Organic Materials for Sustainable Civil Engineering E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 873

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

This book provides an inventory of organic materials and products, the major components of all civil engineering projects, in terms of their scientific and technical background, including the regulations that cover their use and their predicted useful life. Such materials include: bitumen on the roads; geotextiles for retaining walls; membranes for bridges; tunnel and reservoir waterproofing; paint binders to protect metallic and concrete structures or to realize road markings; injection resins; gluing products; concrete admixtures; and composite materials. The presentation is based on a physicochemical approach, which is essential if these products are to be considered as part of sustainable development: as such, those studying or working in these fields will find this an invaluable source of information.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Introduction

PART 1: Problems Regarding Organic Materials and Sustainable Development

Chapter 1: Organic Materials used in Construction at the Dawn of the Third Millennium

1.1. Specifically polymer-based products

1.2. Bitumen and related products

1.3. Organic matrix composite

1.4. Timber

1.5. Conclusion

1.6. Bibliography

Chapter 2: Sustainable Development Issues Regarding Organic Materials used in Civil Engineering

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Sustainable development: definitions, general issues and issues in construction

2.3. Civil engineering materials in their environment

2.4. Sustainable development and civil engineering

2.5. Conclusion

2.6. Bibliography

Chapter 3: Health Risks of Organic Materials used in Construction: What is the Situation Today?

3.1. Problems concerning the health risks, and available tools

3.2. Available data in organic construction materials

3.3. Conclusion

3.4. Bibliography

Chapter 4: Ecological Impacts of Organic Construction Materials: What is the Situation Today?

4.1. Problems and available tools

4.2. Works available in the field of organic construction materials

4.3. Prospects for organic materials used in construction

4.4. Conclusion

4.5. Bibliography

4.6. For more information

PART 2: Organic Polymers as Building Materials

Chapter 5: Organic Polymers

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Polymer structures

5.3. Additives and fillers

5.4. Processing properties

5.5. Mechanical properties

5.6. Plasticizers and impact modifiers

5.7. Properties of a few industrial linear polymers

5.8. Conclusion

5.9. Bibliography

5.10. More information

Chapter 6: Formulation of Plastics

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Ingredients used for plastic formulation

