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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Oil Seed Crops: Yield and Adaptations under Environmental Stress is a state-of-the-art reference that investigates the effect of environmental stress on oil seed crops and outlines effective ways to reduce stress and improve crop yield.
With attention to physiological, biochemical, molecular, and transgenic approaches, the chapters discuss a variety of oil seed crops and also cover a broad range of environmental stressors including microbes, salt, heavy metals, and climate change.
Featuring up-to-date research from a global group of experts, this reference provides innovative recommendations for mitigating environmental stress and promoting the healthy growth, development, and adaptation of crops.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
List of contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the editor
CHAPTER 1: Oilseed crops
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Cultivation of oilseed crops
1.3 Uses of major oilseed crops
1.4 Applications of oilseed crops
1.5 Conclusion and future prospects
References
CHAPTER 2: Castor bean (
Ricinus communis
L.)
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Botanical description
2.3 Genetic resources
2.4 Seed diversity of
R. communis
2.5 Drought and salinity tolerance
2.6 Seed yield of
R. communis
2.7 Seed toxicity
2.8 Physicochemical characters of RCO (Ricinus communis oil)
2.9 Oil fatty acids
2.10 Uses of oil of
R. communis
2.11 Conclusion and future prospects
References
CHAPTER 3: Seed composition in oil crops
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Sources of variation in seed lipid quantity and quality
3.3 How quantity and composition of oil reserves may affect germination
3.4 Conclusion and future prospects
References
CHAPTER 4: Oilseed crops and biodiesel production
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Biodiesel definition
4.3 Biodiesel background and sources
4.4 Biodiesel fuel: Present prospects and production
4.5 Biodiesel plant capacity
4.6 Biodiesel processing techniques and methods
4.7 Biodiesel characterization and standards
4.8 Biodiesel from conventional oils
4.9 Biodiesel from unconventional oils
4.10 Conclusion and future prospects
References
CHAPTER 5: Vegetable oil yield and composition influenced by environmental stress factors
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Abiotic and biotic stress factors
5.3 Oil crops’ yield and the content of lipids
5.4 Free fatty acids
5.5 Fatty acids composition
5.6 Antioxidants
5.7 Conclusion and future prospects
References
CHAPTER 6: Soybean
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Chemical composition of soybean
6.3 Salinity and salt stress
6.4 Plant response to salt stress
6.5 Soybean under salt stress
6.6 Role of transgenic soybean in agriculture
6.7 Conclusion and future prospects
References
CHAPTER 7: Sunflower resistance to the vampire weed broomrape
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Vampires among the vegetables
7.3 The vampirism lifestyles
7.4 The broomrape family: Vampire invaders
7.5 Broomrape biology
7.6 The sunflower vampire
Orobanche cumana
(Wallr)
7.7 Fighting against vampire weeds
7.8 Sunflower
7.9 Resistance
7.10 Conclusion and future prospects
References
CHAPTER 8: Biochemical and molecular studies on the commercial oil‐yielding desert shrub
Simmondsia chinensis
(jojoba, a desert gold)
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Advances in jojoba oil research
8.3 Genetic improvement
8.4 Market
8.5 Barriers to progress
8.6 Conclusion and future prospects
Acknowledgements
References
CHAPTER 9: Role of phytohormones in improving the yield of oilseed crops
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Phytohormones
9.3 Characteristics of phytohormones
9.4 Biosynthesis of phytohormones
9.5 Signaling of phytohormones
9.6 Role of phytohormones
9.7 Mode of action of phytohormones
9.8 Phytohormones in the development of silique (pods)
9.9 Role of phytohormones in plant protection
9.10 Phytohormones interact with other hormones
9.11 Conclusion and future prospects
References
CHAPTER 10: Plant–microbe interaction in oilseed crops
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Ecology and diversity of microbes associated with plant roots
10.3 Role of microbial diversity for soil, plant health and plant nutrition
10.4 Plant and microbe communication in diverse rhizospheric environments
10.5 Mechanisms employed by microbes to mitigate stress‐induced adverse effects on oilseed crops
10.6 Effects of beneficial microorganisms on oilseed crops’ cultivation and productivity
10.7 Conclusion and future prospects
Acknowledgments
References
CHAPTER 11:
Brassicaceae
plants
11.1
Brassicaceae:
introduction to family
11.2 Phylogenetic status
11.3 Heavy metal pollution in the environment
11.4 Hyperaccumulation potential and phytoremediation of contaminated soils
11.5 Natural phytoremediation vs. chemically enhanced phytoremediation
11.6 Role of genetic manipulation in increasing hyperaccumulation potential
11.7 Physiological and biochemical responses
11.8 Food safety and health concerns
11.9 Safe disposal practices for hyperaccumulator
Brassicas
11.10 Conclusion and future prospects
References
CHAPTER 12: Role of organic and inorganic amendments in alleviating heavy metal stress in oilseed crops
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Sources of heavy metal contamination of agricultural soils
12.3 Heavy metals toxicity in oilseed crops
12.4 Soil amendments for the remediation of metal toxicity in oilseed crops
12.5 Conclusion and future prospects
References
CHAPTER 13: Biochemical and molecular responses of oilseed crops to heavy metal stress
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Biochemical responses
13.3 Production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant defense agents
13.4 Molecular response
13.5 Significance of oilseed crops
13.6 What are essential and non‐essential elements?
13.7 Relationship between oilseed crops and heavy metals stress
13.8 Different heavy metals stress on biochemical and molecular responses of oilseed crops
13.9 Conclusion and future prospects
References
CHAPTER 14: The role of oilseed crops in human diet and industrial use
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Classifications of oilseed crops
14.3 Production of oilseed meal and oil
14.4 Processing of oilseed crops
14.5 Major nutrients in oilseed and their roles in human nutrition
14.6 Industrial utilization of oilseeds
14.7 Conclusion and future prospects
References
CHAPTER 15: Appraisal of biophysical parameters in Indian mustard (
Brassica juncea
) using thermal indices
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Thermal indices and biophysical parameters
15.3 Thermal energy use efficiency and biophysical parameters
15.4 Radiation dynamics and biophysical parameters
15.5 Soil temperature and biophysical parameters
15.6 Conclusion and future prospects
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 01
Table 1.1 Major oilseed crops and their uses.
Chapter 02
Table 2.1 Concentration of the major fatty acids and its categories (%) of extracted oil from
R. communis
seeds.
Chapter 03
Table 3.1 Fatty acid composition and iodine value of stored lipids in seeds or fruits of different species.
Chapter 04
Table 4.1 Biodiesel 100, specification ASTM D6751‐2.
Table 4.2 The international standard (EN 14214) for biodiesel requirements.
