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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH GmbH
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
The leading resource for anyone looking for an accessible and authoritative introduction to nuclear and radiochemistry In the newly revised Fourth Edition of Nuclear and Radiochemistry: Fundamentals and Applications, distinguished chemist Jens-Volker Kratz delivers a two-volume handbook that has become the gold standard in teaching and learning nuclear and radiochemistry. The books cover the theory and fundamentals of the subject before moving on the technical side of nuclear chemistry, with coverage of nuclear energy, nuclear reactors, and radionuclides in the life sciences. This latest edition discusses the details and impact of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear disasters, as well as new research facilities, including FAIR and HIM. It also incorporates new methods for target preparation and new processes for nuclear fuel recycling, like EURO-GANEX. Finally, the volumes extensively cover environmental technological advances and the effects of radioactivity on the environment. Readers will also find: - An accessible and thorough introduction to the fundamental concepts of nuclear physics and chemistry, including atomic processes, classical mechanics, relativistic mechanics, and the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle - Comprehensive explorations of radioactivity in nature, radioelements, radioisotopes and their atomic masses, and other physical properties of nuclei - Practical discussions of the nuclear force, nuclear structure, decay modes, radioactive decay kinetics, and nuclear radiation - In-depth examinations of the statistical considerations relevant to radioactivity measurements Written for practicing nuclear chemists and atomic physicists, Nuclear and Radiochemistry: Fundamentals and Applications is also an indispensable resource for nuclear physicians, power engineers, and professionals working in the nuclear industry.
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Seitenzahl: 1833
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Title Page
Copyright
Volume 1
Preface
1 Fundamental Concepts
1.1 The Atom
1.2 Atomic Processes
1.3 Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus
1.4 Nuclear Decay Types
1.5 Some Physical Concepts Needed in Nuclear Chemistry
Reference
Further Reading
2 Radioactivity in Nature
2.1 Discovery of Radioactivity
2.2 Radioactive Substances in Nature
2.3 Nuclear Forensics
References
Further Reading
3 Radioelements and Radioisotopes and Their Atomic Masses
3.1 Periodic Table of the Elements
3.2 Isotopes and the Chart of Nuclides
3.3 Nuclide Masses and Binding Energies
3.4 Evidence for Shell Structure in Nuclei
3.5 Precision Mass Spectrometry
References
Further Reading
4 Other Physical Properties of Nuclei
4.1 Nuclear Radii
4.2 Nuclear Angular Momenta
4.3 Magnetic Dipole Moments
4.4 Electric Quadrupole Moments
4.5 Statistics and Parity
4.6 Excited States
References
Further Reading
5 The Nuclear Force and Nuclear Structure
5.1 Nuclear Forces
5.2 Charge Independence and Isospin
5.3 Nuclear Matter
5.4 Fermi Gas Model
5.5 Shell Model
5.6 Collective Motion in Nuclei
5.7 Nilsson Model
5.8 The Pairing Force and Quasi‐Particles
5.9 Macroscopic–Microscopic Model
5.10 Interacting Boson Approximation
5.11 Further Collective Excitations: Coulomb Excitation, High‐Spin States, Giant Resonances
References
Further Reading
6 Decay Modes
6.1 Nuclear Instability and Nuclear Spectroscopy
6.2 Alpha Decay
6.3 Cluster Radioactivity
6.4 Proton Radioactivity
6.5 Spontaneous Fission
6.6 Beta Decay
6.7 Electromagnetic Transitions
References
Further Reading
7 Radioactive Decay Kinetics
7.1 Law and Energy of Radioactive Decay
7.2 Radioactive Equilibria
7.3 Secular Radioactive Equilibrium
7.4 Transient Radioactive Equilibrium
7.5 Half‐Life of Mother Nuclide Shorter than Half‐Life of Daughter Nuclide
7.6 Similar Half‐Lives
7.7 Branching Decay
7.8 Successive Transformations
Reference
Further Reading
8 Nuclear Radiation
8.1 General Properties
8.2 Heavy Charged Particles (A ≥ 1)
8.3 Beta Radiation
8.4 Gamma Radiation
8.5 Neutrons
8.6 Short‐Lived Elementary Particles in Atoms and Molecules
References
Further Reading
9 Measurement of Nuclear Radiation
9.1 Activity and Counting Rate
9.2 Gas‐Filled Detectors
9.3 Scintillation Detectors
9.4 Semiconductor Detectors
9.5 Choice of Detectors
9.6 Spectrometry
9.7 Determination of Absolute Disintegration Rates
9.8 Use of Coincidence and Anticoincidence Circuits
9.9 Low‐Level Counting
9.10 Neutron Detection and Measurement
9.11 Track Detectors
9.12 Detectors Used in Health Physics
Reference
Further Reading
10 Statistical Considerations in Radioactivity Measurements
10.1 Distribution of Random Variables
10.2 Probability and Probability Distributions
10.3 Maximum Likelihood
10.4 Experimental Applications
10.5 Statistics of Pulse‐Height Distributions
10.6 Statistical Assessments of Lifetimes in α‐Decay Chains of Odd‐Z Heavy Elements
10.7 Setting Upper Limits when no Counts Are Observed
References
Further Reading
11 Techniques in Nuclear Chemistry
11.1 Special Aspects of the Chemistry of Radionuclides
11.2 Target Preparation
11.3 Measuring Beam Intensity and Fluxes
11.4 Neutron Spectrum in Nuclear Reactors
11.5 Production of Radionuclides
11.6 Use of Recoil Momenta
11.7 Preparation of Samples for Activity Measurements
11.8 Determination of Half‐Lives
11.9 Decay‐Scheme Studies
11.10 In‐Beam Nuclear Reaction Studies
References
Further Reading
Volume 2
12 Nuclear Reactions
12.1 Collision Kinematics
12.2 Coulomb Trajectories
12.3 Cross Sections
12.4 Elastic Scattering
12.5 Elastic Scattering and Reaction Cross Section
12.6 Optical Model
12.7 Nuclear Reactions and Models
12.8 Nuclear Reactions Revisited with Heavy Ions
References
Further Reading
13 Chemical Effects of Nuclear Transmutations
13.1 General Aspects
13.2 Recoil Effects
13.3 Excitation Effects
13.4 Gases and Liquids
13.5 Solids
13.6 Szilard–Chalmers Reactions
13.7 Recoil Labeling and Self‐labeling
References
Further Reading
14 Influence of Chemical Bonding on Nuclear Properties
14.1 Survey
14.2 Dependence of Half‐Lives on Chemical Bonding
14.3 Dependence of Radiation Emission on the Chemical Environment
14.4 Mössbauer Spectrometry
References
Further Reading
15 Nuclear Energy, Nuclear Reactors, Nuclear Fuel, and Fuel Cycles
15.1 Energy Production by Nuclear Fission
15.2 Nuclear Fuel and Fuel Cycles
15.3 Production of Uranium and Uranium Compounds
15.4 Fuel Elements
15.5 Nuclear Reactors, Moderators, and Coolants
15.6 The Chernobyl and Fukushima Accidents
15.7 Reprocessing
15.8 Radioactive Waste
15.9 The Natural Reactors at Oklo
15.10 Controlled Thermonuclear Reactors
15.11 Nuclear Explosives
References
Further Reading
Note
16 Sources of Nuclear Bombarding Particles
16.1 Neutron Sources
16.2 Neutron Generators
16.3 Research Reactors
16.4 Charged‐Particle Accelerators
References
Further Reading
17 Radioelements