6.3. Conclusion

Chapter 7: Ageing and Durability of Organic Polymers

7.1. Definitions, general comments

7.2. Physical ageing

7.3. Chemical ageing - general aspects

7.4. Thermochemical ageing

7.5. Photochemical ageing

7.6. Hydrolytic ageing

7.7. Conclusion

7.8. Bibliography

7.9. More information

Chapter 8: Fireproofing Polymeric Materials: Problems and Solutions

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Combustion principles

8.3. Action in gas phase

8.4. Cooling and ceramization

8.5. The concept of intumescence

8.6. Nanocomposites

8.7. Intumescent coatings for protecting steel

8.8. Conclusion

8.9. Bibliography

8.10. For more information

Chapter 9: Organic Materials, Waste and Recycling

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Assessment

9.3. Scientific aspects

9.4. The construction sector

9.5. Conclusion

9.6. Bibliography

PART 3: Manufactured Products

Chapter 10: Geosynthetics and Waterproofing

10.1. Waterproofing in civil engineering

10.2. Flow in civil engineering materials

10.3. Characteristics of infiltration liquids

10.4. Choice of waterproofing device

10.5. Advantages of geosynthetics

10.6. Waterproofing functions of geosynthetics

10.7. Geosynthetics layering in construction

10.8. Product specificity and waterproofing systems

10.9. Numerical modeling

10.10. Sustainability

10.11. Testing, exploitation, maintenance, repair

10.12. Watertight barriers for waste storage sites

10.13. Conclusions and perspectives

10.14. Bibliography

10.15. More information

Chapter 11: Waterproofing Buildings: The Point of View of an Expert

11.1. Introduction

11.2. Initial analyses

11.3. Initial obligations

11.4. Questions of definition

11.5. Possible solutions

11.6. The future of these recent technologies

Chapter 12: Elastomers and Rubbers used in Civil Engineering

12.1. Introduction

12.2. Bearings

12.3. Expansion joints

12.4. Sealingjoints

12.5. Bridges deck waterproofing

12.6. Anti-seismic devices

12.7. General reflections on sustainable development

12.8. Conclusions

12.9. Acknowledgements

12.10. Bibliography

PART 4: Composite Materials, Tensile Structures,Textile Architecture and Timber

Chapter 13: Composite Materials and Construction

13.1. Introduction

13.2. Composites used in construction

13.3. Applications today

13.4. Perspectives and projects

13.5. Recommendations, norms and standards

13.6. Composites and the environment: reflections

13.7. Conclusion

13.8. Bibliography

Chapter 14: Textile Materials: Architectural Applications

14.1. Introduction

14.2. Architectural textile membranes

14.3. Tensile membranes engineering

14.4. Eco-design in textile architecture

14.5. Conclusion and perspectives

14.6. Bibliography

Chapter 15: Wood

15.1. From the thinkable, to the possible

15.2. Biological structure

15.3. Industrial approach of material

15.4. Conclusion

15.5. Bibliography

15.6. More information

PART 5: Organic Binder-based Materials

Chapter 16: Bitumen, Road Construction and Sustainable Development

16.1. A bit of history

16.2. Bitumen and bitumen binders today

16.3. Bitumen, environment and health. REACH regulation

16.4. Bitumen and sustainable development

16.5. Conclusion

16.6. Bibliography

16.7. More information

Chapter 17: Industrial Mortars and Repairing Concrete Products

17.1. Definitions

17.2. The contribution of organic compounds in formulating industrial mortars

17.3. Repairing concretes

17.4. Conclusion.

17.5. For more information

Chapter 18: Waterborne Paints to Limit VOC Emissions: Interests and Limits

18.1. Introduction

18.2. Definition of paint

18.3. Main features and properties of waterborne paints

18.4. Advantages and disadvantages for using water as a solvent

18.5. Advantages and disadvantages of using water-based paints in relation to alternative solutions

18.6. Conclusion: the need for an eco-assessment

18.7. Bibliography

PART 6: Organic Compounds Built-in into Cement Matrices

Chapter 19: Rheological Admixtures

19.1. History of rheological admixtures

19.2. Macroscopic behavior and microscopic interactions in a cementitious suspension

19.3. Conclusion

19.4. Bibliography

Chapter 20: Contributions of Organic Admixtures in Construction Processes

20.1. Introduction

20.2. The situation without the contribution of organic chemistry

20.3. Contribution of superplasticizers

20.4. Example of pre-stressed grouting

20.5. High performance concretes (HPC)

20.6. Self-compacting concretes

20.7. Ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concrete (UHPFC)

20.8. Currently used concretes

20.9. Perspectives

20.10. Bibliography

Chapter 21: Organic Fibers in Cementitious Materials

21.1. Introduction

21.2. The use of organic fibers in cementitious materials

21.3. A return to the use of some organic fibers

21.4. Contribution of organic fibers to recycling

21.5. Conclusion

21.6. Bibliography

PART 7: Problems Specific to Organic Materials: Adhesive Bonding and Characterization Methods

Chapter 22: Adhesive Bonding, a Method for Construction

22.1. Preliminary thoughts

22.2. Introduction

22.3. Theory of adhesion and practical conclusions

22.4. Adhesive formulation and implementation

22.5. Ageing of adhesive bonds

22.6. Paths for progress in the development of adhesive bonding techniques in civil engineering

22.7. Conclusion

22.8. Bibliography

Chapter 23: Strengthening Concrete Structures by Externally Bonded Composite Materials

23.1. Introduction

23.2. Composite materials for repairing and strengthening concrete structures

23.3. History and background of structural strengthening techniques by externally bonded composites

23.4. Mechanics of externally bonded FRP

23.5. Installation of FRP strengthening systems

23.6. Conclusion. Future of strengthening concrete structures by externally bonded composite materials

23.7. Bibliography

Chapter 24: Durability of FRP Strengthened Concrete Specimens under Accelerated Ageing