Table 4.3 Common fatty acids in vegetable oils.
Table 4.4 Fatty acid composition of insect oils and conventional Sudanese oils.
Table 4.5 Results of analysis of biodiesel produced from MBO and SBO.
Chapter 06
Table 6.1 Content of major nutrients per 100 g of raw, unprocessed soybean seed.
Chapter 07
Table 7.1 Some parasitic plants of economic importance and their associated hosts.
Table 7.2 Main
Orobanche
spp.
and their associated hosts.
Table 7.3
O. cumana
races and resistance mechanisms in sunflower.
Table 7.4 Sunflower diseases. Species in bold refer to the most common European pathogens and pests.
Table 7.5 Some wild
Helianthus
as potential source for pathogens resistance.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Inoculation of PGPRs and fungal strains with their plant growth‐promoting characters and key effects on different oilseed crops.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Heavy metal stress on biochemical and molecular responses of oilseed crops.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Classification of oilseed crops.
Table 14.2 World oilseed production (‘000 ton).
List of Illustrations
Chapter 01
Figure 1.1 Applications of oilseed crops in different industries.
Chapter 02
Figure 2.1
R. communis
parts: (A): young plant; (B): flower; (C): immature fruit; (D): mature fruit; and (E): seeds.
Figure 2.2 Crystallographic structure of ricin; A chain in black and B chain in white.
Figure 2.3 Ricinoleic acid.
Figure 2.4 GC‐MS total chromatograms from castor bean oil.
Chapter 03
Figure 3.1 Mean seed or fruit oil concentration of several crop species.
Figure 3.2 Oilseed fatty acid composition, for traditional and genetically modified genotypes within a species.
Figure 3.3 Water absorption (given as proportion of initial seed weight) at the moment of radicle protrusion, plotted against seed oil concentration in three sunflower genotypes (a traditional, a high oleic and a high stearic‐high oleic). Seeds were incubated at 5°C and embedded with distilled water (0 MPa) with or without seed coats.
Figure 3.4 Dynamics of water absorption (given as proportion of initial seed weight) of two sunflower genotypes with contrasting seed oil concentration (30.5 vs. 42.5%). Seeds were incubated at 0 MPa (distilled water) or −0.9 MPa (polyethylene glycol solution) at 5°C with or without seed coats. Arrows indicate protrusion of the first radicle in each seed lot.
Figure 3.5 Base temperature for seed germination (°C) as a function of iodine value of seed lipids.
Chapter 04
Scheme 1 Transesterification of triglyceride.
Scheme 2 Mechanism of triglycerides transesterification.
Scheme 3 Mechanism of acid‐catalyzed esterification.
Scheme 4 Mechanism of acid‐catalyzed transesterification of vegetable oils.
Figure 4.1 (A)
Moringa peregrina
seeds; (B)
Moringa peregrina
seed husk; (C)
Moringa peregrina
kernel; (D)
Moringa peregrina
seed husk powder; (E)
Moringa peregrina
seed cake; (F)
Moringa peregrina
seed oil.
Chapter 06
Figure 6.1 Concentrations for 17 amino acids occurring in soybean raw mature seeds (in g/100 g).
Chapter 07
Figure 7.1 Different kinds of parasitic plants.
Figure 7.2 Modeled distribution map of
Orobanche cumana.
Figure 7.3
Orobanche
lifecycle.
Figure 7.4 Structural feature of germination stimulators.
Figure 7.5
Orobanche cumana
morphological aspect: (1) A, general aspect; B, flower side‐on view; C, front view of the flower; D, bract; E and F, calix segments; G, dissected corolla and androcecium; H, gynoecium; I, stamen.
Figure 7.6
Orobanche cumana
Wallr./
Orobanche cernua
Loefl. repartition map and worldwide sunflower production, 2010.
O. cumana/O. cernua
; no sunflower production; up to 500 000 t sunflower produced; more than 500 000 t sunflower produced.
Figure 7.7 Lifecycle of broomrape and control strategies. Number indicating the probability of transition from stage to stage.
Figure 7.8 Main histological reaction in resistant sunflower genotype LR1 compared with the susceptible genotype 2603. VH, host xylem vessel; P, parasite; HR, host root; H, host.
Figure 7.9 Potential resistance level in
Helianthus
species during the
O. cumana
development cycle.
Chapter 08
Figure 8.1 Jojoba farm at Jaipur, Rajasthan, called the Association of Rajasthan Jojoba Plantation Research Project (AJORP).
Figure 8.2 A fruit of jojoba (
Simmondsia chinensis
).
Figure 8.3 Male flowers of jojoba (
Simmondsia chinensis
).
Figure 8.4 A full size shrub of jojoba (
Simmondsia chinensis
) with immature fruits.
Chapter 09
Figure 9.1 Biosynthesis pathways of auxin within plants.
Figure 9.2 Cytokinin biosynthesis pathways.
Figure 9.3 Ethylene biosynthesis pathways.
Figure 9.4 Gibberellin biosynthesis pathways.
Figure 9.5 Biosynthesis of salicyclic acid.
Figure 9.6 Biosynthesis of abscisic acid.
Figure 9.7 Auxin signaling in plants.
Figure 9.8 Cytokinin signaling in plants.
Figure 9.9 Possible mechanism of gibberellins signaling and the molecular response.
Figure 9.10 Model of the ethylene signaling pathway in oilseed crops.
Figure 9.11 Model pathway of ABA signaling on oilseed crops.
Figure 9.12 Salicylic acid pathway of plant signaling.
Figure 9.13 Proposed model hormonal regulation and response and signaling.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 PGPRs and fungi promote plant growth by increasing the bioavailability of essential nutrients like P and Fe in the rhizosphere. Different types of mechanisms were reported for beneficial microorganisms, such as bio‐fertilization to phytohormones production and control of pathogens.
Figure 10.2 The possible mechanism employed by the SA and bacterial inoculation to cope with Cr toxicity.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Different phytoremediation types exhibited by the hyperaccumulator species of the
Brassicaceae
family.
Figure 11.2 Heavy metal‐induced physiological and biochemical responses.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Flowchart describing oilseed processing.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Prediction of leaf area index (LAI) in
Brassica juncea
using thermal indices.
Figure 15.2 Prediction of dry biomass production in
Brassica juncea
using thermal indices.
Figure 15.3 Prediction of LAI, biomass productivity, thermal heat utilization efficiency in
Brassica juncea
over growing season.
Figure 15.4 Quantification of thermal heat utilization efficiency in
Brassica juncea
as a function of LAI, dry biomass and productivity.
Figure 15.5 Correlation of radiation penetration over crop growing period and relationship with LAI in
Brassica juncea.
