hidden node problem.
Figure 10.5 The problem of an exposed node.
Figure 10.6 Closed ad hoc network.
Figure 10.7 Open ad hoc networks.
Figure 10.8 Sequence of steps in dynamic source routing.
Figure 10.9 Hierarchical routing.
Figure 10.10 Greedy geographic routing.
Figure 10.11 Greedy geographic routing with a dead end.
Figure 10.12 Packet forwarding in DREAM.
Figure 10.13 Location‐Aided Routing.
Figure 10.14 A graph formed by connecting the nodes of the ad hoc network for face routing.
Figure 10.15 Depiction of a face change taking place at nodes
u
,
v
,
w
.
Figure 10.16 A sample ad hoc network depicting power depletion of an intermediate node.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Block diagram of a typical wireless sensor node.
Figure 11.2 Star network topology in a WSN.
Figure 11.3 Mesh network topology in a WSN.
Figure 11.4 Hybrid network topology in a WSN.
Figure 11.5 Classification of WSN routing protocols.
Figure 11.6 Multihop transmission in an indicative WSN.
Figure 11.7 Data implosion during flooding.
Figure 11.8 Interesting event covered by two sensors in the overlap region and flooded through the neighbors by both sensors.
Figure 11.9 (a) Diffusion of interest from the sink node in the WSN.
Figure 11.9 (b) Gradient setup from source node to sink node.
Figure 11.9 (c) Data delivery from source to sink through the discovered path.
Figure 11.10 (a) SPIN – advertisement of metadata to all neighbors.
Figure 11.10 (b) SPIN – after checking of metadata, a request for actual data by nodes not having the data.
Figure 11.10 (c) SPIN – transmission of actual data to the interested nodes.
Figure 11.11 Creation of a chain in a WSN running PEGASIS.
Figure 11.12 A WSN running TEEN protocol.
Figure 11.13 A WSN with link disjoint paths.
Figure 11.14 A WSN with node disjoint paths.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 A schematic representation of ZigBee and 6LoWPAN stacks.
Figure 12.2 Interoperability of 6LoWPAN over the Internet.
Figure 12.3 Different approaches to node and service discovery in 6LoWPAN.
Figure 12.4 Sequence diagram of communication between a smart soldier and a smart weapon system.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 ARP spoofing attack.
Figure 13.2 Recursive domain name resolution.
Figure 13.3 Iterative domain name resolution.
Figure 13.4 Use case diagram of a networked battlefield.
Figure 13.5 Class diagram of a smart soldier.
Figure 13.6 State chart diagram of a smart weapons system in a networked battlefield.
Figure 13.7 Representing a mobile agent.
Figure 13.8 Markovian chain representing the mobile agent life cycle.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Sample network for reliability calculation using the circuit of the network.
Figure 14.2 Reduced network for reliability calculation using the circuit of the network.
Figure 14.3 Sample network for reliability calculation using the probability of the path.
Figure 14.4 Reduced network for reliability calculation using the probability of the path.
Figure 14.5 Sample network for reliability calculation using the Markov model.
Figure 14.6 Sample network for reliability calculation using minterms.
Figure 14.7 Reduced network for reliability calculation using minterms.
Figure 14.8 Subgraph I and subgraph II for minimal cut b–c.
Figure 14.9 Adaptation processes in a self‐adaptive system.
Figure 14.10 Architecture of a traditional network management system.
Figure 14.11 Architecture of an MA‐based tactical network management system.
Figure 14.12 Architecture of a policy‐based network management (PBNM) system.
Guide
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Network Routing
Fundamentals, Applications, and Emerging Technologies
Sudip Misra
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
Sumit Goswami
Defence Research and Development OrganizationNew Delhi, India
This edition first published 2017© 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Registered OfficeJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom
For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com.
The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.
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Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought
Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Misra, Sudip, author. | Goswami, Sumit, author.Title: Network routing : fundamentals, applications and emerging technologies / Sudip Misra, Sumit Goswami.Description: Chichester, West Sussex, United Kingdom : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2016028174 | ISBN 9780470750063 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119029380 (epub) | ISBN 9781119029397 (ePdf)Subjects: LCSH: Routing (Computer network management)Classification: LCC TK5105.5487 .M57 2017 | DDC 004.6–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016028174
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Cover Design: WileyCover Images: (Earth) Harvepino/Gettyimages; (Background) amgun/Gettyimages
Sudip dedicates this book to his family.