24.1. Introduction

24.2. Experimental results and discussions

24.3. Conclusion

24.4. Acknowledgements

24.5. Bibliography

Chapter 25: Characterization of Organic Materials used in Civil Engineering by Chemical and Physico-chemical Methods

25.1. Bituminous binders

25.2. Anti-corrosive paints

25.3. Organic admixture in cementing materials

25.4. Conclusion

25.5. Bibliography

PART 8: Organic Materials, Construction, Architecture, Creation and Sustainable Development

Chapter 26: Organic Materials and Sustainable Architectural Design

26.1. A context of accelerated evolution

26.2. New designer practices

26.3. New approaches to materials and structures

26.4. What are the hopes for architectural creations?

Chapter 27: Specific Contributions of Viscous Behavior Materials in Construction

27.1. Introduction

27.2. The viscosity of fresh concrete: a property to be taken into account

27.3. Viscosity and injection products

27.4. Viscosity and self-repair

27.5. Viscosity and absorption

27.6. Conclusion

27.7. Bibliography

Chapter 28: Organics in Construction - How Far?

28.1. A structured, decorated and communicating skin

28.2. An energy collecting surface

28.3. A self-cleaning and depolluting envelope

28.4. A self-repairing envelope

28.5. An air-conditioning envelope

28.6. Conclusion

28.7. Bibliography

Chapter 29: Thoughts on the Futurology in Research and Development of Innovative Materials

29.1. Difficulty of prediction

29.2. The current state of things

29.3. Extrapolation attempts

29.4. Futurology

29.5. Conclusion

29.6. Bibliography

Conclusion

Acronyms and Initials

List of Authors

Index

First published 2011 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Adapted and updated from Matériaux organiques pour la construction et le développement durable & Matériaux organiques spécifiques pour la construction published 2010 in France by Hermes Science/Lavoisier © LAVOISIER 2010

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

ISTE LtdJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc.27-37 St George’s Road111 River StreetLondon SW19 4EUHoboken, NJ 07030UKUSAwww.iste.co.ukwww.wiley.com

©ISTE Ltd 2011

The rights of Yves Mouton to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Organic materials for sustainable construction / edited by Yves Mouton.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-84821-224-4

1. Polymers. 2. Building materials. 3. Synthetic products. 4. Organic compounds. I. Mouton, Yves.

TA455.P58.O655 2011

624. 1'8--dc22

2010051692

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-84821-224-4

Introduction1

In the building trade, for the majority of those involved, organic materials are still considered to be mere accessories, as products of secondary importance. However, they have proved to be omnipresent and therefore essential to the trade. This vision also explains why these organic materials have only been of interest to those authors of science and technology in the application's restricted framework, in the trade where each one of these materials is needed. Experience in the civil engineering domain has shown us that the “plastics”, sometimes called soft materials, have many characteristics in common. All taken together, these characteristics may be interesting to compare, with the aim both to teach, and to stimulate research. Out of this aim, the 2003 work entitled Matériaux organiques pour le génie civil - Approche physico-chimique [MOU 03] was created and later translated into English as Organic Materials in Civil Engineering [MOU 06].

In this book we tried to define the field represented by these materials, which are characterized as:

– on the one hand, organic materials;

– on the other hand, construction materials.

In order to approach organic materials, we chose the physicochemical approach, meaning that we start by looking for what (in their molecular structure) characterizes these materials, and what exactly characterizes them as being part of the same category, regardless of their use. The intrinsic properties of these materials, namely their mechanical behavior, clearly depend on this structural data. Conversely, we were able to find all kinds of coherences between products with completely different uses, and we were then able to justify the tranversality hypothesis which guides our work.

Here, we should be precise. Although they are largely in the majority, the compounds which chemists call polymers - which will be greatly discussed in this book - are not the only existing organic materials, particularly in construction. This is why bitumen1 used for road engineering and sealing various types of constructions, has an “organic” structure but cannot be qualified as polymers. In the same way, lumber is not strictly a polymer. Therefore our subject exceeds the strict framework of polymer applications in construction.

