Neutrons in Soft Matter E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1177

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Neutron and synchrotron facilities, which are beyond the scale of the laboratory, and supported on a national level in countries throughout the world.  These tools for probing micro- and nano-structure research and on fast dynamics research of atomic location in materials have been key in the development of new polymer-based materials. Different from several existing professional books on neutron science, this book focuses on theory, instrumentation, an applications.

The book is divided into five parts:

Part 1 describes the underlying theory of neutron scattering.

Part 2 describes the various instruments that exist and the various techniques used to achieve neutron scattering or bombardment.

Part 3 discusses data treatment and simulation methods as well as how to assess the environment of the sample (temperature, pressure, shear, and external fields).

Part 4 addresses the myriad applications of small and large molecules, biomolecules, and gels.

Part 5 describes the various global neutron sources that exist and provides an overview of the different reactors.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

Contributors

I: Neutron Scattering

I.1 Basic Concepts

I.1.1 Introduction

I.1.2 Radiation of Particles and Waves

I.1.3 Neutron Spin and Other Properties

I.1.4 Neutron Interaction with Matter

I.1.5 Scattering Cross Sections

I.1.6 Beam Propagation Through Samples

I.1.7 Refraction and Reflection

I.1.8 Scattering, Interference, and Coherence

I.1.9 Cross Sections and Pair Correlation Functions

I.1.10 Dynamic Structure Factor

I.1.11 Debye–Waller Factor: Coherent and Incoherent Scattering

I.1.12 Detailed Balance, Bose Factor

References

II: Instrumentation

II.1 Small-Angle Neutron Scattering

II.1.1 Small-Angle Neutron Scattering at Reactor Sources

II.1.1.1 Introduction

II.1.1.2 Small-Angle Scattering

II.1.1.3 Instrumentation

II.1.1.4 SANS Facilities

II.1.1.5 Experiments

II.1.1.6 Soft Matter Science at SANS Facilities

References

II.1.2 SANS Instruments at Pulsed Neutron Sources

II.1.2.1 Introduction

II.1.2.2 Resolution and Wavelength Bandwidth of Pinhole-Type SANS for Pulsed Neutron Source