Sumit dedicates this book to the organization in which his father served and in which he grew up – the Border Security Force, India.
About the Authors
Dr Sudip Misra is an Associate Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India. Prior to this he was associated with Cornell University (USA), Yale University (USA), Nortel Networks (Canada), and the Government of Ontario (Canada). He received his PhD degree in Computer Science from Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada, and Master’s and Bachelor’s degrees, respectively, from the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, Canada, and the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India. Dr Misra has several years of experience working in academia, government, and the private sector in research, teaching, consulting, project management, software design, and product engineering roles.
His current research interests include mobile ad hoc and sensor networks, the Internet of Things (IoT), computer networks, and learning systems. Dr Misra is the author of over 260 scholarly research papers, of which over 150 have been published in distinguished journals. He has won nine research paper awards in different international conferences. He was awarded 3rd Prize in the Samsung Innovation Award (2014) at IIT, Kharagpur, and also the IEEE ComSoc Asia Pacific Outstanding Young Researcher Award at IEEE GLOBECOM 2012, Anaheim, California, USA. He is also the recipient of several academic awards and fellowships, such as the Young Scientist Award (National Academy of Sciences, India), the Young Systems Scientist Award (Systems Society of India), the Young Engineers Award (Institution of Engineers, India), the (Canadian) Governor General’s Academic Gold Medal at Carleton University, the University Outstanding Graduate Student Award at Doctoral Level at Carleton University, and the National Academy of Sciences, India – Swarna Jayanti Puraskar (Golden Jubilee Award). He was also awarded the Canadian Government’s prestigious NSERC Postdoctoral Fellowship and the Humboldt Research Fellowship in Germany.
Dr Misra is the Editor‐in‐Chief of the International Journal of Communication Networks and Distributed Systems (IJCNDS), Inderscience, UK. He has also served (is serving) as the Associate Editor of IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, Telecommunication Systems Journal (Springer), Security and Communication Networks Journal (Wiley), International Journal of Communication Systems (Wiley), and EURASIP Journal of Wireless Communications and Networking. He is also an Editor/Editorial Board Member/Editorial Review Board Member of the IET Communications Journal, IET Wireless Sensor Systems, and Computers and Electrical Engineering Journal (Elsevier).
Dr Misra has published ten books in the areas of opportunistic networks, wireless ad hoc networks, wireless sensor networks, wireless mesh networks, communication networks and distributed systems, network reliability and fault tolerance, and information and coding theory, published by reputed publishers such as Wiley, Springer, Cambridge University Press, and World Scientific.
He has been invited to chair several international conference/workshop programs and sessions. He has served on the program committees of several international conferences. Dr Misra has also been invited to deliver keynote/invited lectures in over 30 international conferences in the USA, Canada, Europe, Asia, and Africa.
Dr Sumit Goswami is a scientist with the Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO), Ministry of Defence, Government of India. He has worked in the field of information security, wide area networks, website hosting, network management, and information extraction. He gained his PhD degree and Master’s degree in Computer Science and Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India. He also holds a Postgraduate Diploma in Journalism and Mass Communication, a Bachelor’s Degree in Library and Information Science, and a BTech Degree in Computer Science and Engineering.
He has made significant research contributions in the area of public key infrastructure, mobile ad hoc and sensor networks, stylometric analysis, the Internet of Things, and machine learning. He has published more than 70 papers/chapters in various journals, books, data competitions, conferences, and seminars. He also has experience in Engineering Design and Technology Development related to mailing services, website security, webcasting, and intranets. For excellence of work, he has twice been awarded the DRDO’s Medal and Commendation Certificate. He also has expertise in techno‐managerial analysis and monitoring of projects. He was a member of the Team award by the Defence Minister for Best Techno‐Managerial Services – 2012.
Prior to joining DRDO, he worked with CMC Limited, New Delhi, as Engineer – System Integration. At CMC Limited he worked on a range of network products and technologies, some of which were legacy networks while others were contemporary. He has experience of designing and managing networks based on full duplex fast Ethernet and ATM on local area networks and satellite, microwave, ISDN, MPLS, and STM link‐based wide area networks.
To promote computer science among the masses, he writes general computer science articles in magazines and has contributed to more than 15 such topics. He is also a prolific instructor and has been the guest lecturer in various engineering colleges, as well as a regular speaker in a number of courses within his organization. He has also served on the program committees of several international conferences. He is a life member of the Computer Society of India. He is presently appointed as Counsellor (Defence Technology) in the Embassy of India, Washington D.C., USA.