The world of construction materials is so vast that we chose to limit ourselves to the civil engineering field, where we felt more at ease, taking into account our own professional experience. Works were carried out to the field of building construction, but primarily for extrapolation reasons.

This initial work could not be left in this condition. The interest it generated made us take up its cause again, and develop it on two points.

First of all, it was presented as a summary, an introduction to organic construction materials as seen by a generalist To go a bit further, it seemed necessary to let various specialists in the field concerned have their say, the people of art and science, as well as practitioners, each one of them also having to worry about sustainable development. The transversality hypothesis expressed in the first work was then transposed to the level of the whole book and its organization.

Secondly, the initial work was limited to civil engineering; opening up the subject to the whole of the construction domain seemed essential.

The book we are now proposing is therefore a more in-depth extension of this initial work, presented by specialists in each field discussed. The authors were not asked to approach their subject in an exhaustive manner. Some did, whereas others developed parts of the subject which seemed the most important to them. This means that this book is not intended “to cancel and replace” the previous work but to recreate it in more depth, to show new aspects of it and to update it.

Let us finally add that, written by teachers, researchers, experts and French entrepreneurs, this book is presented, in a certain manner, as a reflection of the French technique of organic material construction.

In addition the concept of sustainable development was already taken into account in 2003 [MOU 03], but it was only really explicit in the final chapter. The procedure which is proposed today appears as follows.

The book is presented in 8 parts.

Part 1. Problems Regarding Organic Materials and Sustainable Development: a successive approach to define the concerned field of materials, the requirements of sustainable development, the health and environmental impacts of these materials used in construction. Chapter 1 presents these materials and classifies them into three categories which are detailed in Parts 3 to 6 of this book. Chapter 2, the most detailed chapter of Part 1, establishes the problems concerned with organic materials in a sustainable development context. This will be taken up again in Chapters 3 and 4, which are intended to be used for reference purposes in future works. On this subject, it must be noted that referenced literature is relatively poor in these fields. It is not the same as “gray literature”, i.e. internal work in companies or research laboratories, but it is still difficult to bring it out into broad daylight. Asking this of the authors was still more difficult.

Part 2. Organic Polymers as Building Materials: starts with a thorough scientific presentation of these compounds.

As previously stated, there is no identity between organic materials and polymers, but road bitumens, for example, manifest properties which bring them closer to polymers and put them in this category of soft materials, which we mentioned at the beginning of the introduction.

With the concept of the polymer being defined, Part 2 follows by developing the way in which plastic manufacturers use polymer based products. Both the theorist's (discussed in the first chapter) and the plastic manufacturer' s points of view respond to each other. Then, three phenomena which are at the core of many questions from users are discussed: first of all, the ageing and the durability of organic polymers, then, fire-proofing products containing organic polymers, and finally, processing the waste which is generated at the end of their life.

The first phenomenon is the subject of an important development, because it corresponds to a field where it is necessary to bypass the molecular scale if we want to understand these phenomena, and therefore be able to control the processes. The two others correspond to very widespread interrogations on the relevance of using organic materials when we speak about sustainable development. Here, there are ideas on eminently significant subjects ready to be put into place. Thus fire-proofing is the first response by producers to the anxious users of fire-sensitive organic materials, its balance being the definition of adequate constructive provisions. As for the problem of waste management, it must be correctly replaced in its context to be dealt with, without a priori.

Part 3. Manufactured Products: meaning products which are to be implemented as they are.

First comes geosynthetics, which is used to carry out waterproofing or all kinds of work concerned with geosynthetics. “Waterproofing” is obviously the field of excellence for polymers which are, in their great majority, hydrophobic, and thus perfectly adapted to this use. This is initially dealt with thoroughly within a civil engineering framework. Then, as for plastic formulation, it is looked at in its daily use by the expert, within a general construction framework.

Their hydrophobic characteristic aside, certain polymers manifest particular elastic properties, more specifically elastomeric, which makes them very useful in several domains, particularly for manufacturing expansion or waterproof sealing, or expansion bearings or works of art. The study of these elastomers and rubbers also deserves to be widely developed.