II.1.2.3 Implementation of TOF-SANS

II.1.2.4 Summary

References

II.1.3 Ultra-Small-Angle Neutron Scattering

II.1.3.1 Bonse–Hart USANS Instrument

II.1.3.1.1 Introduction

II.1.3.1.2 DCD with Single-Bounce Crystals

II.1.3.1.3 Implementation of the Bonse–Hart Technique for USANS

II.1.3.1.4 The Bonse–Hart USANS Instrument with Adjustable Resolution

II.1.3.1.5 Residual Stress Measurements in Thin Films

II.1.3.1.6 Summary

References

II.1.3.2 Focusing USANS Instrument

II.1.3.2.1 Utility of Ultrasmall-Angle Neutron Scattering

II.1.3.2.2 History of Neutron Focusing Lens and Attempts to Access Medium USANS

II.1.3.2.3 Theoretical Background

II.1.3.2.4 Construction of Focusing USANS Spectrometer

II.1.3.2.5 Focused Neutron Beam

II.1.3.2.6 Demonstrations of Focusing Ultrasmall-Angle Scattering

II.1.3.2.7 Summary

Acknowledgments

References

II.2 Neutron Reflectometry

II.2.1 Introduction

II.2.2 Principles of Neutron Reflection

II.2.3 Reflectivity Measurement

II.2.4 Typical Examples

II.2.5 Off-Specular Reflection and Grazing Incidence Small-Angle Scattering

II.2.6 Future Prospects

References

II.3 Quasielastic and Inelastic Neutron Scattering

II.3.1 Neutron Spin Echo Spectroscopy

II.3.1.1 Introduction

II.3.1.2 Scattering Functions

II.3.1.3 Instruments and Signals

II.3.1.4 Conducting Experiments

II.3.1.5 Interpretation of Experiments

II.3.1.6 Conclusion

References

II.3.2 Neutron Backscattering

II.3.2.1 Introduction

II.3.2.2 The Energy Resolution Near Backscattering from Perfect Crystals

II.3.2.3 Trading Energy Resolution for Intensity: Less Perfect Crystals

II.3.2.4 The Energy Resolution of a Complete Backscattering Spectrometer

II.3.2.5 The First Generation of Reactor Backscattering Spectrometers

II.3.2.6 Trading Q-Resolution for Intensity: Focusing

II.3.2.7 Trading Q-Resolution for Intensity: Phase Space Transformation

II.3.2.8 Improving the Dynamic Range

II.3.2.9 Ongoing Backscattering Projects

II.3.2.10 Backscattering at Spallation Sources

II.3.2.11 Energy Resolution for a TOF-Backscattering Spectrometer

II.3.2.12 The First Generation of Spallation Source Backscattering Spectrometers

II.3.2.13 Improving the Energy Resolution of TOF-Backscattering Instruments

II.3.2.14 Optimizing TOF-Backscattering Instruments for Nonzero Energy Transfer

II.3.2.15 Conclusions and Outlook

References

II.3.3 Time-of-Flight Spectrometry

II.3.3.1 Introduction

II.3.3.2 Some Essential Elements of Basic Neutron Scattering Theory

II.3.3.3 Van Hove Correlation Functions and the Classical Approximation

II.3.3.4 Incoherent Structure Factors and Dynamical-Independence Approximation

II.3.3.5 Experimental Energy Resolution and Observation Time

II.3.3.6 TOF Spectrometers for Quasielastic and Inelastic Neutron Scattering

II.3.3.7 Specific Semiphenomenological Models as Ingredients for Describing Dynamic Structures Relevant in the Context of Soft Matter

II.3.3.8 The Biological Function of a Macromolecular System and Its Dynamical Structure

II.3.3.9 Summary and Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

II.4 Neutron Imaging

II.4.1 Introduction

II.4.2 Neutron Radiography

II.4.3 New Neutron Imaging Methods

II.4.4 Summary

References

III Data Treatment and Sample Environment

III.1 Practical Aspects of SANS Experiments

III.1.1 Introduction

III.1.2 SANS Instrumentation

III.1.3 SANS Beam Collimation and Sample Containment

III.1.4 Detector Sensitivity Calibration and Incoherent Background Scattering

III.1.5 The Effect of Sample Thickness

III.1.6 The Importance of Absolute Calibration

III.1.7 Isotope Effects

III.1.8 Instrumental Resolution (Smearing) Effects

III.1.9 Some Other Potential Artifacts in SANS and Suggestions for Further Reading

III.1.10 Acknowledgments

References

III.2 Structure Analysis

III.2.1 Principles

III.2.2 Isolated Particle

III.2.3 Guinier Approximation

III.2.4 Anisometric Particles

III.2.5 Polydisperse System

III.2.6 Porod Law

III.2.7 Structure Factor

III.2.8 Relative Form Factor

References

III.3 Calculation of Real Space Parameters and Ab Initio Models from Isotropic Elastic SANS Patterns

III.3.1 Introduction

III.3.2 From the Small-Angle Scattering Curve to Overall Structure Parameters

III.3.3 From the Small-Angle Scattering Curve to 3D Ab Initio Low-Resolution Shape

III.3.4 Conclusion

III.3.5 Acknowledgment

References

III.4 Contrast Variation

III.4.1 Introduction

III.4.2 Concept of Contrast in Small-Angle Scattering and Basic Scattering Functions

III.4.3 Solvent Contrast Variation Method

III.4.4 Label Triangulation Method

III.4.5 Label (Inverse) Contrast Variation Method

III.4.6 Triple Isotopic Substitution Method

III.4.7 Spin Contrast Variation Method

III.4.8 Summary

References

III.5 Sample Environment: Soft Matter Sample Environment for Small-Angle Neutron Scattering and Neutron Reflectometry

III.5.1 Sample Environment for Small-Angle Neutron Scattering

III.5.2 Sample Environment for Neutron Reflectometry

III.5.3 Brief Summary and Outlook

III.5.4 Acknowledgments

References

IV Applications

IV.1 Hierarchical Structure of Small Molecules

IV.1.1 Introduction

IV.1.2 Neutron Scattering Analysis Methods

IV.1.3 Summary

References

IV.2 Structure of Dendritic Polymers and Their Films

IV.2.1 Introduction

IV.2.2 Overview of Structural Investigation of Dendritic Polymers

IV.2.3 Overview of Structural Investigation of Dendritic Polymer Films

IV.2.4 Conclusions

References

IV.3 Dynamics of Polymers

IV.3.1 Basics of Inelastic and Quasi-Elastic Neutron Scattering

IV.3.2 Characteristic Features of Inelastic and Quasi-Elastic Neutron Scattering for Polymer Studies