Figure 15.6 Dynamics of IPAR and cumulative IPAR and prediction of biophysical parameter as a function of cumulative IPAR in
Brassica juncea.
Figure 15.7 Functional relationship between soil and air temperature and cumulative soil temperatures with LAI, dry biomass, and its partitioning, heat use efficiency in
Brassica juncea
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Oilseed Crops
Yield and Adaptations under Environmental Stress
EDITED BY
Parvaiz Ahmad
Department of Botany, Sri Pratap College, Jammu and Kashmir, India
This edition first published 2017© 2017 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Registered OfficeJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
Editorial OfficesThe Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley‐blackwell.
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ISBN: 9781119048770
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
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Cover image: iprachenko/GettyimagesCover design by Wiley
List of contributors
Farhat AbbasDepartment of Environmental Sciences and Engineering,Government College University,Faisalabad, Pakistan
Olufunmilola A. AbiodunDepartment of Home Economics and Food Science,University of Ilorin,Kwara State, Nigeria
Tarun AdakDivision of Crop Production,CISH, Rehmankhera,Lucknow,Uttar Pradesh, India
Muhammad AdreesDepartment of Environmental Sciences and Engineering,Government College University,Faisalabad, Pakistan
Farzana AfzalDepartment of Botany,University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir,Muzaffarabad,Azad Kashmir,Pakistan
Swati AgarwalDepartment of Bioscience and Biotechnology,Banasthali University,Rajasthan, India
Parvaiz AhmadDepartment of Botany, Sri Pratap College,Jammu and Kashmir,India
Rehan AhmadDepartment of Environmental Sciences and Engineering,Government College University,Faisalabad, Pakistan
Basharat AliInstitute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation (INRES),Plant Nutrition,University of Bonn, Germany
Shafaqat AliDepartment of Environmental Sciences and Engineering,Government College University,Faisalabad, Pakistan
Zeshan AliNational Institute of Bioremediation,National Agricultural Research Center (NARC),Islamabad, Pakistan
Kiran AnwaarPakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR),Khyaban‐e‐Johar,Islamabad, Pakistan
Mohammad AshfaqCenter for Environmental Science and Engineering,Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur,Kanpur, India;Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology,Banasthali University,Banasthali. India
Sandra BalbinoFaculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology,University of Zagreb,Zagreb, Croatia
Diego BatllaNational Council of Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET),Argentina;Faculty of Agronomy,University of Buenos Aires,Buenos Aires, Argentina
Roberto Benech‐ArnoldNational Council of Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET),Argentina;Faculty of Agronomy,University of Buenos Aires,Buenos Aires, Argentina
Emilio CervantesIRNASA‐CSIC,Salamanca, Spain
N.V.K. ChakravartyDivision of Agricultural Physics,Indian Agricultural Research Institute,New Delhi,India
Bartosz CiorgaDepartment of Chemistry,Poznan&c.acute; University of Life Sciences,Poznan&c.acute;, Poland
David DelmailUniversity of Rennes 1 (European University of Brittany),Rennes, France
Mujahid FaridDepartment of Environmental Sciences,University of Gujrat,Gujrat, Pakistan
Muhammad A. FarooqInstitute of Crop Science and Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm,Zhejiang University,Hangzhou, China
Rafaqat Ali GillInstitute of Crop Science and Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm,Zhejiang University,Hangzhou, China
Olimpia GładyszDepartment of Inorganic Chemistry,Wroclaw Medical University,Wroclaw, Poland
Piotr Golin&c.acute;skiDepartment of Chemistry,Poznan&c.acute; University of Life Sciences,Poznan&c.acute;, Poland
Raúl González BeloFaculty of Agricultural Science,National University of Mar del Plata,Balcarce, Argentina;National Council of Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET),Argentina
Alvina GulAtta‐ur‐Rahman School of Applied Biosciences,National University of Sciences and Technology,Islamabad, Pakistan
Zaid ul HassanDepartment of Environmental Sciences and Engineering,Government College University,Faisalabad, Pakistan
Sameen Ruqia ImadiAtta‐ur‐Rahman School of Applied Biosciences,National University of Sciences and Technology,Islamabad, Pakistan
Saiqa ImranPakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR),Khyaban‐e‐Johar,Islamabad, Pakistan
Muhammad IqbalDepartment of Environmental Sciences and Engineering,Government College University,Faisalabad, Pakistan
Faisal IslamInstitute of Crop Science and Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Natalia IzquierdoFaculty of Agricultural Science,National University of Mar del Plata,Balcarce, Argentina;National Council of Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET),Argentina
Suphiya KhanDepartment of Bioscience and Biotechnology,Banasthali University,Rajasthan, India
Pascal LabrousseFaculty of Pharmacy, FR3503 GEIST, GRESE EA 4330 ‐ Laboratory of Botany and Cryptogamy,University of Limoges,Limoges, France
Abdalbasit A. MariodCollege of Science and Arts‐Alkamil,University of Jeddah,Alkamil, Saudi Arabia
José J. MartínIRNASA‐CSIC,Salamanca, Spain
Muhammad RizwanDepartment of Environmental Sciences and Engineering,Government College University,Faisalabad, Pakistan
Ezzeddine SaadaouiRegional Station of Gabes – INRGREF,University of Carthage, Tunisia
Mohammed SalaheldeenDepartment of Chemistry, Faculty of Education,Nile Valley University,Atbara, Sudan
Vinay SharmaDepartment of Bioscience and Biotechnology,Banasthali University,Rajasthan, India
Nizar TliliLaboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biology,University of Tunis El‐Manar,Tunis, Tunisia;Faculty of Sciences of Gafsa,University of Gafsa, Tunisia
Jorge TognettiFaculty of Agricultural Science,National University of Mar del Plata,Balcarce, Argentina;Scientific Research Council, Buenos Aires (CIC),La Plata, Argentina
Hina WaheedDepartment of Botany,PMAS Arid Agriculture University,Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Jian WangInstitute of Crop Science and Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm,Zhejiang University,Hangzhou, China
Sarah WaseemAtta‐ur‐Rahman School of Applied Biosciences,National University of Sciences and Technology,Islamabad, Pakistan
Agnieszka WaśkiewiczDepartment of Chemistry,Poznan&c.acute; University of Life Sciences,Poznan&c.acute;, Poland
Tahira YasmeenDepartment of Environmental Sciences and Engineering,Government College University,Faisalabad, Pakistan
Weijun ZhouInstitute of Crop Science and Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm,Zhejiang University,Hangzhou, China
Muhammad Zia‐ur‐RehmanInstitute of Soil and Environmental Sciences,University of Agriculture,Faisalabad, Pakistan
Preface
Food security has become a major and fast‐growing concern worldwide. There is a need to double the world food production in order to feed the ever‐increasing populations, which are set to reach nine billion mark by 2050. In the current scenario, improving yields in both normal and less productive farm lands, including lands affected by heavy metals, is the only way to address food security concerns, as the amount of unused land available to bring into cultivation is limited. Among various factors affecting agricultural production, abiotic stress factors are considered to be the main source of yield reduction.