Part 4. Composite Materials, Tensile Structures, Textile Architecture and Timber: is devoted to emblematic materials as particularly representing the original feature of organic materials: composites, architectural textiles and industrial wood.

Chapter 13 relates to organic matrix composite materials, some of which are real manufactured goods and others are implemented in situ. It is initially a question of presenting the pallet offered by these truly innovating products, while considering more particularly new constructions. Repair and strengthening structures will be discussed thoroughly in Part 7 as a specific application of binding.

Then materials for tensile structures arrived, which gave way to the practice now known as textile architecture, based on new mechanical concepts, particularly tensegrity.

Finally we should not forget timber, the oldest organic material, which has become an industrial material with masterful performances, and yet so unknown that it deserves to be developed further.

Part 5. Organic Binder-based Materials: concerns bitumen and other related products, paints and protective systems, products for repair and industrial mortars.

Bitumen, the first binder to appear in the field of construction and the most used organic binder today, is a complex product. Its colloidal structure expresses physical and mechanical properties, similar to polymers but more specific, which require very interesting and considerable work on behalf of the researchers, to get closer to the work of polymerists. It must also be noted that significant results were obtained from this material with regard to research on the prevention of the industrial risks (see Chapter 3, Part 1).

For paints as well as repair products and industrial mortars, the last 20 years has seen spectacular transformations occurring in formulation concepts and implementation practices to fulfill the medical and environmental requirements which were to be part of the new standard. Those different domains had to take stock of the situation.

Part 6. Organic Compounds Built-in into Cement Matrices: particularly insists on hydraulic mortar and concrete admixtures. In the same spirit as for polymers in Part 2, the researcher is given a voice followed by the entrepreneur who lists the attributes of organic admixtures in construction processes. Chapter 21 takes stock of incorporating organic fibers in cementitous materials into the field of civil engineering.

Part 7. Problems Specific to Organic Materials: Adhesive Bonding: particularly illustrates the field opened by organic materials in the research domain, an essential assembly method for this type of material, and characterization methods which are also specific. These are two distinct domains. Bonding is a difficult phenomenon to pinpoint, which still opens the door to a lot of research, but which intervenes in a direct or indirect way as soon as an organic material is brought into play. Strengthening of concrete structures is the most important application of that technique in the field of civil engineering. Here the durability of specimens under accelerated ageing is used to qualify the materials.

Finally, for the specific characterization methods of organic materials, it is interesting to follow their evolution, both in terms of scientific knowledge and European and international norms. Bitumen, paints and concrete admixtures are particularly concerned.

Part 8. Organic Materials, Construction, Architecture, Creation and Sustainable Development: takes a step back. Firstly, the architect's point of view followed by that of the theoretical and applied mechanics' expert. This is then followed by setting up a perspective for the construction materials of tomorrow, when organic materials will play an important role but will not be exclusive. It will reflect the role of research and its pitfalls, before a conclusive article on the possible future of organic construction materials in a sustainable developmental perspective.

Hence, today we can say that organic construction materials are at the very heart of the awakening to the concept of sustainable development. Such an assertion already passed for a pure provocation, five or ten years ago. Now it is becoming relevant, and today we turn our attention specifically to those who might have felt prompted yesterday.

Bibliography

[MOU 03] MOUTON Y., Matériaux organiques pour le génie civil – approche physico chimique, Hermès, Paris, 2003.

[MOU 06] MOUTON Y., Organic Materials in Civil Engineering, ISTE, London, 2006.

1 Introduction written by Yves MOUTON.

1 It may be noted that the French word “bitumen” is “bitumen” in English and “asphalt cement” in American English. We must note here that “bitumen ” has a more accurate sense than “asphalt ” which often appears as ambiguous. This is why we will use the European terminology concerning bitumen technology.