IV.3.3 Studies of Dynamics of Polymers

IV.3.4 Conclusion

References

IV.4 Inhomogeneous Structure and Dynamics of Condensed Soft Matter

IV.4.1 Introduction

IV.4.2 Classification of Gels and Inhomogeneities

IV.4.3 Theoretical Background of Scattering Functions

IV.4.4 Methodologies of Inhomogeneity Characterization

IV.4.5 Studies on Inhomogeneities by SANS

IV.4.6 Inhomogeneities in Novel Gels

IV.4.7 Concluding Remarks

References

IV.5 Protein Dynamics Studied by Neutron Incoherent Scattering

IV.5.1 Introduction

IV.5.2 Neutron Scattering in Protein Dynamics: General Aspects of the Experiment

IV.5.3 Computational Calculation and Neutron Scattering

IV.5.4 Molecular Vibration in High-Energy Spectrum

IV.5.5 Boson Peak

IV.5.6 Dynamical Transition

IV.5.7 Non-Gaussianity in Elastic Scattering and Dynamical Heterogeneity

IV.5.8 Conclusion

References

IV.6 Polymer Interfaces and Thin Films

IV.6.1 Introduction

IV.6.2 Polymer–Polymer Interfaces

IV.6.3 Polymer–Polymer Interdiffusion

IV.6.4 Real-Time Measurements of Film Kinetics

IV.6.5 Polymer Brushes and Thin Films

IV.6.6 Lateral Structure in Thin Films

IV.6.7 Future Prospects

References

IV.7 Neutron Diffraction from Polymers and Other Soft Matter

IV.7.1 Introduction

IV.7.2 Basics

IV.7.3 Experimental Requirements

IV.7.4 Exploiting Scattering Lengths

IV.7.5 Coupled Diffraction and Modeling

IV.7.6 Fiber Diffraction

IV.7.7 In Situ Diffraction Studies

IV.7.8 Polyelectrolytes

IV.7.9 Glimpse of the Future

IV.7.10 Summary

Acknowledgments

References

V Current Facilities

V.1 Pulsed Neutron Sources and Facilities

V.1.1 Introduction

V.1.2 Neutron Creation in Spallation Sources

V.1.3 Accelerator Performance

V.1.4 Useful Neutrons for Condensed Matter Science

V.1.5 Choice of Performances in Spallation Sources

V.1.6 High-Energy Background

V.1.7 Time-of-Flight Method for Diffraction Measurements

V.1.8 Time-of-Flight Method for Inelastic Scattering Measurements

V.1.9 Instrument Suite in Pulsed Neutron Sources

V.1.10 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

V.2 Reactor Overview

V.2.1 Introduction

V.2.2 The Discovery of the Neutron

V.2.3 Neutrons from Nuclear Reactor

V.2.4 The ILL Reactor

V.2.5 Pulsed Reactors

V.2.6 Neutron Moderation: Hot and Cold Sources

V.2.7 The Relative Merits of Continuous and Pulsed Sources

V.2.8 Future Prospects

References

Color Plates

Index

Copyright © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Neutron in Soft Matter / [edited by] Toyoko Imae . . .

[et al.].

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-40252-8 (hardback)

1. Neutrons–Scattering. 2. Soft condensed matter. I. Imae, Toyoko.

QC793.5.N4628E86 2011

539.7′58–dc22

2010030994

Preface

Toward peaceful and safe human life, technology science, including nanotechnology, biotechnology, and information technology, is one of the key sciences in the twenty-first century, besides the environmental and energy sciences. Such technology science is complementary to materials science, analytical methodology, and related sciences. One of the innovations in analytical methodology is the development of neutron and synchrotron research in a category of “big science.” Neutron and synchrotron facilities, which are out-of-laboratory level, have been improved in scale and quality with the support of national projects in several countries. Considering the situation that new neutron sources will lead to, a steep increase in the number of users of neutron facilities cannot be ruled out. Accordingly, there is a need of an adequate guidebook or textbook on neutron science.

Neutron beam used in a neutron facility is of short wavelength. Besides, the analysis of neutron research gives us information of small range like nanoscale. Thus, new research for chemical and biological objects will be undertaken because of the demand for an adequate tool for micro- and nanostructure research and for fast dynamics research of atomic location in materials. Considering such scientific requirement, we seek to publish a specialized book on neutron research. Different from already published professional books on neutron, this book focuses on instrumentation as well as theory and/or applications; each of the sections of theory, instrumentation, and applications is well described by contributors with deep knowledge and expertise in the field.

In Chapter I, the basic concepts of neutron scattering are briefly discussed. Chapter II meticulously describes instrumentation such as small-angle neutron scattering, neutron reflectometry, quasi and inelastic neutron scattering, and neutron imaging. Chapter III elucidates data treatment and sample environment for convenience of the users. Some practical applications are exemplified for soft matters like small molecules, linear polymers, dendritic polymers, gels, and proteins in Chapter IV. Finally, Chapter V deals with the current facilities based on pulsed neutron source and reactor.