Oilseed crops like other crops are susceptible to environmental stresses such as heavy metal, salt, cold, drought, pathogen attack, etc. These stresses negatively affect the plant growth and development. In economically important oilseed crops, there is a reduction in yield and/or oil level, or quality that affects growers and consumers. Abiotic stress alone is responsible for a huge crop loss and a reduced yield of more than 50% of some major crops.
Ion imbalance and osmotic stress are the primary effects of abiotic stress. Prolonged exposure to primary stress causes secondary stress through the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Plants can perceive the external and internal signals and these are then used by the plant to regulate various responses to stress. Plants respond to abiotic stress by up‐regulation and down‐regulation of genes responsible for the synthesis of osmolytes, osmoprotectants, and antioxidants. Stress‐responsive genes and gene products including proteins are expressed and allow the plant to tolerate stress. To understand the physiological, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms causing environmental stress, perception, transduction, and tolerance are still challenges facing plant biologists.
Chapter 1, “Oilseed crops; present scenario and future prospects” deals with the cultivation and uses of different oilseed crops and their applications in biotech industries. Chapter 2 throws light on castor bean (Ricinus communis L.): its diversity, seed oil, and uses. Chapter 3 explains the seed composition of oil crops and its impact on seed germination performance. Chapter 4 discusses the production of biodiesel from oilseed crops. The authors also explain the biodiesel production from conventional and unconventional oils. Chapter 5 describes how vegetable oil yield and its composition are influenced by environmental stress factors. Chapter 6 looks at the soybean: its growth, development, and yield under salt stress. Sunflower resistance to the weed broomrape is described in Chapter 7. Chapter 8 throws light on biochemical and molecular studies on the commercial applications of jojoba, while Chapter 9 discusses the role of phytohormones in improving the yield of oilseed crops. Chapter 10 describes plant‐microbe interaction in oilseed crops and the role of microbes in mitigating stress. Chapter 11 discusses brassicaceae plants: heavy metal accumulation and its role in phytoremediation. Chapters 12 and 13 discuss the role of organic and inorganic amendments and biochemical and molecular responses to heavy metal stress in oilseed crops. Chapter 14 discusses the role of oilseed crops in human diet and their industrial use. The final chapter, Chapter 15, explains the biophysical parameters of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) using thermal indices.
Acknowledgments
We have tried our best to ensure the information on different aspects of oilseed crops is valid and up to date, however, it is a continuously developing field. We are grateful to the contributors for their valuable work and to John Wiley and Sons Ltd, particularly Gudrun Walter (Editorial Director, Natural Sciences), Laura Bell (Assistant Editor, John Wiley), Blesy Regulas (Project Editor, John Wiley), Vaishnavi Ganesh (Production Editor, John Wiley) and all the other staff members, who were directly or indirectly associated with us in this project for their constant help, valuable suggestions, and efforts in achieving the timely publication of this volume.
About the editor
Dr. Parvaiz is Senior Assistant Professor in the Department of Botany at Sri Pratap College, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India. He completed his postgraduate degree in Botany in 2000 from Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India. After receiving his doctorate from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Delhi, India, he joined the International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology in New Delhi, in 2007. His main research areas are stress physiology and molecular biology. He has published more than 50 research papers in peer‐reviewed journals and has written 35 book chapters. He is also the editor of 16 volumes published by different international publishers, such as Studium Press Pvt., India Ltd., New Delhi, India, Springer, NY, USA, Elsevier, USA and John Wiley, UK. He is the recipient of a Junior Research Fellowship and a Senior Research Fellowship from CSIR, New Delhi, India. Dr. Parvaiz was awarded the Young Scientist Award under the Fast Track scheme in 2007 by the Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India. Dr. Parvaiz is actively engaged in studying the molecular and physio‐biochemical responses of different agricultural and horticultural plants under environmental stress.
CHAPTER 1Oilseed crops: Present scenario and future prospects
Sarah Waseem1, Sameen Ruqia Imadi1, Alvina Gul1, and Parvaiz Ahmad2
1Atta‐ur‐Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
2Department of Botany, S.P. College, Jammu and Kashmir, India
1.1 Introduction
Oilseed crops belong to numerous plant families and their seeds are used not only as a source of oil but also as raw materials for various oleo‐chemical industries. The raw materials act as a renewable source of energy and are associated with power generation (Jankowski & Budzynski, 2003). Among various oilseed crops, the preferred ones are soybean, sesame, safflower, sunflower, groundnut, and castor (Weiss, 2000). The crops of sunflower, soybean, and canola offer good management options for irrigation reduction, thus enhancing the benefits of reduced input costs of these oilseed crops (Aiken & Lamm, 2006). There exists a positive correlation between soil water extraction and rooting depth in oilseed crops. The tap root, along with the well‐formed root growth system of safflower, allows this oilseed crop to extract moisture at greater depths from the soil. When safflower water requirements are satisfied with 68.6% and 78.4% water content, the crop provides the yield of 392 kgha−1 after only one turn of irrigation. Safflower yields 762 kgha−1 with two irrigations (Kar et al., 2007). Oilseed crops like soybean, sunflower, and canola are susceptible to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, a fungal pathogen that is responsible for a reduction in the yield of these crops. The application of sulfur as fertilizer on the oilseed crops results in increased concentration of oil as well as protein content of the Brassica seeds (Malhi et al., 2006). For the production of a ton of oilseed, approximately 12 Kg sulfur is required (Ghosh et al., 2000). Some 23.5% of protein content has been observed in canola after the application of 80 kgha−1 of nitrogen but this did not play a significant role in increasing the oil content (Ahmad et al., 2007). There has been an increased risk of blackleg in canola fields when crops are planted adjacent to canola stubble that is six months mature. To avoid serious damage by blackleg in canola fields, it is recommended that the crops should be sown in such a way that there is a distance of at least 500 m from last season’s canola stubble (Marcroft et al., 2004). Among the various oilseed crops, there are some anti‐nutritive compounds such as condensed tannins, inositol phosphates, and glucosinolates, etc. All such anti‐nutritive compounds are responsible for lowering the nutritive value of oilseed crops. In most situations these compounds do not harm the crop plants (Matthaus & Angelini, 2005). Advances in plant technology and the advent of metabolic engineering have enabled the modification of oilseed crops, thus establishing transgenic crop plants. Such transgenic oilseed crops have novel biosynthetic genes taken from noncommercial plants that provide the oilseed plants with good fatty acids (Thelen & Ohlrogge, 2002). To modify the fatty acid content of oilseed crops, the technique of mutagenesis is very important (Velasco & Fernández‐Martínez, 2000). In this way, these modified crops are responsible for the provision of great benefits to human health (Thelen & Ohlrogge, 2002). Various catabolic as well as biosynthetic enzymes have also been shown to play a significant role in the regulation of the fatty acid component of the oilseed crops. Among such biosynthetic and catabolic enzymes, the best characterized ones include KAS (β‐ketoacyl‐ACP synthases), TE (thioesterases), and acyltransferases (Dehesh, 2001). In soils that are tainted with a high cadmium content, that has accumulated due to the application of phosphatic fertilizers, specifically in Australia, the linseed crops accumulated much greater concentrations of cadmium compared to other crop species, such as wheat, canola, lupins, and Indian mustard (Hocking & McLaughlin, 2000). Linseed crops follow a model of simulation termed STICS that ensures the calibrations of linseed are in harmony with water consumption, with the crop yield as well as the nitrogen content of the crop (Flenet et al., 2004). Of GM crops, one of the first to be modified was oilseed rape (Brassica napus), and various concerns were raised regarding pollution of the environment due to oilseed rape pollen contamination of non‐GM crops from GM crops (Rieger et al., 2002).