Foreword
Network routing has evolved over the past 65 years, and this book systematically makes its readers traverse this journey of evolution of network routing through its 500 plus pages. With ‘nano’ on the anvil, an in‐depth understanding of present and past routing technologies is essential to explore future innovations and discoveries. The book will uniquely prepare its readers to face the toughest routing challenges in all varieties of networks owing to the tremendous effort put into presenting detailed illustrations throughout the book to aid learning.
The book delivers its contents in five parts: fundamental concepts, routing in QoS and traffic engineering, routing on the Internet, other routing contexts (ATM, cellular wireless networks, wireless ad hoc networks, wireless sensor networks, 6LoWPAN), and advanced concepts pertaining to security and reliability. It demonstrates the commitment of the authors to connect from history to the future through the contemporary. There are a total of 14 chapters, with many figures, questions, and exercises. The core of the book lies in its coverage of all routing mechanisms under a single source, with special mention of its unprecedented collection of routing techniques in the entire range of wireless networks. IoT is a game changer, and this book has a chapter on 6LoWPAN too. Demands also remain among the network administrators for network management and network security, which together form the backbone for supporting efficient and fault‐free routing. This book will definitely build on the confidence of network researchers and administrators in this area too. In addition, it introduces a few topics of upcoming interest – attack surfaces, smart systems, mobile agents, networked battlefields, and cognitive security.
While the book has focused on present‐day routing techniques, it has not lost sight of the basic routing protocols and algorithms, which have been explained in depth. Teaching materials in the form of presentations in sync with the chapters are also made available by the authors. Answers to all the questions have been provided. However, solution to only selective exercise questions have been uploaded onto the website of the book, so as to ensure sustained memory performance leading to different possible solutions.
The book will steward its readers on the journey from legacy networks to future‐generation networks.
Dr Khaled B. LetaiefFellow of IEEE,Chair Professor, Department of Electronic and Computer Engineering,Hong Kong University of Science and Technologyhttps://www.ece.ust.hk/~eekhaled/
Preface
Overview
Coverage of routing techniques in various wired and wireless networks is the unique proposition of this book. Routing protocols and algorithms are the brains of any network. The selection of topics in this book is clear: we attempt to explain routing in its entirety, starting from fundamental concepts, then moving through routing on the Internet, and finally cutting across the recent‐day cellular, ad hoc, and wireless networks. At the same time, the book has significant coverage of related topics, i.e. network reliability, management, and security. The core concepts elaborated in the book provide a foundation for understanding the next‐generation networks and pushing them to their safe boundary limits. These concepts are integrated with illustrations and flow diagrams that will enable the readers to experience a fly‐through of the routing processes over the devices.
In this age of rapidly evolving networks, this book stands at the intersection of historical network routing techniques and evolving concepts that the world is working on. The book builds on the foundation to create a ‘network analyst’ and a ‘routing strategist’.
Organization of the Book
The book is organized into five parts, starting from a basic introduction and ending with advanced concepts.
The first part of the book presents the fundamental concepts of networks and routing. Chapter 1 provides basic knowledge about networks, addressing schemes, architectures, and standards so as to act as a foundation for those readers who have not done a basic course in computer networks. Routing algorithms based on various strategies are described in Chapter 2. All the major categories of fundamental routing protocols are covered in Chapter 3.
The second part of the book presents routing with quality of service and traffic engineering. Chapter 4 has complete coverage of QoS measures, terminologies, algorithms, and protocols. Chapter 5 is dedicated to traffic engineering and describes multiprotocol label switching and TE routing algorithms.
The third part of the book presents routing on the Internet. This part starts with exhaustive coverage of two major kinds of interior gateway protocol in Chapter 6, and ends with the detailed evolution history of exterior gateway protocol along with its operational details in Chapter 7.
The fourth part of the book presents all other routing contexts, from legacy networks to future‐generation networks. The heritage ATM network is covered in Chapter 8, including frame format, architecture, service categories, and routing. Chapters 9, 10, and 11 present the characteristics, followed by comprehensive coverage of most of the routing techniques in contemporary networks, i.e. cellular wireless networks, wireless ad hoc networks, and wireless sensor networks. Chapter 12 is dedicated to the fundamentals, applications, and routing in upcoming networks for the future generation, i.e. 6LoWPAN.