17.1 Natural and Artificial Radioelements
17.2 Technetium and Promethium
17.3 Production of Transuranic Elements
17.4 Cross Sections
17.5 Nuclear Structure of Superheavy Elements
17.6 Spectroscopy of Actinides and Transactinides
17.7 Properties of the Actinides
17.8 Chemical Properties of the Transactinides
References
Further Reading
18 Radionuclides in Geo‐ and Cosmochemistry
18.1 Natural Abundances of the Elements and Isotope Variations
18.2 General Aspects of Cosmochemistry
18.3 Early Stages of the Universe
18.4 Synthesis of the Elements in the Stars
18.5 The Solar Neutrino Problem
18.6 Absolute Neutrino Masses
18.7 Interstellar Matter and Cosmic Radiation
References
Further Reading
19 Dating by Nuclear Methods
19.1 General Aspect
19.2 Cosmogenic Radionuclides
19.3 Terrestrial Mother/Daughter Nuclide Pairs
19.4 Natural Decay Series
19.5 Ratios of Stable Isotopes
19.6 Radioactive Disequilibria
19.7 Fission Tracks
References
Further Reading
20 Radioanalysis
20.1 General Aspects
20.2 Analysis on the Basis of Inherent Radioactivity
20.3 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)
20.4 Activation by Charged Particles
20.5 Activation by Photons
20.6 Special Features of Activation Analysis
20.7 Isotope Dilution Analysis
20.8 Radiometric Methods
20.9 Other Analytical Applications of Radiotracers
20.10 Absorption and Scattering of Radiation
20.11 Radionuclides as Radiation Sources in X‐ray Fluorescence Analysis (XFA)
20.12 Analysis with Ion Beams
20.13 Radioisotope Mass Spectrometry
References
Further Reading
21 Radionuclides in the Life Sciences
21.1 Survey
21.2 Application in Ecological Studies
21.3 Radioanalysis in the Life Sciences
21.4 Application in Physiological and Metabolic Studies
21.5 Radionuclides Used in Nuclear Medicine
21.6 Single‐Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)
21.7 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
21.8 Labeled Compounds
References
Further Reading
22 Radionuclides in the Geosphere and the Biosphere
22.1 Sources of Radioactivity
22.2 Mobility of Radionuclides in the Geosphere
22.3 Reactions of Radionuclides with the Components of Natural Waters
22.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere
22.5 Radionuclides in the Biosphere
22.6 Speciation Techniques with Relevance for Nuclear Safeguards, Verification, and Applications
22.7 Conclusions
References
Further Reading
23 Dosimetry and Radiation Protection
23.1 Dosimetry
23.2 External Radiation Sources
23.3 Internal Radiation Sources
23.4 Radiation Effects in Cell
23.5 Radiation Effects in Humans, Animals, and Plants
23.6 Non‐occupational Radiation Exposure
23.7 Safety Recommendations
23.8 Safety Regulations
23.9 Monitoring of the Environment
23.10 Geological Disposal of Radioactive Waste
References
Further Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Characteristics of radioactive decay modes.
Table 1.2 Fundamental forces in nature.
Table 1.3 Examples for hadrons.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Uranium and thorium minerals.
Table 2.2 Naturally occurring radionuclides with half‐lives >1 day (decay mo...
Table 2.3
236
U/
238
U isotope abundance ratios and
239
Pu/U concentrations (g/g U) f...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Proton–neutron model of some light nuclei (
Z
= number of protons,
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Properties of light mirror nuclei.
Table 5.2 Examples for shell‐model states in the isotopic harmonic oscillato...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Comparison of experimental and theoretical quadrupole moments and ...
Table 6.2 Partial half‐lives of spontaneous fission.
Table 6.3 Classification of β transitions and selection rules.
Table 6.4 Selection rules for electromagnetic transitions.
Table 6.5 Comparison of the experimental and calculated conversion coefficie...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Range of the α particles of
214
Po (
E
= 7.69 MeV) in various substan...
Table 8.2 Maximum range of β particles of three different energies in variou...
Table 8.3 Mass absorption coefficient
μ
/
ρ
(g cm
−2
) for γ‐rays...
Table 8.4 Types of interactions of photons (X‐rays and γ radiation) in matte...
Table 8.5 UCN properties of a few selected materials.
Table 8.6 Properties of hydrogen and hydrogen‐like atoms containing short‐li...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Some properties of solid and liquid scintillators.
Table 9.2 Suitability of detectors for the measurement of various kinds of r...
Table 9.3 Some γ‐ray standards.
Table 9.4 Some α standards.
Table 9.5 Some pure β emitters.
Table 9.6 Some X‐ray emitters.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Fluctuations of the counting rate of a steady radioactive source.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Number of atoms and mass of various radionuclides corresponding t...
Table 11.2 Details of the plating procedures of various target materials. MP...
Table 11.3 Parameters of the produced targets.
Table 11.4 Neutron‐induced reactions in nuclear reactors (survey).
Table 11.5 Activities of radionuclides of various half‐lives obtained in pul...
Table 11.6 Examples of reactor‐produced radionuclides of current interest to...
Table 11.7 Production of radionuclides by accelerators (survey).
Table 11.8 Reactions with deuterons applicable to production of radionuclide...
Table 11.9 Production of positron emitters used in nuclear medicine.
Table 11.10 Examples of the production of radionuclides by (γ, n) reactions.
Table 11.11 Examples for the separation of radionuclides by extraction.
Table 11.12 Examples of the separation of radionuclides by ion exchange.
Table 11.13 Examples of mother and daughter nuclides suitable for use in rad...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Cross sections
σ
n,f
of nuclear fission by thermal neutrons (e...
Table 12.2 Total energy release (in MeV) in the fission of
and
by thermal...
Table 12.3 Cross sections of the monitor reactions
12
C(p,pn)
11
C and
27
Al(p,3p...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Recoil energy due to emission of α particles, protons, neutrons, ...
Table 13.2 Breaking of bonds due to internal conversion of
80m
Br.
Table 13.3 Radioactive products found after nuclear reactions.
Table 13.4 Yield and retention for some Szilard–Chalmers reactions.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Relative changes of the decay constants of
7
Be (Δ
λ
/
λ
) · ...
Table 14.2 Reactivity of various compounds with thermal positronium.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Fission barriers, binding energies of an additional neutron, and ...
Table 15.2 Some data on nuclear fuel.
Table 15.3 Long‐lived members of the
238
U and
235
U decay series in secular ra...
Table 15.4 Modifications of uranium metal.
Table 15.5 Properties of uranium dioxide and uranium carbide.
Table 15.6 Properties of some metals considered as cladding materials for nu...
Table 15.7 Most widely used power reactors.
Table 15.8 Properties of some moderators and coolants.