PartI

Problems Regarding Organic Materials and Sustainable Development

Chapter 1

Organic Materials used in Construction at the Dawn of the Third Millennium1

To the general public the most well-known available construction materials are stone, terra cotta (tiles and bricks), concrete, iron (or steel) and, with a little insistence, timber, or even tar or bitumen1, for those thinking of road construction. The reality faced by builders on a daily basis is more complex; organic materials hold a strategically very important position, particularly in the technical uses of concrete and steel.

What exactly are organic materials?

First of all, these are materials whose physical-chemical structure falls within the category of organic chemistry, meaning that they are essentially made up of carbon and hydrogen. Putting timber aside, (and also bitumen, to a certain extent), here we are most often concerned with synthetic products manufactured using natural products: coal, oil, rocks, air, sea water, etc Their usage domains are very diverse, but can be categorized into three main roles which relate to cohesion, structure protection and achievement of structural, packing or design elements.

The first role relates to cohesion auxiliaries. Whether we are dealing with bitumen for road construction, binding agents of paint, polymers used in the formulation of repair or adhesive bonding products, or admixtures used to facilitate laying concrete, in all these examples we are looking to bind together units of granular minerals on different scales. Therefore, we can no longer talk about high performance concrete without mentioning the use of organic materials, either as a binding agent (asphalt concrete), or as an admixture (hydraulic concrete).

The second role concerns the protection of structures, firstly with respect to water (this is the general problem for waterproofing or caulking), then in relation to all kinds of pollutants, meaning the creation of a barrier effect, in the general sense.

The third role, achievement of various elements, concerns firstly the different uses of timber, which ranges from a building’s structure to its trimmings. It also deals with a series of “plastic” applications, which range from the envelope, to interior house fittings.

Now if we take an interest in their use and function, we can then distinguish three uses:

– as they are, i.e. in the form of manufactured goods;

– as binders, i.e. used with granular components;

– as being incorporated into a cement mixture to modify its properties; they can then be considered as materials of the third degree, in relation to the first two.

This can all be presented in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1Cross-classification of organic materials used in construction

These classifications give us a basic overview of these materials, but they do not provide anything about their properties. In particular, they do not tell us about their potential health and environmental impacts. It is essential to take an interest in their physico-chemical nature. Thus four categories can be distinguished:

– polymer-based products specifically;

– bitumens and related products;

– organic matrix composite materials;

– timber.

There are two ways to consider specifically organic polymers according to whether they are the base of manufactured goods – where they operate “finished”, as “plastics”, rubbers and geosynthetiques – or they form on site, such as the resins used for adhesive bonding or repair of concrete structures, high performances paints, protection coatings, etc. – and are called “formulated”. Finally we should not forget the “incorporated”, the last generation of rheological admixtures whose active product is a polymer used for steric or electrostatic effects.

The composites used in construction also manifest these two different ways: elaborate products – panels, beams, connector pieces, etc. – or systems reacting at the moment when repairs are carried out on structures, or large buildings, antiseismic structures, etc.

1.1. Specifically polymer-based products

1.1.1. Plastics, rubbers and geosynthetics

Oil is the main origin of organic polymers. Figure 1.1 presents the diagram for the manufacturing of four main polymers used in the field of construction. It shows that two operators intervene successively: initially the refiner which insulates the basic commodities (monomelic or precursors of the monomers) and then the chemist, who prepares the monomers, formulates and manufactures the desired polymer (polymerization). In this diagram the paths are simple but it has already been seen, with PVC, that things can become complicated: here the chemist must synthesize the monomer (the vinyl chloride) starting with the precursor provided by the refiner (ethylene) and chlorine, itself taken from sodium chloride (marine salt or extract of mines). Here, we are still using simple processes, which it will be possible to follow during the material's lifecycle analysis.