The fifth part of the book presents advanced concepts related to network routing. Chapter 13 is dedicated to one of the major concerns in the area of network routing, i.e. security. The chapter contains sections on various kinds of attack, metrics to calculate exposure to attacks, security in battlefield networks, mobile agents for network management, and the upcoming area of cognitive security. Chapter 14 presents the fundamentals of network reliability, fault tolerance, and delay‐tolerant networks.
Organization of the Chapters
All the chapters in the book are organized in a similar fashion. A chapter begins with the introduction of the topic, which includes the history or background and an overview of the topic. This is followed by a general description of the common terms used in the topic, for better contextual understanding, and then an in‐depth description of the theoretical aspects. Applications of the topic under study may be covered at the beginning or at the end, depending on the ease of understanding for the reader as felt by the authors. Contemporary research being done in the field is also given appropriate coverage where deemed necessary. Each chapter has its own list of references, followed by a list of the abbreviations employed, for ready reference. This is followed by a set of questions to be used by instructors and students to test the understanding of the chapter. The chapter ends with some exercise questions, which the students are encouraged to attempt.
How to use this Book in a Course
The book will definitely be of help to computer and electronics engineers, researchers, network designers, routing analysts, and security professionals, who will be able to pick and choose between chapters and sections as per their requirements – to gain knowledge of the historical background, theoretical base, configuration details, ongoing research, or application areas. For those who have a basic background knowledge of wired or wireless networks, all the chapters are self‐contained, and hence any chapter or a section therein can be selected at random for study.
For academicians, the suggested strategy for handling the book is a sequential approach with minor exclusions. The faculty can use this book in three different types of course.
Firstly, it can be used as a textbook for a course in network routing. The course can be offered to graduate or senior undergraduate students. A prerequisite course on networks or wireless networks is desirable but not essential. This book can even be introduced as a textbook for first exposure to networks in various branches of engineering, such as computer science, information technology, electronics, instrumentation, electrical engineering, or reliability. This approach has been tested with our student interns, who had not previously undertaken any course on computer networks and read this book so as to gain background knowledge of networks to work on the projects.
For a complete semester course in network routing, given the fixed number of instruction hours, a few chapters/sections from the book may be skipped, and students may read these either out of interest or to fulfil a project/assignment for the course. Chapters 5, 8, 13, and 14 may be skipped in their entirety. Chapters 5 and 8 cover legacy networks and are targeted at network professionals still managing these networks. Chapters 13 and 14 are intended for security professionals, academic researchers, and routing analysts. Certain sections from a few chapters also may not be taught in class. The section on exterior gateway protocol in Chapter 7 is an exposure to historical routing protocol, the coverage of challenges in mobile computing in Chapter 9 is written for the research community, and the sections on interoperability, applications, and security in Chapter 12 have primarily been written for network designers and researchers from the industry, and thus these sections may not be covered in the one‐semester course curriculum.
Secondly, it can be used as a reference book for any course in computer networks, data communication, wireless networks, and sensor networks.
Thirdly, based on certain sections on contemporary topics in the book, it can also be used as a reference book in certain courses other than on computer networks, such as reliability and fault tolerance, cognition, mobile agents, unified modeling language, and tactical networks.
Supplementary Resources
The following supplementary resources have been prepared along with the book:
detailed presentation slides for all the chapters,
answers to all the questions,
solutions to selective exercises.
Faculty and other readers of the book may contact the publisher to receive a copy of the supplementary resources or may access it from the website www.wiley.com/go/misra2204. Regular updates of supplementary resources, with addendums and corrigendum, if any, will be uploaded, and hence please visit the website once the course is on.
The presentation can be used by the faculty for classroom teaching. This presentation can thereafter be used by students for quick revision of the contents of the chapters. Even though the contents of the book give an insight into what the book holds, these presentations also provide an opportunity for researchers and academicians to take a quick peep at the contents of the book for selective reading of the chapters of interests for any particular requirement.
The answers to all of the questions posed at the end of each of the chapters have been provided. However, solutions to only selective exercises have been added in the supplementary material. Among the others, there are certain exercises that do not have a single solution. The solution to such exercises will vary depending on the profile of the reader and the ecosystem where the course is being taught, and hence may be attempted accordingly. Evaluation of these exercises should be based on the stepwise solution approach adopted by the students and not for binary marking.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank our families for their support, as the time spent writing this book was carved out of time that might otherwise have been shared.
We thank our colleagues at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kharagpur, India, and the Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO), Ministry of Defence, New Delhi, India, for their encouragement, suggestions, and help.