Table 15.9 Most important long‐lived fission products.
Table 15.10 Composition of spent nuclear fuel from a light water reactor at ...
Table 15.11 Extraction procedures used for reprocessing of spent nuclear fue...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Neutron yields of various neutron sources.
Table 16.2 Some representative research reactors.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 The natural radioelements.
Table 17.2 Artificial radioelements.
Table 17.3 Mid‐target laboratory‐frame beam energies, energies of the implan...
Table 17.4 Longest‐lived actinide isotopes suitable for physical and chemica...
Table 17.5 Electron configurations of f‐block atoms and ions.
Table 17.6 The oxidation states of the actinide elements.
Table 17.7 Ionic radii of lanthanide and actinide elements.
a
Table 17.8 First ionization potentials (IP
1
) of lanthanide and actinide elem...
Table 17.9 Colors of the actinide ions.
Table 17.10 Properties of the actinide metals.
Table 17.11 Predicted electron configurations and some other predicted prope...
Table 17.12 Expected electron configurations of the superactinides
Z
= 121−15...
Table 17.13 Expected electron configurations of the elements
Z
= 156−172.
Table 17.14 Chemical species studied with elements 104 through 114, applied ...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Isotope ratios of oxygen, carbon, and sulfur isotopes in various ...
Table 18.2 Evolution of the Universe.
Table 18.3 Stages of the evolution of the Earth.
Table 18.4 Ratio of the activities of some long‐lived radionuclides at the t...
Table 18.5 Predicted solar neutrino fluxes at the surface of the Earth accor...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Cosmogenic radionuclides applicable for dating.
Table 19.2 Terrestrial pairs of nuclides applicable for dating.
Table 19.3 Natural decay series applicable for dating.
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Detection limits of radionuclides (the amounts correspond to an a...
Table 20.2 Detection limits by neutron activation analysis at a thermal neut...
Table 20.3 Examples of activation by 14 MeV neutrons.
Table 20.4 Examples of activation by charged particles.
Table 20.5 Examples of activation by γ‐rays.
Table 20.6 Radionuclides suitable as excitation sources for X‐ray fluorescen...
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Examples of trace element determination in biological samples by ...
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Radionuclides of major importance in the geosphere and biosphere ...
Table 22.2 Typical concentration factors in freshwater and marine ecosystems...
Table 22.3 Factors used to characterize the transfer of radionuclides to mea...
Chapter 23
Table 23.1 Radiation doses and dose rates.
Table 23.2 Radiation weighting factors
w
R
1.
Table 23.3 Dose rate constants
k
γ
for various radionuclides (the frequen...
Table 23.4 Physical half‐lives
t
1/2
(p) and effective half‐lives
t
1/2
(eff) of ...
Table 23.5 Radiotoxicity of radionuclides and radioelements.
Table 23.6 Values of the boron concentrations and of the doses produced by a...
Table 23.7 Effect of γ irradiation on enzymes, microorganisms, plants, anima...
Table 23.8 Effects of accidental radiation exposure on humans (approximate v...
Table 23.9 Average radiation exposure by natural radiation sources.
Table 23.10 Radiation exposure by artificial radiation sources.
Table 23.11 Probability coefficients assessed for stochastic detrimental eff...
Table 23.12 Recommended dose limits.
Table 23.13 Classification of laboratories for open handling of radioactive ...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Schematic representation of the relative sizes of the atom and th...
Figure 1.2 Scheme showing X‐ray emission when a vacancy in an inner electron...
Figure 1.3 Schematic representation of the Rutherford scattering experiment....
Figure 1.4 Experimental setup by Geiger and Marsden for the observation of R...
Figure 1.5 Intensity of scattered α particles measured by Geiger and Marsden...
Figure 1.6 Electroscope for the measurement of radioactivity. The gold wire ...
Figure 1.7 Rutherford observed the growth (a) and decay (b) of a radioactive...
Figure 1.8 De Broglie wavelengths vs. particle kinetic energy for a few part...
Figure 1.9 Fermions (quarks and leptons) and intermediate vector bosons and ...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Chemical separation scheme that led to the discovery of the eleme...
Figure 2.2 The uranium series.
IT
stands for
isomeric transition
.
Figure 2.3 The thorium series.
Figure 2.4 The actinium series.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Lower part of the chart of nuclides showing the region up to the ...
Figure 3.2 Isotopes, isotones, and isobars in the chart of nuclides.
Figure 3.3 Stable nuclides and the line of β‐stability.
Figure 3.4 Mean binding energy per nucleon.
Figure 3.5 Mean binding energy per nucleon for the lightest nuclei.
Figure 3.6 Separation energies of the outermost proton,
S
p
(a), and the oute...
Figure 3.7 Relative contribution of the various liquid‐drop model terms to t...
Figure 3.8 Binding energies and β‐decays of nuclides with odd mass number.
Figure 3.9 Binding energies and β‐decays of nuclides with even mass number....
Figure 3.10 Differences between experimental atomic masses and the liquid‐dr...
Figure 3.11 Separation energies
S
p
and
S
n
as a function of proton or neutron...
Figure 3.12 Schematic of a Penning trap (top) and ion motion (bottom).
Figure 3.13 Cyclotron resonance curve for
253
No
2+
. The solid line is a f...
Figure 3.14 Principle of the mass determination in the experimental storage ...
Figure 3.15 Discovery of the isotope
235
Ac along with its mass and lifetime ...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Schematic dependence of elastic scattering cross section
σ
el
Figure 4.2 Woods–Saxon potential (solid line) in comparison to a square‐well...
Figure 4.3 Charge distribution in a nucleus as determined by electron scatte...
Figure 4.4 Angular distribution of elastically scattered electrons from
12
C ...
Figure 4.5 Charge distributions for a number of stable nuclei as deduced fro...
Figure 4.6 Atomic beam apparatus of I.I. Rabi (schematic).
Figure 4.7 Electrical quadrupole moments as a function of the odd number of ...
Figure 4.8 The first few energy levels of
185
Re.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Nucleon–nucleon potential as a function of the distance between t...
Figure 5.2 Feynman graph for the gluon exchange between two nucleons.
Figure 5.3 States of the two‐nucleon system with spins and isospins.
Figure 5.4 Isobaric analog states for
A
= 14 nuclei.
Figure 5.5 Level scheme and configurations related to the appearance of isob...
Figure 5.6 Energy levels of the three‐dimensional isotropic harmonic oscilla...
Figure 5.7 Energy levels of the shell model with spin–orbit splitting. The s...
Figure 5.8 Energy levels of
207
Pb with energies given on the left side and a...
Figure 5.9 Potential energies as a function of the deformation parameter
β
...
Figure 5.10 Ground‐state rotational band of
242
Pu. Angular momenta and parit...
Figure 5.11 Vector diagram of the total angular momentum of a deformed nucle...
Figure 5.12 On the left are drawn all the energy levels of
25
Al up to 4 MeV....
Figure 5.13 Vibrational excitations (schematic). On the right is shown the s...
Figure 5.14 Comparison of excitation energy spectra for single‐particle exci...