1.2 Cultivation of oilseed crops
Aimed at the production of high quality seed crops via conventional breeding as well as through genetic engineering, it is worthwhile typifying the overall genetic variety of the crop plants (Iman et al., 2011). In the rankings of oilseed crops across the world, canola (Brassica napus) is the second leading oilseed crop in the world (Maheshwari et al., 2011). However, the oilseed crop, Brassica napus, when cultivated on large acreages of land, causes problems for the ecosystem as its large‐scale cultivation results in a slanted relationship between the pollinator and the crop. The distorted relationship is the consequence of a decline in the bumblebee population along with an increase in nectar robbers (Diekotter et al., 2010). In vitro generation of canola through tissue culture using an MS medium showed that, in contrast to the root and hypocotyl, cotyledons of the seed are very able to regenerate (Kamal et al., 2007). As it is rich in protein content, canola is cultivated as food for shrimps and fish in the aquatic environment. The limiting factors why canola is not used for animal feed are the anti‐nutritive compounds that include phytates and the phenolic compounds (Enami, 2011). Genetically modified canola crops for herbicide resistance were nurtured in Canada but stayed impotent in order to have good weed control (Gusta et al., 2011). Various rhizobacteria played significant roles in increasing the growth of the canola plant, along with the application of chemical fertilizers. Azospirillum brasilense (a rhizobacteria) triggered the canola seed to increase in size as well as in protein content. Azotobactervinelandii was responsible for the noteworthy rise of the oleic acid content in canola seeds (Nosheen et al., 2011).
Mustard, one of the best‐known oilseed crops, is cultivated because of its wholesome strengths. Sinapis alba, ordinarily known as white mustard, when grown on contaminated soils tainted with Thallium, introduced that element into the oilseed crop, hence, providing an unwelcome element within the food chain (Vane&c.breve;k et al., 2010). The cultivation of rapeseed‐mustard requires special management strategies. Such management stratagems first of all include soil testing to check the nutrient content of the soil at the specific site. Apposite use of natural resources along with appropriate irrigation and defense against pests and diseases works as one of the best approaches to increase the yield of rapeseed‐mustard (Shekhawat et al., 2012). In the rhizosphere, Indian mustard has exhibited pronounced growth in acidic loams whereas little growth has been observed in basic soils (Kim et al., 2010). In combination with sucrose, mustard is also responsible for the provision of a positive upshot towards ergo sterol, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus. However, the consequences are not as pronounced as they are in the case of sucrose. Sucrose application to mustard instigated a reduction in the root and shoot growth of the mustard crop (Khan et al., 2010).
There is a huge genetic diversity within the genome of soybean crops. Evidence has been provided by the comparison between the wild and the cultivated soybean crop plants. In the soybean genome there are degrees of linkage disequilibrium (Lam et al., 2010). There is a conflict between the soybean crops that have been genetically modified and those that have not been genetically modified. The differences between these two varieties can be examined through the use of a spectroscopic procedure called NIRS (Near‐Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy) (Lee & Choung, 2011). The anti‐oxidative potential of soybean can be boosted naturally through the process of solid state fermentation. A fungal species called Trichoderma harzianum had been used as an entrant for the fermentation procedure. The fermented soybeans showed resistance to oxidative stresses and are also involved in the manufacture of various flavonoids in high amounts (Singh et al., 2010).
Pronounced interruptions in growth arise during the cultivation of sesame. The problems are associated with the pathogens that are soil‐borne and hence are responsible for seedling rot. The issue can be overcome through a bio‐formulation that uses the strain Pseudomonas fluorescens (Choi et al., 2014). Sesame crops demand very low operational costs and less irrigation for their cultivation (Sarkar & Roy, 2013).
In the category of non‐edible oilseed crops, castor crops play a significant role. Castor farming can be enhanced through its production in highly rain‐fed expanses (Cheema et al., 2013). Weeds are one of the chief problems in the inadequacy of castor cultivation (Sofiatti et al., 2012).
Several heavy metals like copper, zinc, cadmium, and nickel have had a deleterious influence on safflower seedling growth when the crop is cultivated in soils containing such toxic metals (Houshmandfar & Moraghebi, 2011). Farming of safflower in a briny environment encourages the assembly of secondary metabolites by the oilseed crop under consideration.
1.3 Uses of major oilseed crops
The most important product produced by oilseed plants, for food as well as feedstock, is the oil (Harwood et al., 2013). Oilseed crops are characterized as one of the major sources of biodiesel manufacture. Biodiesel is an alternative fuel in the petroleum industry and this can be viewed both positively and negatively. Positively is the production of low price biofuels, on the one hand, but on the other, the disadvantage is the prevalence of fuel over food, as edible oilseed crops are used to produce biodiesel fuel. In the past few years, non‐edible oilseed crops have been explored as producers of biofuel (Balat, 2011). Oilseed crops are a good alternative to vegetable oil. Through biotechnology and metabolic engineering, oilseed crops can be transformed in a way to deliver the advantageous properties of the oil content (Lu et al., 2011). The most important oilseed crops are linseed, sesame, safflower, etc. but there are also other certain minor oilseed crops, which have important implications. In the class of minor oilseed crops, Niger is of great significance. The crop contains major fatty acids, including oleic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, and linoleic acid. The fatty acid content of the oilseed crops is the reason for the long‐term eminence of the crop plants (Yadav et al., 2012). The survival of Jatrophacurcas, an oilseed crop, in harmful climatic circumstances, further heightens the standing of oilseed crops. This crop plant is an important source of feedstock and biofuel. The decline in the noxiousness of the crop through metabolic engineering can permit it to become feed for animals (Francis et al., 2013). Uses of major oilseed crops are presented in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Major oilseed crops and their uses.