Special thanks to the publishers who granted us copyright permission (including all languages, all editions) without charge to use verbatim the authors’ work published by them – IGI Global, Allied Publishers, New Delhi, Defence Scientific Information and Documentation Center DESIDOC, New Delhi [for Defence Science Journal, DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology (DJLIT), and DRDO Newsletter], CyberMedia (India), New Delhi (for PC Quest).
Friends, indeed, helped in time of need. Chaynika Taneja, Mukesh and Pooja Sonkarr were always there for all kinds of help. Rahul Sangore and Rashi Arora provided a few illustrations. Anjali Madan, Kessar Singh, Sahil Srivastava, Ishita Kathuria, Preeti Kumari, and Onkar Rai helped us to prepare the supplementary material. A few student interns at both Institutes also gave their support, mainly contributing to the literature survey.
Wiley Publishers put their faith in our work and took on the task of publishing it and continuing its circulation worldwide. We are grateful to the publication team at Wiley who worked so swiftly to convert our manuscript into this book. The team comprised Sandra Grayson (Associate Book Editor), Yamuna Jayaraman (Production Editor), and Paul Curtis (Copy Editor), with whom we worked directly, and all those who contributed to the production of the book at the publishing house. Apart from publication assistance, it was the book editors from Wiley who relentlessly drove us to complete this book by regularly interacting with us.
Our heartfelt thanks to all those professors, technocrats, and academicians who went through our manuscript and endorsed the book. We express in advance our gratitude to all those professors who will use this book in their course curriculum, the students who will study the book, and the researchers and professionals who will refer the book. We look forward to receiving your reviews and suggestions for forthcoming reprints and editions.
13 January 2017
Sudip MisraSumit Goswami
About the Companion Website
This book is accompanied by a website:
www.wiley.com/go/misra2204
The website includes:
Detailed presentation slides for the Chapters
Answers to the questions at the end of each chapter
Solutions to the selective exercises at the end of each chapter
Part IFundamental Concepts
1Introduction to Network Routing
1.1 Introduction to Networks
1.2 Network Architecture and Standards
1.3 Glimpse at the Network Layer
1.4 Addressing in TCP/IP Networks
1.5 Overview of Routing
1.6 Delivery, Forwarding, Routing, and Switching
1.7 Routing Taxonomy
1.8 Host Mobility and Routing
References
Abbreviations/Terminologies
Questions
Exercises
1.1 Introduction to Networks
A computer network supports data communication between two or more devices over a transmission medium. The transmission medium can either be wired or wireless. The network is established and data is transmitted over it with the support of networking hardware and the software running on the hardware. Network hardware comprises equipment that generates the signal at the source, transmits the signal over the transmission medium, and receives and processes the signal at the destination. The software comprises protocols, standards, instructions, and algorithms that support transmission services over the network. The essentiality of networks has increased over time, along with advancement in network hardware, software, and support applications. There are huge variations in the size of a network in use; there can be small networks confined to an office or home, and at the same time there are networks spread across cities and countries. The spread of the network can be described in various terms, such as distance covered and the number of computers and other resources connected to the network. A local area network confined to a building may connect thousands of computers, such as in a software development center, a call center, or a stock exchange. Alternatively, a network spread across continents may connect only a handful of computers; for example, a network from a country to its base station in Antarctica may cover a few thousand miles but connect only a few computers.
The purpose of a network is to enable transmission of information between two or more networked nodes. The networked nodes can be computing devices, storages, networking devices, or network‐enabled peripherals. The computing devices can be desktop computers, laptops, or servers. Network‐enabled peripherals can be printers, FAX, or scanners, and the networking devices are switches, routers, or gateways. Any other network‐enabled device capable of sending or receiving data over the transmission medium can be a part of the network. A network system comprises a source, a destination, and the transmission system in‐between. The source prepares data for transmission over the transmission medium. The preparation involves transformation of data, striping it into smaller parts, encapsulation, encoding, modulation, and multiplexing for converting bit streams into electrical signals or electromagnetic or radio waves. The transmission medium comprises the network connecting different nodes. The transmission medium can support unidirectional flow of data (simplex), bidirectional flow of data (duplex), or flow of data in either direction at one time (half‐duplex). It can also be wired or wireless, providing point‐to‐point connectivity, or it can work in a one‐to‐many broadcast mode. The transmission medium may directly connect the source to destination, or it may be through intermediate network nodes. Thus, a transmission medium can be in various forms, utilizing different technologies and encompassing a variety of architectures. The destination receives data from the transmission medium, demultiplexes, demodulates, and retrieves the original data after decoding, rearranging, and merging. The transmission medium is a complex system as it can be shared between various network devices and has to run identification, channel utilization, security, congestion control, and bandwidth assurance services on it.