Figure 5.15 Modes of collective motion of a deformed nucleus. A cross sectio...
Figure 5.16 Excited levels in
232
U. Rotational bands, some built on vibratio...
Figure 5.17 Nilsson diagram for protons or neutrons for
N
or
Z
≤ 50. Levels ...
Figure 5.18 Schematic diagram of the occupation probability of nucleons in t...
Figure 5.19 Neutron shell corrections as a function of the deformation using...
Figure 5.20 Potential energy as a function of deformation for heavy nuclei i...
Figure 5.21 The symmetry triangle of the IBA model surrounded by a spiral wi...
Figure 5.22 γ‐Ray energy spectrum after Coulomb excitation of
238
U with lead...
Figure 5.23 (a) Yrast line in an Energy‐angular momentum plane for a deforme...
Figure 5.24 (a) Level scheme and (b) moment of inertia against (
ℏω
...
Figure 5.25 An example of a giant resonance (a) in the excitation of
175
Lu b...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Decay scheme of
238
U (energies of excited states in
234
Th, α deca...
Figure 6.2 Relation between the range of α particles in air and the decay co...
Figure 6.3 Relation between the half‐life of even–even nuclei [s] and the en...
Figure 6.4 Potential energy for a nucleus–α‐particle system (a). (b) Shown i...
Figure 6.5 Plot of
Q
α
values vs. mass number for α emitters from lead t...
Figure 6.6
Q
values for cluster radioactivity with
208
Pb as residual nucleus...
Figure 6.7 Binding energies of neutron‐deficient
N
= 80 isotones. Isotonic b...
Figure 6.8 Proton–nucleus potential for the semiclassical calculation of the...
Figure 6.9 (a) Energy spectrum obtained during the irradiation of a
96
Ru tar...
Figure 6.10 Partial half‐lives for spontaneous fission vs.
Z
2
/
A
. Even–even i...
Figure 6.11 Potential energy as a function of deformation in a simple liquid...
Figure 6.12 Saddle point shapes for various values of
x
.
Figure 6.13 Shell‐correction energies as a function of (a) neutron number (s...
Figure 6.14 Single‐particle energies in a harmonic oscillator potential for ...
Figure 6.15 (a) Binding energy of a fissioning nucleus as a function of defo...
Figure 6.16 Location of the island of spontaneously fissioning isomers in th...
Figure 6.17 Experimentally observed electromagnetic transitions in the rotat...
Figure 6.18 Modification of the fission barrier height in the liquid‐drop mo...
Figure 6.19 Fission barriers calculated with the macroscopic–microscopic hyb...
Figure 6.20 Neutron excess of the fission fragments due to the neutron exces...
Figure 6.21 The subsequent steps of spontaneous fission. (a) Neck formatio f...
Figure 6.22 Fission yield as a function of mass number for the spontaneous f...
Figure 6.23 β spectrum of
147
Pm.
Figure 6.24 Scheme of the experiment by Cowan and Reines for the detection o...
Figure 6.25 Spectra of the β
−
and β
+
particles emitted by
64
Cu.
Figure 6.26 Kurie plot for β
−
decay of
32
P.
Figure 6.27 Kurie plot for β
−
decay of
38
Cl.
Figure 6.28 Nomograph for the graphical determination of log
f
0
t
values. Log...
Figure 6.29 Log C as a function of
E
0
and
Z
for β
−
, β
+
, and K capt...
Figure 6.30 Systematics of log
ft
values.
Figure 6.31 Decay scheme of
46
Sc.
Figure 6.32 K‐shell fluorescence yield
ω
K
as a function of
Z
. At high
Z
Figure 6.33 Direction of the aligned nuclear angular momentum and direction ...
Figure 6.34 Feynman diagrams of the β
−
decay and β
+
decay accordin...
Figure 6.35 Scattering of the muon neutrino on an electron as current–curren...
Figure 6.36 Matrix equations in which the nine CKM matrix elements and the f...
Figure 6.37 CKM matrix as the product of two unitary transformation matrices...
Figure 6.38 The d‐type quark mass eigenstates being transformed by the CKM m...
Figure 6.39 Deviations Δ from unitarity of the CKM matrix derived from the n...
Figure 6.40 Decay scheme of
198
Au. The 1.087 MeV transition is
E
2, the 0.676...
Figure 6.41 Examples of the application of the selection rules for electroma...
Figure 6.42 Single‐particle γ‐transition probabilities
λ
for various mu...
Figure 6.43 Internal conversion electron spectrum for a 412 keV transition i...
Figure 6.44 Semilogarithmic plots of K conversion coefficients for (a) elect...
Figure 6.45 Angular distribution
for (a) dipole and (b) quadrupole transit...
Figure 6.46 Angular correlation of a 0 → 1 → 0 dipole–dipole cascade: (a) ex...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Attainment of radioactive equilibrium as a function of
t
/
t
1/2
(2) ...
Figure 7.2 Decay of the daughter nuclide and its formation from the mother n...
Figure 7.3 Secular equilibrium: activities of mother and daughter nuclides a...
Figure 7.4 Transient equilibrium: activities of mother and daughter nuclides...
Figure 7.5 Half‐life of mother nuclide shorter than that of daughter nuclide...
Figure 7.6 Several successive transformations: decay of
218
Po.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Behavior of various kinds of radiation in a magnetic field.
Figure 8.2 α‐rays in a cloud chamber.
Figure 8.3 Specific ionization of the α particles of
210
Po in air.
Figure 8.4 Relative number of the α‐particles from
210
Po as a function of th...
Figure 8.5 Device for the determination of the range of α‐particles in air....
Figure 8.6 Range of α‐particles as a function of their initial energy.
Figure 8.7 Energy loss rate as a function of thickness for a
40
Ar projectile...
Figure 8.8 Absorption of the β particles of
32
P in aluminum.
Figure 8.9 Maximum range
R
max
of β particles as a function of their maximum ...
Figure 8.10 Absorption of the conversion electrons of
137m
Ba.
Figure 8.11 Setup for the measurement of backscattering.
Figure 8.12 Backscattering of β radiation of various energies as a function ...
Figure 8.13 Absorption of the γ radiation of
137
Cs.
Figure 8.14 Half‐thickness of γ radiation in lead as a function of the energ...
Figure 8.15 Total cross‐section in barn of photon interactions in lead as a ...
Figure 8.16 Compton effect.
Figure 8.17 Total absorption coefficient
μ
and partial absorption coeff...
Figure 8.18 Total absorption coefficient of γ radiation in various materials...
Figure 8.19 Wavefunction of the neutron reflected from a material surface re...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Counting rate as a function of time (determination of half‐lives)...
Figure 9.2 Counting rate of a mixture of two radionuclides.
Figure 9.3 Short‐lived impurity (
133
I in
131
I).
Figure 9.4 Long‐lived impurity (
234
Th in
234m
Pa).
Figure 9.5 Self‐absorption
S
of the β
−
radiation of
45
Ca in CaCO
3
as a...
Figure 9.6 Influence of the geometrical arrangement (factor
G
given by the s...
Figure 9.7 Non‐counted pulses at different dead times of the detectors.