Plant
Common name
Family
Type of oil
Uses
Brassica napus
Rapeseed
Brassicaceae
Diesel fuel
Biodiesel
Vegetable
Animal feed
Protein supplement
Glycine willd
Soybeans
Fabaceae
Vegetable oil
Protein supplement
Cooking oil
Flour
Infant formula
Pharmaceutical industry
Helianthus annuus
Sunflower
Asteraceae
Seed oil
Cooking oil
Cocos nucifera
Coconut
Arecaceae
Vegetable oil and biofuel
Culinary uses
Decoration
Food industry
Chocolates
Vinegar
Cooking
Nectar
Arachis hypogea
Peanut
Fabaceae
Cooking oil
Peanut butter
Cooking
Cosmetics
Plastics
Dyes
Textile material
Flour
1.3.1 Rapeseed
Rapeseed is one of the most innovative protein sources used as a replacement for proteins that are obtained from animals (Spiegel et al., 2013). A member of the series of bio‐energy crops, Brassica napus, commonly known as rapeseed, is a familiar bio‐energy crop (Houben et al., 2013). Glycerol is the spinoff of biodiesel formation from methanol and triglycerides. This has led to glycerol overproduction and it is classified as waste. Rapeseed has solved the problem through changing rapeseed oil into biodiesel by means of carboxylate esters without producing glycerol (Goembira et al., 2012). Rapeseed oil composition includes several vital fatty acids. The oil removed, through treatment by supercritical carbon dioxide fluid extraction, is made up of 2.60% palmitic acid, 47.09% erucic acid, 16.54% oleic acid, 11.20% eicosenoic acid, 9.62% linoleic acid, and 4.77% linolenic acid (Yu et al., 2012). Rapeseed oil can help as a feedstock as it produces vegetable oil‐centered bio‐polyols that are considerably more economical compared to petroleum‐based polyols. These bio‐polyols are further used in the manufacture of PUR foams (Dworakowska et al., 2012). A concoction of rapeseed cake together with sawdust is used to produce wood fuel pellets (Stahl & Berghel, 2011). Rapeseed scum possesses the important quality of being used as a green compost which provides the soil with an increase in soil organic matter (SOM). This feature further augments the growth of microbial flora within the soil. Rapeseed residues are also valuable in the reduction of metals such as cadmium and lead in rice fields. In this way rapeseed plays its part in the reduction of the metals that damage the rice plant (Ok et al., 2011). By means of the hydrolytic feature of the enzyme Alcalase on rapeseed proteins, rapeseed protein hydrolysates (RPHs) are created. RPHs present inordinate antioxidant abilities by enabling the detoxification of free radicals, hydroxyl radicals, and superoxide. As well as the antioxidant ability, RPHs moreover have great nutritive value (Pan et al., 2011).
1.3.2 Soybean
One of the most important plants for oil extraction as well as providing a dietary basis for protein is soybean, universally considered a significant crop plant (Hartman et al., 2011). In various places around the world, soybean has become as essential a foodstuff as corn and hence it is now nurtured to produce large yields (Na et al., 2014). The crop is nurtured on enormous tracts of arable land and aims to produce high yields, since it is an essential foodstuff, either directly or indirectly used in several other food products. A decline in soybean crop produce could threaten global food security. With the help of biotechnology, it has turned out to be possible to make soybean a crop par excellence for its exploitation either as a food product or its consumption as a vegetable crop (Hartman et al., 2011). Oleic acid is considered the element that produces the oxidative permanence. Its occurrence in soybean is what gives that crop plant a pronounced industrial importance. Environmental changes ensured that soybean would have various concentrations and constancy of oleic acid combined with mutations within its genome (Lee et al., 2012).
Through innumerable phases of growth from seed to mature crop, soybean has displayed variability in its silhouette regarding its chemical composition. The crop protein content declines during the first 3–5 weeks, nonetheless, then it starts to increase. Contrariwise, enriched oil content amasses in the course of early growth. Likewise increased starch content has been detected within the developing seeds that became less at maturity. Such categorizations contained by the soybean crop make it available in practice for several uses at different points of germination (Saldivar et al., 2011). Soybean oil has been engineered to increase its oxidative steadiness, from the parallel creation of designed biotech variability, as well as non‐biotech uses. The cross flanked by soybean MON 87705 appears through a variety that has a low capacity of linolenic acid. This ends up in a soybean crop that is stumpy in saturated fatty acids and has a huge amount of oleic acid. Linolenic and linoleic fatty acids are called saturated fatty acids. In this way, soybean has the capability to replace common cooking oils with raised levels of oleic acid containing vegetable oils, which have oxidative stability (Tran et al., 2011). Within the category of bio‐energy producing expertise. soybean biomass has paved the way for pronounced applications. By controlling soybean proteins, gene manifestation is tangled in lignin, polysaccharides, and fatty acid metabolism (Pestana‐Calsa et al., 2012). In unfriendly ecological settings, the hydroponic procedure favors the farming of soybean; hence, it provides proteins and oils. In the manufacture of dietary fibers and fats, a study has revealed that the hydroponic culture technique has assisted the soybean seeds to enhance their dietary factors (Palermo et al., 2012). Soybean seeds are supplied with numerous kinds of sugars that comprise sucrose, stachyose, and raffinose. Such saccharides are the source of diverse groups, with the quantity related to the basis of dominance and recessive physiognomies. Such qualities are responsible in soybean food evaluation for breeding plug‐ins aimed at the setting up of a desirable parent (Mozzoni et al., 2013).