In addition to the source, destination, and transmission medium, a network system also comprises a few services such as exchange management, error detection and correction, flow control, addressing and routing, recovery, message formatting, and network management [1]. Exchange management deals with the mutually agreed conventions for data format and transmission rules between the sender and the receiver. The network system is prone to errors due to signal distortion, introduction of noise in the data signal, and bit flips during transmission, which may lead to receiving incorrect data, data loss, and data alteration. These are handled by error detection and correction techniques. Recovery is the process through which a network system is able to resume its activity even after a failure. The recovery may be from the point of failure or from a restore point prior to the failure. Flow control helps in synchronizing the rate of transmission from the sender, its flow through the network, and the rate at which the data is received. Flow control ensures that the data is transmitted at a mutually agreed rate to take care of the difference in the processing speed or variation in the network bandwidth of the sender and the receiver. Addressing is used uniquely to identify a network resource, and routing helps in deciding the optimum path for the data to flow from the source to the destination through the intermediate network. Message formats are the mutually agreed form of data. Network management is to monitor the network system, detect points of failure, and monitor the health of the system in terms of bandwidth utilization and load on network nodes. This helps to predict probable points of failure in future and enables enhancement or change in resources to avoid any network outage. The network management system also helps in version control of the software running on the nodes, its centralized upgradation, patch management, and inventory control of software and hardware.
The Internet is the largest network in terms of its geographical spread as well as the number of connected computers. The Internet has become the de facto network for people as well as organizations worldwide owing to its capability to act as a connectivity medium across geographical regions. The common applications running over the Internet are electronic mail, electronic commerce, and Web access. In the 1960s, when the networks were being conceptualized and experimented, vendors designed and developed proprietary network equipment and protocols. This led to competitiveness among the vendors for faster development of network protocols and devices for having a competitive edge by providing an advanced and more scalable network. However, it restricted interconnectivity among networks from different vendors such as Microsoft, Novell, Banyan, Xerox, IBM, and DEC. A network based on equipment and software of one vendor could not connect or exchange data with a network based on the products of another vendor. Thus, if some computers in an organization were on the Novell network, they could not share data with other computers of the same organization that were on the IBM network.
Introduction of the seven‐layered open system interconnection (OSI) as an implementation of the ISO standard led to the establishment of a framework for multivendor network compatibility, connectivity, and interoperability. Based on the ISO standard, the vendors provided interconnectivity options over their proprietary networking protocols. However, the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) became a de facto network connectivity standard preferred over interconnection suites of the proprietary networks, and slowly the vendors moved on to support TCP/IP [2]. TCP/IP was an outcome of research in ARPANET, a United States Department of Defense (DoD) project and hence sometimes known as the ‘DoD model’. TCP/IP is also commonly known as the ‘public networking model’, as the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) maintains the protocol with the involvement of representatives from various networking companies for evolution of TCP/IP standards. The Internet is built on TCP/IP providing connectivity between heterogeneous physical networks and protocols.
The present‐day network is used for transmission of data, voice, video, and share resources. With time, there has been a rapid increase in the bandwidth supported by wired as well as wireless networks. The bandwidth availability has increased to cater for data sharing between computers and servers with high memory and processing power as well as voice and video applications. Concurrently, the problem of traffic congestion is evident owing to an increasing demand for network bandwidth. Congestion is also caused by scaling of the network without considering the available network resources in place. There has been a reduction in the cost of networking devices as well as computing devices. So, a faster and scalable network can be established at a much lower cost. However, the reduction in computing cost and increase in the number and type of computer applications lead to increase in the rate at which the devices push data into the network. Convergence of voice, video, and data into a single application and its transmission through a common integrated channel also increases the bandwidth utilization. With a high degree of office automation and dependence on the network for real‐time or near‐real‐time data transmission and updates, slow and congested networks are unacceptable.
In order to avoid congestion, a network is generally broken down into smaller segments using networking devices called bridges, switches, and routers. The contents of the data being transmitted over a network are not of any interest to these networking devices. These networking devices look only into the origin, destination, and control information related to the data in transit so as to enable its effective delivery to the destination [3]. The effectiveness of the delivery varies with the application and may be optimized in terms of transmission time, secured delivery, reliable delivery, acknowledgement, delivery only through a dedicated path, or assurance of a minimum bandwidth throughout the transmission link, ensuring quality of service (QoS).