Figure 9.8 Schematic representation of a parallel‐plate ionization chamber a...
Figure 9.9 Pulse height as a function of the field strength.
Figure 9.10 Multiplication factors in argon and methane as a function of the...
Figure 9.11 Counting rate as a function of applied voltage for a proportiona...
Figure 9.12 Flow counter.
Figure 9.13 Cross sections of 2
π
and 4
π
counters.
Figure 9.14 Various types of Geiger–Müller counters.
Figure 9.15 Scintillation detector (schematically).
Figure 9.16 Schematic diagram of the energy levels of crystalline silicon.
Figure 9.17 Energy levels of crystalline silicon with a donor level.
Figure 9.18 Energy levels of crystalline silicon with an acceptor level.
Figure 9.19 Schematic diagram of a p–n junction.
Figure 9.20 Representation of a simple surface barrier detector.
Figure 9.21 Lithium concentration in a Ge(Li) crystal.
Figure 9.22 γ‐ray spectrum of
137
Cs taken with a Ge(Li) detector (the γ‐rays...
Figure 9.23 γ‐ray spectra of
60
Co taken with an NaI(Tl) scintillation detect...
Figure 9.24 Schematic diagram of a simple pulse‐height analysis system.
Figure 9.25 Autoradiograph of a sheet of iron showing the very early stage o...
Figure 9.26 Autoradiography: influence of the distance between a radioactive...
Figure 9.27 Autoradiograph of two β emitters of different energies: (a)
35
S ...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Hahn's suction frit.
Figure 11.2 Filter layer for separation of carrier‐free iodine (I
2
or I
−
...
Figure 11.3 Fraction of the radionuclide in the solid phase as a function of...
Figure 11.4 Coprecipitation of carrier‐free La with BaSO
4
: (a) La occluded; ...
Figure 11.5 Autoradiograph of a radiocolloid (
234
Th, pH ≈ 3).
Figure 11.6 Example for the purification procedure of target materials.
Figure 11.7 Plating cell for the molecular plating of actinide targets for t...
Figure 11.8 Measurement of the
249
Bk and
249
Cf activities in solution during...
Figure 11.9 Target wheel with four segments carrying each ≈500 μg cm
−2
Figure 11.10 Photo‐stimulated luminescence picture of an actinide target for...
Figure 11.11 Faraday cup for high‐intensity bombardments of water‐cooled pro...
Figure 11.12 Irradiation in a ring‐like fuel element.
Figure 11.13 Cross sections of the reactions
141
Pr(γ, n)
140
Pr and
141
Pr(γ, 2...
Figure 11.14 Excitation functions of
124
Te(p, n)
124
I and
124
Te(p, 2n)
123
I re...
Figure 11.15 Experimental values for
Bρ
/
A
as a function of
Z
. The smoot...
Figure 11.16 Average charges of heavy ions passing through dilute He gas. Th...
Figure 11.17 Experimental distributions of
252
No in the focal plane detector...
Figure 11.18 Correlation times Δ
t
(EVR‐SF) of products from the
244
Pu(
22
Ne, 4...
Figure 11.19 Level scheme of
99
Tc as deduced from studies of the β
−
de...
Figure 11.20 Particle identifier spectrum obtained in energy loss measuremen...
Figure 11.21
Z–A
distribution of fragments from the interaction of 800...
Figure 11.22 Schematic view of the ISOL technique for generating radioactive...
Figure 11.23 Scheme of a projectile fragmentation facility for the productio...
Figure 11.24 The isotopic separation principle of the FRS illustrated by mea...
Figure 11.25 Schematic drawing of the LAND detection setup (not to scale). S...
Figure 11.26 One‐neutron removal reaction from
6
He (240 MeV u
−1
) on a ...
Figure 11.27 Energy level diagram of the states and reaction paths involved ...
Figure 11.28 Relative energy spectrum of the
6
He–n system measured after bre...
Figure 11.29 One‐neutron removal reaction of 287 MeV u
−1 11
Li in a C t...
Figure 11.30 Pictorial representation of the one‐neutron knockout reaction o...
Figure 11.31 Left frames: differential cross sections for the electromagneti...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Laboratory and center‐of‐mass system before the collision.
Figure 12.2 Center‐of‐mass and laboratory system after the collision.
Figure 12.3 Coulomb trajectories in the center‐of‐mass system.
Figure 12.4 Classical trajectories for charged particles with impact paramet...
Figure 12.5 Energy dependence of the reaction cross section as a function of...
Figure 12.6 Geometrical situation in a scattering process.
Figure 12.7 The incident beam is perpendicular to the plane of the figure. T...
Figure 12.8 Activity as a function of irradiation time.
Figure 12.9 Possible values of the scattering cross section for a given reac...
Figure 12.10 Illustration of the phase shift
δ
0
/
k
out
by an attractive p...
Figure 12.11 (a) Continuous connection of the wave function at
r
=
R
0
in the...
Figure 12.12 Angular distributions for elastic scattering of α particles by
Figure 12.13 Real parts of the phase shifts Re(
δ
l
) plotted as a functio...
Figure 12.14 Comparison of experimental angular distributions for heavy‐ion ...
Figure 12.15 Schematic representation of the scattering parameters
η
l
a...
Figure 12.16 Comparison of the experimental angular distribution for
12
C + T...
Figure 12.17 Schematic representation of the shape of angular distributions ...
Figure 12.18 Excitation function for reactions of slow neutrons with silver....
Figure 12.19 Shape of the scattering resonance (Lorentz curve).
Figure 12.20 Cross section for elastic scattering for l = 0 close to a reson...
Figure 12.21 Comparison of the decay of the compound nucleus
64
Zn formed by
Figure 12.22 (a) Energy scheme in the formation and decay of compound nuclei...
Figure 12.23 Level density as a function of
U
and
I
calculated for
65
Zn.
Figure 12.24 Level spacing for even–even •, even–odd ▵, odd–even □, and odd–...
Figure 12.25 Angular momentum coupling scheme for a deformed nucleus.
Figure 12.26 Transition‐state deformation calculated from first‐chance fissi...
Figure 12.27 Shape projections vs.
x
(fissility) and
y
(angular momentum) pa...
Figure 12.28 The critical angular momentum
for the vanishing of the fissio...
Figure 12.29 Values of
ℑ
sph
/
ℑ
eff
vs.
x
(
l
) for a number of compou...
Figure 12.30 Proton spectrum at 35° in a 62 MeV bombardment of
54
Fe.
Figure 12.31 Momentum diagram for a (d, p) reaction with the proton emitted ...
Figure 12.32 Angular distribution of a (d, p) reaction on
76
Se with theoreti...
Figure 12.33 Fission cross sections for neutron‐induced fission of
235
U and
Figure 12.34 Fission cross sections of
238
U for neutrons up to 37 MeV.
Figure 12.35 Fission product mass distributions for the thermal neutron‐indu...
Figure 12.36 Fission yields for the fission of
235
U by neutrons of various e...
Figure 12.37 Atomic number (
Z
) distributions for the electromagnetically ind...
Figure 12.38 Average single‐fragment and total pre‐neutron‐emission kinetic ...