1.3.3 Sunflower
Considering its use in the fabrication of innumerable goods, from edible oils to pharmaceuticals, in petroleum industries to biofuels as well as bio‐lubricants, sunflower (Helianthus annuus) is the most important product (Fernandez et al., 2012). In the category of vegetable oils regulated in USDA reports, sunflower stands in fourth position behind the three most important oilseed crops: palm, soybean, and canola. The oil haul from the flower is accessible in three groupings: one high in linoleic acid and the other two in oleic acid. Oleic acid is available in great to moderate concentrations in the other two categories. These three fatty acid conformations are completely free from genetic manipulations. In contrast, through canola and soybean oil, sunflower seed oil is free of linolenic acid. This distinguishing feature gives oxidative stability to the seed oil. Being developed from enriched tocopherol, sunflower oils are not in need of hydrogenation reactions that mostly become contaminated and are due to catalytic poisoning. Along these lines, they have functioned as an unadulterated replacement for trans fats, and hereafter are a prerequisite in a variability of foodstuffs (List, 2014). Sunflower seeds are full of innumerable nutrients, most notably minerals and vitamins. They are a source of protein, vitamins A and B, nitrogen, iron, calcium, and phosphorus. Sunflower is an extremely rich source of vitamin E, which is a vital vitamin (Arshad & Amjad, 2012). Sunflower oil, by means of the hybridization domino effect, offers a way to the chemical industries to aid in the assembly of biofuels (Cvejic et al., 2014). Diesel manufactured by means of sunflower oil, when cast off in running the engine, generates less carbon monoxide as well as additional hydrocarbons in comparison to diesel produced from cotton oil (Arapatsakos et al., 2011). In the manufacture of novel bioactive agents, lecithins taken from sunflower and altered through oil in water suspensions, worked as a pronounced substitute (Cabezas et al., 2011). Lumbrokinase that worked, for example, as an imperative anti‐fibrinolytic protein, had been endorsed as expressed in sunflower seeds. Elevated anti‐thrombotic effects have been detected in mice who have consumed such transgenic seeds. In this fashion, transgenic sunflower seeds provide a route for therapeutic properties designed for humans (Guan et al., 2014). In contemporary studies, the exploitation of sunflower, together with rapeseed, has achieved prominence in various biotechnological applications. These include their practice in the fermentation industry in the making of different enzymes, in pharmaceuticals, in the assembly of antibiotics and correspondingly designed to produce antioxidants (Lomascolo et al., 2012).
1.3.4 Brassica
Brassica, a genus made up of a number of species, is very important for health and nutrition. Due to the occurrence of phenolics over and above glucosinolate, the crop vegetables are employed as anti‐cancers, accompanied by their use in the treatment of degenerative disorders (Velasco et al., 2011). Nonetheless there is still a debate about the low glucosinolate breeding lines. This was the prerequisite for seed meal enhancement as certain elevated levels of glucosinolate found in the seeds are responsible for the reduction in the taste of the meal in conjunction with unpleasant consequences (Augustine et al., 2013). Wild types of Brassica correspondingly are used as biocidal crops in conjunction with nutraceuticals fabrication (Branca & Cartea, 2011).
The genomic portrayal of one of the species of Brassica, the so‐called Brassica rapa, was very useful in polyploidy genome studies. In addition to this, the aforementioned contributed to the enhancement in the oils removed from Brassica in additional vegetable crops production (Wang et al., 2011).
Brassica oleracea, known as cauliflower, is one of the most essential vegetables used in the kitchen besides its use in the fresh form (Thanki et al., 2012). It is one of the polymorphic specie that includes other vegetables such as broccoli, brussels sprouts, and cabbage. The specie further has the capacity to provide innumerable health benefits owing to the presence of numerous flavonoids and carotenoids. In cabbage and kale glucosinolate, hydroxycinnamic acids and flavonoids have been recognized; these complexes are of significance to health (Velasco et al., 2011). Vegetable classes inside Brassica oleracea have antibacterial factors with the bacterial diversity of a gram positive and gram negative nature that are responsible for the putrefaction of foodstuff (Jaiswal et al., 2012). To suspend the senescence after broccoli buds are harvested, the vegetable florets are treated by way of low intensity light while kept in storage settings. Hereafter the yellowing of broccoli flowerets can be delayed (Buchert et al., 2011).
Selenium is distinguished as the chief micronutrient essential in the human diet, for instance, it has a part in enzyme glutathione peroxidase – an antioxidant enzyme. The abovementioned insufficiency turns out to be the root of different ailments, such as heart diseases, asthma, arthritis and hypothyroidism, accompanied by a low immune system. Oilseed rape, scientifically defined as Brassica napus, in contrast to wheat, contains a vast amount of selenium; however, it is unable to produce it in the seeds. Henceforth, selenium is hoarded within the seed capsules and the stems of the oilseed rape crop (Ebrahimi et al., 2014). Brassica napus is regarded as an important medicinal element in the cure of livestock diseases (Kumar & Bharati, 2013).
1.3.5 Coconut
Cocosnucifera (coconut) has an opulent magnitude of saturated fats, and its secret lies in its inability to increase the lipid content in the human body. The fruit is henceforth responsible for endowing noble quality fats called high‐density lipoproteins to the body (Ganguly, 2013). The most essential one lies in Cocos nucifera’s use as liquid refreshment. Coconut water provides abundant minerals, sugars, furthermore, it is used in pharmaceutical practice, together with developmental activities (Prades et al., 2012). The oil haul from the parched fruit is augmented with saturated triglycerides. This is an indispensable element in cosmetics, colognes, hair and skin acclimatizing mediators (Burnett et al., 2011). Toddy is removed from the latex of the coconut palm. Toddy has several applications; its normal use is to replace foodstuffs together as feedstock for biofuel production (Hemstock, 2013). A blend of titanium oxide through coconut shell powder is used in the photo‐catalytic reduction of contaminants in pharmaceuticals or by personal care products. The domino effect displayed 99% success in contrast to titanium oxideon its own, which provides only 30% contaminant exclusion (Khraisheh et al., 2014). The naturally produced protein removed from the seed of fresh coconut is called CMP, the coconut milk protein, which has wholesome significance. As well as in sonication‐alleviated emulsifications of CMP, it can be adapted since it has been found to be a poor emulsifier (Lad et al., 2012). The fiber acquired from coconut milk is used to reduce cholesterol (Sriamornsak et al., 2014). The micronutrient investigation of coconut milk by means of inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP OES) has revealed that coconut milk encompasses an array of essential micronutrient elements. These include calcium, zinc, copper, phosphorus, iron, sodium, potassium, manganese, and magnesium in vast amounts (Santos et al., 2014). Virgin coconut oil has an antimicrobial action owing to the occurrence of numerous fatty acids, that include caprylic acid, capric acid, and lauric acid. Caprylic acid accompanied by capric acid is valuable in the reticence of growth. Contrariwise, lauric acid helps in the antibacterial process by the disturbance of bacterial cell membrane and the cellular cytoplasm. In an ecologically welcoming style, virgin coconut oil plays its role in the synthesis of silver nanoparticles (Zamiri et al., 2011). One of the most pronounced influences of virgin coconut oil consumption lies in the reduction of liver impairment owing to paracetamol intake; hence, this product has hepatoprotective properties (Zakaria et al., 2011).