A network is generally gauged by three major criteria – performance, reliability, and security [4]. The performance of a network is dependent on a number of factors, such as the number of nodes connected to the network, the bandwidth of the transmission medium, the protocol used, the software overlay, and the amount of memory and processing capability of the networking hardware and the nodes. The network performance is evaluated in terms of throughput and delay, which are inversely proportional to each other. Transit time and response time are the two parameters used to measure the performance of the network. Transit time is the amount of time a message spends in the network after its transmission from the source until it reaches the destination. Response time is the total time between sending a query through the network and receiving its response. Reliability relates to the duration for which a network remains operational without failure, which is different from availability. A network that goes down every hour just for a second will be highly available, but its reliability will be low. Thus, reliability can be measured with the help of mean time between failures (MTBF). Network security relates to implementation of access policies, restricting the data from unauthorized access, protection from change of data (integrity), preventing damage or loss of data, detection of security breaches, and procedures for data and network recovery in case of security attack.
1.2 Network Architecture and Standards
Network architecture is the logical and structural layout of the network that assists and guides the network designer in implementing an optimum network. The network architecture also supports the network administrator in managing the network and troubleshooting the point of failure in case of a breakdown. The network architecture is an essential component for working on the security of the network and implementing access policies. Network communication is a multilayer task wherein each activity is accomplished at a particular layer of the architecture. The layering makes the architecture simple to develop and implement. Each product and protocol is designed to work in a particular layer or across a few layers with standard interlayer interfaces supporting interoperability among the products and protocols. Although a network may be designed and implemented in various forms, the OSI layer divides it into three basic categories. The data transmission uses the physical layer of the OSI model, the network devices operate at the data link layer and network layer, and the applications use the session layer, presentation layer, and application layer of the OSI model.
The network architecture is closely associated with the topology of the network. The topology is the logical design of the network, showing the interconnection of the networked nodes. The topology planned for a network is based on cost, scalability, application, criticality, size, and type of network. The commonly used topologies are star, bus, ring, and mesh. Various combinations or minor modifications of these common topologies can be used to evolve other topologies such as tree, distributed bus, extended star, distributed star, partial mesh, or hybrid.
In a star topology, the network nodes have a point‐to‐point connection with the central hub. In a bus topology, also known as a line network, each network node is connected to a single cable. In a ring topology, the network nodes are set up in a circular fashion in which the data transmission takes place around a ring in one direction and each neighboring node, either to the left or to the right, works as a repeater in order to maintain the strength of the signal as it is transmitted in a loop. This topology is also known as a loop network. In a mesh network, each node is connected point‐to‐point with all other nodes in the network. When every node is connected to all the other nodes in the network, it is known as a complete mesh. When some of the links in a complete mesh network are removed to reduce redundancy, this leads to the creation of a partial mesh.
Visual representation of the common topologies is given in Figures 1.1 to 1.4.
Figure 1.1 Bus topology.
Figure 1.2 Mesh topology.
Figure 1.3 Ring topology.
Figure 1.4 Star topology.
Each topology has its advantages, disadvantages, and applications, which are set out in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Comparison of network topologies.
Topology
Architecture
Operation
Scalability
Point of failures
Advantage
Disadvantage
Bus
Each node is connected to a single backbone cable.
Information is transmitted from one node to another through the backbone cable.
High scalability at low cost as a node has to be directly connected to the backbone cable.
A break in the backbone cable disrupts the entire network.
Easy to install and cost effective.
Only one node can transmit at a time.
Star
Each node is connected to a central hub.
Information passes from one node to another through the central hub.
High scalability at optimum cost as a node has to be directly connected to the hub.
Failure of the hub disrupts the entire network.
Easy to install and cost effective; if a switch is used as a central node, multiple nodes can communicate with each other concurrently.
Single point of failure.
Ring
Each node is connected to a single backbone cable configured as a ring.
Information moves from the source node in a unidirectional manner along the ring until it reaches the destination.
Generally implemented using fiber cables. Hence relatively higher cost.
Even if there is a break in the cable, information can be transmitted through the rest of the ring.
Avoids a single point of failure as the data can move in another direction to reach the destination from any source in the case of a break in the ring.
Not in common use.
Mesh
Each node is connected to every other node.
Information is directly transmitted from source to destination without intermediate nodes and in a single hop.