Figure 12.39 Pre‐neutron‐emission mass distribution,
N
prim
, and post‐neutron...
Figure 12.40 Summary of neutron yields derived from a comparison of cumulati...
Figure 12.41 Some nuclear shapes in the (
c
,
h
) parameterization. The solid l...
Figure 12.42 Contour maps, in the (
c
,
h
) plane, of the potential energy of
2
...
Figure 12.43 Schematic representation of the potential energy surface of an ...
Figure 12.44 Comparison of the mass distributions of the products of reactio...
Figure 12.45 Schematic representation of an intranuclear cascade generated b...
Figure 12.46 Classification of heavy‐ion collisions based on impact paramete...
Figure 12.47 The
l
dependence of the partial cross sections for compound nuc...
Figure 12.48 One‐dimensional potential energy
V
(
r
) for rigid spheres (schema...
Figure 12.49 Fusion cross sections for
40
Ar +
122
Sn. The solid line is a cal...
Figure 12.50 Reduced (due to proximity scaling) fusion cross sections for
40
Figure 12.51 Schematic representation of barrier fluctuations in the fusion ...
Figure 12.52 Three‐parameter fits (solid lines) to the fusion cross sections...
Figure 12.53 Schematic representation of the splitting of the original barri...
Figure 12.54 Coupled‐channel calculations (solid curves) for
40
Ar +
122
Sn an...
Figure 12.55 Theoretical barrier distribution function for
40
Ar +
144
Sm. The...
Figure 12.56 Comparison of
P
fus
for
90
Zr +
89
Y (squares) and
90
Zr +
90
Zr (tr...
Figure 12.57 Fusion probability as a function of energy for the
124
Sn +
96
Zr...
Figure 12.58 Schematic illustration of the three “milestones” in the potenti...
Figure 12.59 Measured barrier shifts relative to
B
Bass
and the predictions o...
Figure 12.60 Demonstration of an improved scaling law for the observed barri...
Figure 12.61 Sequence of shapes in compound‐nucleus fission (left), quasi‐fi...
Figure 12.62 Contour plots of double‐differential cross sections as a functi...
Figure 12.63 Contour plots of double‐differential cross sections as a functi...
Figure 12.64 Normalized mass drift as a function of reaction time. The solid...
Figure 12.65 Fractional excitation energies as a function of fragment charge...
Figure 12.66 Schematic illustration of random neck rupture leading to hot ac...
Figure 12.67 Contour plots for the Wilczynski diagram (a) and for the diffus...
Figure 12.68 Wilczynski diagram: (a) energy vs. scattering angle plot; (b) t...
Figure 12.69 One‐dimensional projection of all inelastic events with TKEL > ...
Figure 12.70 Wilczynski from different target–projectile combinations.
Figure 12.71 Element distributions as a function of TKE indicated at the top...
Figure 12.72 Analysis of the element distributions as a function of energy l...
Figure 12.73 TKEL vs.
correlations for different heavy systems.
Figure 12.74 (a) RE and DE as a function of TKEL for Kr + Er at four differe...
Figure 12.75 DE
0
correlations with nuclear structure quantities: (a) with th...
Figure 12.76 PES for
136
Xe +
56
Fe with the drift path of the first moments o...
Figure 12.77 Charge variances at fixed mass asymmetry for the
132
Xe +
197
Au ...
Figure 12.78 Element distributions for DIC. The fitted values for the drift ...
Figure 12.79 Element distribution for ≤7.50 MeV u
−1 238
U +
238
U. (a) Y...
Figure 12.80 (a) Primary mass numbers
for the light uranium‐like fragments...
Figure 12.81 Element yields of uranium‐like fragments in three different bin...
Figure 12.82 Isotope distributions of the complementary elements
86
Rn and
98
Figure 12.83 Thick‐target cross sections for
98
Cf isotopes at four different...
Figure 12.84 Comparison of measured (symbols) and calculated isotope distrib...
Figure 12.85 Cross sections for the formation of target‐like transcurium iso...
Figure 12.86 Comparison of the measured (symbols) and calculated (curves) fo...
Figure 12.87 Element distribution for
238
U +
238
U at ≤7.50 MeV u
−1
in ...
Figure 12.88 Predicted yields of superheavy nuclei in collisions of 800 MeV ...
Figure 12.89 Reduced cross sections for one‐neutron transfer as a function o...
Figure 12.90 Systematics of one‐neutron transfer cross sections close to the...
Figure 12.91 Reduced transfer probabilities
P
t
′ vs. the reduced distance of ...
Figure 12.92 Mass distributions for
86
Kr +
76
Ge (a),
104
Ru (b), and
130
Te (c...
Figure 12.93 Yields for Sb, Te/Kr, and I ejectiles in the reaction
86
Kr +
13
...
Figure 12.94 Comparison of excitation functions for one‐neutron transfer, ma...
Figure 12.95 Isotope distributions of target‐like fragments in reactions of ...
Figure 12.96 Contour map representation of the calculated PES for the reacti...
Figure 12.97 Liquid‐to‐gas‐phase transition for water (a) and nuclear matter...
Figure 12.98 Kaon mass as a function of nuclear density (schematic, a) and k...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Recoil energy due to the emission of β particles as a function o...
Figure 13.2 Recoil energy due to the emission of γ‐ray photons of various en...
Figure 13.3 Recoil effect due to the emission of a β
−
particle and an ...
Figure 13.4 Recoil effect due to the simultaneous emission of an α or β part...
Figure 13.5 Expansion of the electron shell due to α decay.
Figure 13.6 Contraction of the electron shell due to β
−
decay.
Figure 13.7 Fluorescence yield
ω
and “Auger” yield 1 −
ω
for the K...
Figure 13.8 Recoil effect in a gas molecule: x, particle or photon emitted; ...
Figure 13.9 Charge distribution of the ions: (a) after β
−
decay of
133
Figure 13.10 Recoil effect in a crystalline solid: x, particle or photon emi...
Figure 13.11 Generation of disorder in solids by a cascade of collisions (sc...
Figure 13.12 Range of recoiling atoms of various mass numbers
A
as a functio...
Figure 13.13 Thermal annealing of ammonium sulfate: relative activity of
35
S...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 (a) A pulsed heavy‐ion beam hits a target and the polarized prob...
Figure 14.2 Example of a γSR spectrum caused by electrical hyperfine interac...
Figure 14.3 Various probe nuclei of the elements Cd, In, Sn, Sb, I, and Xe w...
Figure 14.4 Example of the “Knight shift” between the Lamor frequencies in a...
Figure 14.5 Typical μSR spectrum (number of detected positrons as a function...
Figure 14.6 Transmutation of
57
Co (Mössbauer source) into
57
Fe (Mössbauer nu...
Figure 14.7 Absorption of γ‐ray photons by free atoms;
E
*
= excitation energ...
Figure 14.8 Mössbauer experiment (schematically).
Figure 14.9 The splitting of the
I
= 1/2 ground state and of the
I
= 3/2 exc...
Figure 14.10 The absorption in
57
Fe (bound in Fe
2
O
3
) of the 14.4 keV γ‐ray e...