1.3.6 Peanut
Among the various food crops around the world Arachis hypogea (peanut) stands in thirteenth position, however, in the category of oilseed crops, peanut in in fourth position. It works as an essential cash crop grown in numerous states from north to south in both tropical and temperate regions. The seeds are the source of oil and proteins to the percentages of 50% and 25% respectively. The seeds are comprised of high oleic acid content which offer countless health benefits, that include reduced cardiovascular possibilities, reduced insulin confrontation together with anti‐tumor effects (Wang et al., 2012). Peanut skins, after being spray‐dried, have displayed pronounced antioxidant properties. Peanut residues attained after the spray‐drying process with the removal of phenolic compounds, as they are rich in protein content, work as animal feedstuff (Constanza et al., 2012). In the assessment of peanut protein with peptides, it has been perceived that the peptide of the peanut has larger foam stability, accompanied by improved emulsifying proficiency with low water holding and fat adsorption capacities. Peanut peptides further have antioxidant properties designed for the detoxification of hydroxyl radicals (Tang et al., 2012). Peanut skins are further used in food fortification designed to augment the polyphenol content of cookies as an antioxidant (Camargo et al., 2014). Georgia University has set up a high yield peanut cultivar that can fight viruses in stem rot in conjunction with tomato spotted wilt virus. The cultivar is called “Georgia‐12Y” (Branch, 2013). Peanuts, on one hand, have great nutritional value, nonetheless, on the other, they are vulnerable to fungal toxicities instigated by Aspergillus spp that produce aflatoxins. Aflatoxins are concomitant with widespread hazards such as teratogenicity, carcinogenicity, and mutagenesis. Ozonation is the preeminent process to scavenge aflatoxins without impairing the nutritive value (Chen et al., 2014). Peanut oil is used extensively; nevertheless, there is an alternative sort of peanut oil that distinguishes it from other vegetable oils, called roasted peanut oil, for instance, ARPO, i.e. Aromatic Roasted Peanut Oil. The process of roasting is imperative to set up the characteristic aroma of roasted peanut oil and consequently it forms the significant basis of the food industry (Liu et al., 2011). Regrettably, peanut is the cause of anaphylaxis due to allergic reactions to peanut proteins and henceforward is designated as IgE arbitrated immune hypersensitive responses (Husain & Schwart, 2012). However, in future it is to be hoped that by reducing the allergen levels with enzymatic treatment, this problem can be solved. Roasted peanuts, when treated through the enzymes trypsin and chymotrypsin under ideal conditions, solubilize the protein content of the peanut, thence making it allergen‐free (Yu et al., 2011).
1.3.7 Rice
Over and above maize and wheat, rice (Oryza sativa) is the third crop plant used as a diet source round the world. Besides being a source of earnings and nourishment, these three crop plants are the staple food of more than four billion people. In Asia, rice is the staple food, supplementary in lieu of the provision of 35–80% calories. Therefore, a universal water crisis is a matter of Asian food security since rice requires large amounts of water for its cultivation (Bouman, 2001). In India, embers produced from rice husk are used in the decontamination of water through the establishment of a filtration bed by means of the ash cast in a pebble and cement milieu. The method has been able to separate 95% of bacteria accompanied by turbidity found in drinking water used in rural areas of India. Ash of rice husk permeated with iron hydroxide, in addition to aluminum hydroxide, has been further exploited for the removal of arsenic and fluoride respectively from underground water, providing health assistance to those who became ill from drinking arsenic‐tainted ground water (Malhotra et al., 2013). In assessing countless varieties of rice, brown rice was pronounced more advantageous than white rice. Brown rice assists in the reduction of glucose levels for almost 24 hours (Mohan et al., 2014). Rice meanwhile is the essential food of half of the world’s population but is lacking in vital micronutrients; once those necessities become bio‐available, there will be an end to the prevalence of malnutrition suffered by developing nations. Biotechnology has provided a beautiful way out of this problem through the enhancement of the nutritive content of rice endosperm using the phenomenon of bio‐fortification (Bhullar & Gruissem, 2013). Among diabetic patients, it has been witnessed that white rice intake has provided the patients through abridged serum LDL with a cholesterol level not found with brown rice. On the other hand, a great decline in diastolic blood pressure has been perceived in diabetic patients who have consumed brown rice (Zhang et al., 2011). In the meantime white rice is one way or another accompanied by metabolic disease syndrome. In Costa Rican adults whose diet was a mixture of white rice and beans, if they reduced the amount of white rice in a ratio so that the smaller quantity of rice was replaced by the addition of beans, the cardiometabolic dangers can be reduced (Mattei et al., 2011). Germinated brown rice has known anti‐diabetic effects owing to the manifestation of various bioactive compounds that consist of gamma‐oryzanol, phenolics, gamma‐aminobutyric acid, acylatedsteryl beta‐glucoside, dietary fibers and vitamins, together with a variety of minerals (Imam et al., 2012).
1.3.8 Cotton
Due to its importance as a textile and in the food industries, the cotton crop (Gossypium hirsutum) has played a pronounced role in the fabrication of cottonseed oil, which henceforth is being exploited for the production of biodiesel (Fernandes et al., 2012). Cottonseed kernels function as an opulent source of oil over and above protein (Horn et al., 2011). Once cottonseed oil‐generated biodiesel had been used to power an engine without any further alteration to the engine configuration, it was found that fewer hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide expend discharges were produced in comparison with diesel fuel blends (Altun et al., 2011). As well as the reduction of the compound [Ag (NH3)2]+ with glucose, silver nano‐particles have been spawned on cotton fibers. In addition, the advance amendment through hexadecyltrimethoxysilane has helped to establish superhydrophobic cotton textiles. The manufactured articles thus fashioned have displayed antibacterial activity against E.coli and have many functions in electronic devices of biomedical origin (Xue et al., 2012). Furthermore, cotton contained in textile assembly has many uses. The fabrication of wicking cotton in actual fact is hydrophilically fashioned through the management of cotton with cold plasma under atmospheric pressure (Samanta et al., 2014). Cottonseeds are so rich in protein content that they are able to fulfill the protein requisite of enormous masses every year. This feature of cottonseed is not fully exploited due to the presence of poisonous gossypol in the cotton crop. Gossypol is a defense mechanism in the cotton crop against several insect pests. Molecular biologists have solved the problem of gossypol toxicity by means of the phenomenon of RNA silencing of the gene dCS (delta‐cadinene synthase), which is responsible for gossypol fabrication. The silencing occurs only at the level of the seed and therefore the rest of the crop that comprises the foliage; roots, etc. preserves the phenolic compound gossypol. Along these lines, by using the practice of protection and perseverance, cottonseed has been empowered to solve the food security issue of billions of people (Rathore et al., 2012).