Limited scalability as each new node has to be connected to every other existing node.
A cable break will disrupt the direct connectivity only between a pair of nodes. However, alternative routes will exist.
Highly redundant, and reliable and fast network.
Implementation is costly and complicated.
A network is also classified according to the geographical spread of the nodes. Based on size, the classical types of network are typically the local area network (LAN), the metropolitan area network (MAN), and the wide area network (WAN). A LAN connects the networking devices within a short span of area and is generally controlled, maintained, and administered by a single person or a company. A MAN is an intermediate‐sized network and in terms of outreach can be placed between a LAN and a WAN as it covers a large span of physical area such as a metropolitan city, which is larger in size than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. A WAN connects the networking devices and a collection of LANs that are distributed over a large geographical area, which may spread across cities or even continents. In addition to the classical types of network, a few more network types have now emerged, which are defined according to the size and application domain of the network. Some of these are as follows:
Campus area network (CAN).
These are the networks spread across the campus of large institutes, academic centers, research organizations, or industrial complexes.
System area network (SyAN).
These networks connect the high‐performance systems in a network. The network has low latency and high speed of the order of 1 GB/s. These are also known as cluster area networks as they provide a high‐speed data and communication interconnection framework to workstations and PC clusters [5].
Storage area network (SAN).
SAN is a network of storage devices and associated servers redundantly interconnected with switches using fiber connectivity providing high bandwidth and parallel links. The storage media has information redundancy at its own level. The SAN provides consolidated high‐volume storage accessible by the computational devices over the network.
Personal area network (PAN).
The coverage of the network ranges from only a few centimeters to a few meters and is capable of connecting various devices used as personal assistants to individuals or located near to their area of presence. The personal area network can be wired and supported by USB or Firewire. It can be wireless and supported by ZigBee, 6LoWPAN, Bluetooth, or Z‐Wave.
In addition to these common types of network, a number of other networks have also been introduced, based on scale of extent and purpose. Some examples of these special and new types of network are the near field network (NFC), Internalnet, the body area network (BAN), the near‐me network (NAN), the home area network (HAN), and the interplanetary Internet.
Based on the services concept, the network architecture can be broadly grouped into the following two categories:
Client–server architecture
. The system is decomposed into two entities classified as the client and the server. The client and the server may be the processors (computers) or the processes. A producer providing the appropriate resources and services is termed the ‘server’, and the consumer using the provided services is termed the ‘client’. There exists a relationship between multiple clients and multiple servers. The client–server architecture model works in a ‘tier’ approach, separating the functionality of the tiers on the basis of the concept of the services provided.
Peer‐to‐peer architecture
. In this model, all the network nodes are believed to have equivalent computational power and resources and have equal capabilities and responsibilities in terms of service provision.
There can be instances where a combination of peer‐to‐peer architecture is embedded in client–server architecture. The client–server architecture distributes the system in tiers, and each tier can further have a peer‐to‐peer architecture running within it.
The network architecture can also be designed with an attempt to separate application from data so as to enhance security as well as accessibility. Such architecture has three tiers [6] – the Web tier (referred as the demilitarized zone), the application tier, and the data tier. The description of each of these tiers is as follows:
Demilitarized zone (DMZ).
The demilitarized zone is the topmost level of the application in the network’s hierarchy and is also known as the Web tier. It provides an interface to the external network for accessing data and utilizing the services of the applications and resources lying in the militarized zone without directly interacting with the internal system in a network. The functional implementation of the demilitarized zone is created using firewalls. A DMZ is categorized as the part of the network that is layered between a trusted internal network and an untrusted external network.
Application tier.
The application tier is also known as the business logic layer. This is the middle layer between the demilitarized zone and the data tier. The application tier accesses the data tier to retrieve or modify data from the data tier and sends the processed data to the devices in the DMZ tier. Direct access to the application tier is not permissible to the users.
Data tier.
The data tier is the innermost (i.e. core) tier of the network’s architecture. This tier hosts the databases and database servers that store and access information of the systems. This tier is responsible for maintaining the neutrality and the independency of the data from application servers and business logic. Direct access to the data tier is not permissible to the users. This layer is also known as the database tier or intranet zone.
Setting up network standards facilitates the interoperability of network technologies and systems. A standard in the field of the networks can be proprietary, open, or de facto. The open standards generally emerge from the efforts of a consortium of industries, which are generally non‐profit organizations. Some of the standards organizations in the field of networks are as follows:
International Organization for Standardization (ISO),
American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