Figure 14.11 Mössbauer spectrum of the Fe
2+
in an absorber of FeSO
4
·7H
2
O...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Effective multiplication factor
k
eff
for neutrons (schematically...
Figure 15.2 Fission cross section
σ
n,f
for
235
U,
238
U, and
239
Pu as a f...
Figure 15.3 The ratio
σ
f
/
σ
a
for
235
U and
238
U as a function of the...
Figure 15.4
η
=
vσ
f
/
σ
a
as a function of the neutron energy fo...
Figure 15.5 Nuclear reactions with
238
U (
σ
[barn] for thermal neutrons)...
Figure 15.6 Nuclear reactions with
232
Th (σ [barn] for thermal neutrons).
Figure 15.7 Process route of uranium as a nuclear fuel.
Figure 15.8 The route from uranium ores to uranium concentrates.
Figure 15.9 The route from uranium concentrates to nuclear fuel.
Figure 15.10 Coated particles.
Figure 15.11 Fuel element used in pressurized water reactors (16 × 16 positi...
Figure 15.12 Gas‐cooled reactor (GCR) operating with natural uranium (schema...
Figure 15.13 Boiling water reactor (BWR) (schematically).
Figure 15.14 Pressurized water reactor (PWR) (schematically).
Figure 15.15 High‐temperature gas‐cooled reactor (HTGR) (schematically).
Figure 15.16 Swimming pool reactor (schematically).
Figure 15.17 Fission cross section
σ
f
(barn) for the fission of
235
U as...
Figure 15.18 Influence of various components on the formation of hydrogen by...
Figure 15.19 Consequences of a power excursion in a pressure tube of a RBMK ...
Figure 15.20 β
−
activity and heat production of spent fuel as a functi...
Figure 15.21 Electrochemical windows: LiCl–KCl vs. water.
Figure 15.22 Pyrometallurgical electrodeposition of actinides from a molten ...
Figure 15.23 Radiotoxicity inventory of 1 ton of spent nuclear fuel from a p...
Figure 15.24 Representation of the separation scheme of uranium, neptunium, ...
Figure 15.25 Structure of DMDOHEMA.
Figure 15.26 Structure of (a) BTP, (b) BTBP, and (c) CyMe
4
‐BTBP.
Figure 15.27 Extracting agents used in various GANEX flowsheets: (a) DEHiBA,...
Figure 15.28 Water‐soluble complexing and reducing agents used in various GA...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Location of the samples during irradiation by a neutron source....
Figure 16.2 Neutron yield of the reaction
t
(
d
,
n
)
α
as a function of the...
Figure 16.3 (a) Vertical section through the Munich FRM II. (b) Horizontal s...
Figure 16.4 Schematic diagram of a Cockcroft–Walton accelerator.
Figure 16.5 Schematic representation of the charging mechanism of a van de G...
Figure 16.6 Schematic cross‐sectional diagram of a portion of an acceleratin...
Figure 16.7 Schematic sketch of a three‐stage tandem van de Graaff generator...
Figure 16.8 (a) Basic design of a linear accelerator. (b) Phase stability in...
Figure 16.9 Two views of the UNILAC linear accelerator. (a) The Alvarez sect...
Figure 16.10 Schematic sketch of the operation of a cyclotron. The ions orig...
Figure 16.11 Top view of the sectors in a sector‐focused cyclotron with spir...
Figure 16.12 Anticipated view upon GSI/FAIR after its completion.
Figure 16.13 Accelerator complex of GSI/FAIR with the UNILAC, the heavy‐ion ...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Relative abundances of the lanthanides.
Figure 17.2 Separation of Pm from fission products of uranium on a cation ex...
Figure 17.3 Oxidation states of the lanthanides.
Figure 17.4 Ionic radii of lanthanide ions in the oxidation state +3.
Figure 17.5 Production of transuranic elements by neutron irradiation of
238
Figure 17.6 Original elution data corresponding to the discovery of mendelev...
Figure 17.7 Schematic diagram of the conveyer‐belt experiment used in the or...
Figure 17.8 Schematic diagram of the apparatus used in the discovery of elem...
Figure 17.9 (a) Sum of α spectra from stations 1 through 7 using the apparat...
Figure 17.10 Minimum excitation energies of various fusion reactions, all re...
Figure 17.11 The velocity filter SHIP and its detections system. The drawing...
Figure 17.12 Decay chains of the three atoms of
265
108 observed in the 1984 ...
Figure 17.13 Decay chains measured in the cold‐fusion reaction
70
Zn +
208
Pb ...
Figure 17.14 Chart of the heaviest nuclides with
Z
≥ 104 and
N
= 151. In ord...
Figure 17.15 α decay half‐lives as a function of the α‐decay energy
Q
α
...
Figure 17.16 Representation of the scenarios 1 and 2 in the chart of nuclide...
Figure 17.17 Measured cross sections for fusion reactions with
208
Pb and
209
Figure 17.18 Maxima of the 4n excitation functions vs. neutron number for Th...
Figure 17.19 Cross sections
σ
(
Z
) measured at the DGFRS (symbols with er...
Figure 17.20 Partial half‐lives for spontaneous fission of even–even isotope...
Figure 17.21 Shell corrections to the nuclear macroscopic potential energy. ...
Figure 17.22 The 11 measured
Q
α
values in the four decay chains with (
N
Figure 17.23 Schematic illustration of the spherical single‐proton orbital e...
Figure 17.24 Level scheme of
254
No. The 266 ms 8
−
K isomer is connecte...
Figure 17.25 Logarithm of the half‐life (yr) of the longest‐lived isotopes o...
Figure 17.26 Logarithm of the ratio of the cross sections
σ
n,f
and
σ
...
Figure 17.27 Atomic volumes (between 8 and 23 cm
3
g
−1
per atom) as a f...
Figure 17.28 Ionic radii of trivalent lanthanide (blue) and actinide ions (r...
Figure 17.29 Experimental setup for the surface ionization technique with
25
...
Figure 17.30 Variation of the experimental IP
1
values of heavy actinides and...
Figure 17.31 Redox potentials for the actinides U through Cm in 1 M HClO
4
vs...
Figure 17.32 Double crucible system for the reduction of PuF
3
with Ba to obt...
Figure 17.33 Extended periodic table of the elements.
Figure 17.34 The reaction barrier between two chemical states MX + Y and MY ...
Figure 17.35 (a, b) temperature profiles in thermochromatography and isother...
Figure 17.36 Upper panel: thermochromatographic separation of
212
PbCl
2
and
2
...
Figure 17.37 The OLGA III system used in the study of seaborgium. The gas je...
Figure 17.38 Yield curve of
167
TaBr
5
(
t
1/2
= 78 seconds) measured with OLGA ...
Figure 17.39 Schematic representation of the computer‐controlled HPLC system...
Figure 17.40 Separation of trivalent lanthanides (Ln) and actinides (An), Zr...
Figure 17.41 Schematic diagram of the modified ARCA in AIDA.
Figure 17.42 Drawing of AIDA.
Figure 17.43 Variation of the distribution coefficient
K
d
of Zr and Hf on th...