This book on neutron research is useful for chemists, particularly those in the soft matter field; however, it is also valuable for physicists and biologists as they always look for a blow-by-blow account of neutron research. This book also includes the basic technological terms related to the field. It is expected that such a comprehensive book will prove useful to many scientists and engineers, who are already utilizing or will utilize neutron facilities, as well as readers who are interested in neutron research. In addition, it is a highly informative textbook for postgraduate students and researchers of neutron science.

The editors greatly wish to acknowledge all contributors for their enormous contributions. We also appreciate Ms. Hanako Ishida at the Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, for designing the cover picture of the book. It is a pleasure to thank all the staff in our laboratory and the colleagues in the institution who helped us in bringing out this book. We acknowledge Japan Atomic Energy Agency for kind transfer permission of the aerial photograph of J-PARC. We are particularly indebted to our family for their emotional support and patience showed during the compiling of this book. We thank our publishers for their great support for this project. Finally, Toyoko Imae would like to thank other editors and Dr. Koji Mitamura for showing their unlimited perseverance and untiring energy during the editing process.

Toyoko Imae

Toshiji Kanaya

Michihiro Furusaka

Naoya Torikai

Contributors

Michael Agamalian, Neutron Scattering Science Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA (Chapter II.1.3.1)

Masatoshi Arai, J-PARC Centre, Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Tokai-mura, Japan (Chapter V.1)

David G. Bucknall, Materials Science and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA (Chapter IV.6)

Richard A. Campbell, Institut Laue-Langevin, Grenoble, France (Chapter III.5)

Colin J. Carlile, Lund University, ESS Scandinavia Secretariat, Lund, Sweden (Chapter V.2)

Bernhard Frick, Institut Laue-Langevin, Grenoble, France (Chapter II.3.2)

Barbara J. Gabrys, Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK (Chapter IV.3)

Mitsuhiro Hirai, Department of Physics, Gunma University, Maebashi, Japan (Chapter III.4)

Toyoko Imae, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Honors College, Graduate Institute of Engineering, Taipei, Taiwan (Chapter IV.2)

Toshiji Kanaya, Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Japan (Chapter IV.3)

Mikio Kataoka, Graduate School of Materials Science, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Japan (Chapter IV.5)

Satoshi Koizumi, Strongly Correlated Supermolecule Group, Quantum Beam Science Directorate, Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Tokai-mura, Japan (Chapter II.1.3.2)

Peter V. Konarev, EMBL c/o DESY, Hamburg, Germany (Chapter III.3)

Ruep E. Lechner, Guest at Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin, Berlin, Germany (Chapter II.3.3)

Tsang-Lang Lin, Department of Engineering and System Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan (Chapter IV.1)

Peter Lindner, Institut Laue-Langevin, Grenoble, France (Chapter III.5)

Ferenc Mezei, LANSCE, Los Alamos National Laboratories, Los Alamos, NM, USA (Chapter I.1)

Koji Mitamura, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Exploratory Research for Advanced Technology (JST/ERATO), Takahara Soft Interfaces Project, Fukuoka, Japan (Chapter IV.2)

Michael Monkenbusch, Institut für Festkörperforschung, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany (Chapter II.3.1)

Kell Mortensen, Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark (Chapter II.1.1)

Geoffrey R. Mitchell, Centre for Advanced Microscopy, University of Reading, Reading, UK (Chapter IV.7)

Hiroshi Nakagawa, Neutron Biophysics Group, Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Tokai-mura, Japan (Chapter IV.5)

Dan Neumann, NIST Center for Neutron Research, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA (Chapter II.3.2)

Toshiya Otomo, Institute of Materials Structure Science, High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK), Tsukuba, Japan (Chapter II.1.2)

Dieter Richter, Institut für Festkörperforschung, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany (Chapter II.3.1)

Ralf Schweins, Institut Laue-Langevin, Grenoble, France (Chapter III.5)

Hideki Seto, Institute of Materials Structure Science, High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK), Tsukuba, Japan (Chapter III.2)

Mitsuhiro Shibayama, Neutron Science Laboratory, Institute for Solid State Physics, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan (Chapter IV.4)

Dmitri I. Svergun, EMBL c/o DESY, Hamburg, Germany (Chapter III.3)

Nobuyuki Takenaka, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan (Chapter II.4)

Naoya Torikai, Department of Chemistry for Materials, Graduate School of Engineering, Mie University, Tsu, Japan (Chapter II.2)

George D. Wignall, Neutron Scattering Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA (Chapter III.1)

I Neutron Scattering