Figure 17.44 Elution curves of Zr and Hf from (a) 1.6 mm i.d. × 7.0 mm colum...
Figure 17.45 Variation of the
K
d
of Zr and Hf on the anion exchange resin CA...
Figure 17.46 %ads of Zr, Hf, and Rf on the anion exchange resin CA08Y as a f...
Figure 17.47 Variation of the %ads of Zr and Hf on the anion exchange resin ...
Figure 17.48 Variation of the distribution coefficient
K
d
of Zr, Hf, and Rf ...
Figure 17.49 Radial distribution of the
n
s electrons in Nb, Ta, and Db as a ...
Figure 17.50 Binding energies of Nb, Ta, and Db as a result of the DF relati...
Figure 17.51 (a) Variation of the
K
d
values of Zr and Hf under static condit...
Figure 17.52 Distribution coefficients,
K
d
, of Zr and Hf under static condit...
Figure 17.53 Relative chemical yield for DbBr
5
with HBr as reactive gas as a...
Figure 17.54 Isothermal chromatograms of
104
Mo and
105
Mo. The gas flow rate ...
Figure 17.55 Combined thermochromatogram of
170
Os(CO)
5
and
171
Os(CO)
5
. Combi...
Figure 17.56 Schematic drawing of the
σ
‐donation bond (upper picture) f...
Figure 17.57 Thermochromatograms with the COMPACT with a gold surface. The g...
Figure 17.58Figure 17.58 Isothermal chromatogram measured with
170
Re (
t
1/2
=...
Figure 17.59 Isothermal chromatogram measured with
178
Ir (
t
1/2
= 12 seconds)...
Figure 17.60 Experimental decomposition curves of the Mo (symbols left) and ...
Figure 17.61 Two of seven nuclear decay chains originating from Hs isotopes ...
Figure 17.62 Thermochromatograms of HsO
4
and OsO
4
. Measured values are prese...
Figure 17.63 Distribution of the deposited amount of OsO
4
and HsO
4
on the su...
Figure 17.64 Thermochromatographic deposition patterns of
185
Hg,
219
Rn, and
Figure 17.65 Calculated dissociation energies (
D
e
) of Mau and M
2
(M are elem...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Abundance of the elements on the surface of the Earth (lithosphe...
Figure 18.2 Mass fractions of neutrons, protons,
2
H,
3
H,
3
He,
4
He,
6,7
Li, an...
Figure 18.3 Schematic H–R diagram. The ordinate is luminosity relative to th...
Figure 18.4 Portion of the s‐ and r‐process paths. The s‐process path involv...
Figure 18.5 Neutron capture cross sections at 25 keV for nuclei on the s‐pro...
Figure 18.6 Schematic representation of the Solar System abundances as a fun...
Figure 18.7 Solar neutrino energy spectra for the various sources ±1
σ
u...
Figure 18.8 Total detected rates of solar neutrinos in the various detectors...
Figure 18.9 Probability that an electron neutrino is not an electron neutrin...
Figure 18.10 The decays of particles produced in the atmosphere by cosmic ra...
Figure 18.11 The ratio of observed to expected neutrino events vs. the ratio...
Figure 18.12 Allowed regions in the Δ
m
2
vs. tan
2
Θ plane from a combined ana...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Atmospheric Δ
14
C during the past 10 000 years. Δ
14
C is the devia...
Figure 19.2 Rb/Sr isochron for a gneiss sample from Greenland. The slope of ...
Figure 19.3 Radiogenic Pb isotopes: atomic ratios as a function of age.
Figure 19.4 Activities of “unsupported”
210
Pb and
137
Cs from a sediment core...
Figure 19.5
206
Pb/
207
Pb isochron of meteorites of L type (○) and a troilite ...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Setup for the determination of K in salts.
Figure 20.2 Neutron yield of the reaction
9
Be(d, n)
10
B as a function of the ...
Figure 20.3 Principle of isotope dilution.
Figure 20.4 Setup for X‐ray fluorescence.
Figure 20.5 Schematic diagrams of (a) the experimental arrangement for PIXE ...
Figure 20.6 Proton‐induced X‐ray spectrum of an atmospheric particulate samp...
Figure 20.7 Arrangement for a Rutherford backscattering experiment (a); the ...
Figure 20.8 Principle of two‐ or three‐step resonant excitation and ionizati...
Figure 20.9 Sketch of the setup for pulsed laser RIMS as used at Mainz for s...
Figure 20.10 Excitation scheme for plutonium using wavelengths produced by t...
Figure 20.11 (a) Relative isotopic abundances of a plutonium sample from the...
Figure 20.12 Schematic of a modern, compact AMS machine.
Figure 20.13 Classical saddle point model in which an electrical field gradi...
Figure 20.14 Ionization thresholds of
252
Cf for four different electric fiel...
Figure 20.15 Extrapolation of the thresholds
W
th
as a function of the square...
Figure 20.16 Correlation of measured values of
I
eff
at 2700 K for various is...
Figure 20.17 Correlation of measured values of
I
eff
for various isotopes wit...
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Preparation of
14
C‐labeled compounds (example acetic acid) from ...
Figure 21.2 Examples of secondary precursors obtained from [
11
C]CO
2
and from...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Logarithm of the stability constant
β
1
of 1 : 1 complexes o...
Figure 22.2 Superposition of Pu predominance plot in solution (green) and at...
Figure 22.3 Pathways of radionuclides in ecosystems.
Figure 22.4 Distribution of radionuclides in an animal.
f
A
,
f
B
, and
f
C
are t...
Figure 22.5 Solid–liquid and redox equilibria of Pu in the presence of oxyge...
Figure 22.6 Schematic illustration of LIBD detection. The plasma created by ...
Figure 22.7 Oxidation state distributions of initially Pu(IV) solutions as a...
Figure 22.8 Solubility of amorphous Pu(IV) hydroxide Pu(OH)
4
(am). The data o...
Figure 22.9 Model for polymerization of Pu(IV) hydroxides from Rothe et al. ...
Figure 22.10 Solubility diagram of Th(IV). When the solubility is exceeded, ...
Figure 22.11 All three samples are measured by LIBD without preparation or p...
Figure 22.12 Thorium and H
+
concentrations of solutions B and C and coll...
Figure 22.13 Mean Th(IV) colloid size as a function of oversaturation.
Figure 22.14 Portion of the mass spectrum of Figure 22.15 for the solution w...
Figure 22.15 Total mass spectrum of a solution with [Zr] = 2.5 mM, pH
c
= 0.2...
Figure 22.16 (a) Excitation scheme of Cm
3+
; (b) bathochromic shift of th...
Figure 22.17 Calculated distribution of mononuclear hydroxide complexes (HCl...
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Weighting factor
w
R
for charged particles as a function of their...
Figure 23.2 Weighting factor
w
R
for neutrons as a function of their energy....
Figure 23.3 Neutron capture on
10
B leads to an excited
11
B emitting, after ≈...
Figure 23.4 Frequencies of leukemia observed in Hiroshima (H) and Nagasaki (...
Figure 23.5 Disposal facility phases and relevant oversight periods. (This f...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
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