Figure 1.1.Origin of the main “plastics” used in construction

Table 1.2.The presence of “plastics” in the construction industry

Chemical familiesPolymers concernedApplicationsPolyolefins (ormacromolecularparaffins)high-density polyethylene (HDP)Low density polyethylene (LDH)Polypropylene (PP)Geomembranes, gas pipelines, hot and coldwater pipelines under pressure (transportand distribution) Guy and pre-stress casing, networkspipelines (water supply in ships), sinksealings Large diameter pipelines, geotextilesPolyvinylPoly (vinyl chloride) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC)Geomembranes, evacuation pipes, water supply pipelines (ship) various pieces of equipment, sink sealings Profiled joinery (window and closing) Industrial floor coverings Geotextile (PS matrix) Textile architextures, boardingsStyrenic and special styrene rubbersPolystyrenelighting accessories, thermal isolation of buildings, back fill (on compressible grounds) Boardingspolyvinylidene(PVDF)polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)Coil-coating for setting color and protection anti fouling, coextrusion for atmospheric protection of polyolefin polymers textile archtiecture (PTFE glass)Acrylic derivativesPolymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and derivativesNoise reducing walls, lighting accessoires, industrial floor coverings, resin mortarsDiene polymers (special rubbers)Polybutadiene and derivatives (EPDM)Road junctions, bearing mechanisms of works of art, geomembranesPolyesters-saturated-unsaturatedCopolymers(unsaturated polyesters - UPE), vinylestersGeotextiles Art padding, composites (reinforced by glass fibers), building cladding, industrial groundsPolycarbonatesPCNoise reducing walls, lighting accories, claddingPolyamidesAPGeotextilesPolyurethanesPURPolysulfidesethylene polysulfide of propyleneReservoir waterproofing, pipelines

For preparing other polymers, the process becomes increasingly complex, the role of the chemist becomes increasingly important but the reasoning remains the same: use of an oil base, then preparing monomers from this base and other components, and finally formulating and then polymerization. We will see that the “other components” may be ammonia (NH3, itself prepared from nitrogen of the air) for synthesizing polyamides (textile), fluorine (drawn from a rock, fluorspar) for PVDF, and obviously oxygen in the air for various oxidations. We can even use the case of polyamide 11, as an example, which uses castor oil rather than petroleum.

Without going into too much detail, we can however show the various polymers used for manufacturing plastics, rubbers and geosynthetics in tabular form (Table 1.2 above) by categorizing the products into polymer families.

1.1.2. Resins, coatings, paintings

Here, we arrange products used for repair, maintenance, and building heritage conservation.

Products used for repairing concrete can be classified, from a physico-chemical point of view, into two families according to whether the formulation of the base binder is hydraulic, or synthetic resin-based.

In the first family, products containing polymer modified hydraulic binders which make it possible to combine the economic and mechanical performances of hydraulic materials, with the adherence and the flexibility of certain organic materials are widely used. The polymers used here are most often acrylic or vinyl.

In the second family, there are mainly two systems: epoxides (generally of epoxy-amine type) which are very resistant and very adhesive, and polyurethanes which are more flexible and often used for making floor coverings or for waterproofing.

Products used to conserve built surfaces are included in the category of paints and coatings. Let us recall that the researched functions primarily consist of preventing water (possibly charged with aggressive salts) from coming into contact with the structure that needs protecting, whether it a matter of stone, steel or concrete and, in this latter, to also prevent carbon dioxide (CO2) from penetrating the material's pores.

Paint is a film-forming product generally presented in liquid form and is made up of a complex mixture of powdery materials, binders, additives and generally a solvent also called a vehicle:

– the powdery materials include pigments which are responsible for the opacity (covering capacity), the color and possibly an anti-corrosive capacity, and the charges, whose role relates to physical and rheological characteristics; they are generally inorganic;

– the binder is intended to make it possible to coat the powdery materials and to create a film during the drying process; thus here we are dealing with vinyl, glycerophthalic, acrylic, polyurethane, epoxide, silicone, etc. type polymers;

– the additives are used as, thixotropic, anti-skin, fungicide and wetting agents, used in very low doses;

– the vehicle can be an organic solvent (solvent phase paint) or water (water-soluble paints, water-based paint, water-dispersed paint). There may also be no vehicle and, therefore, we are talking about paint without solvent. This last case relates to two component paints, mostly epoxide.

Table 1.3.Organic polymers used as binding agents or additives in the construction industry

Chemical familiesPolymers concernedApplicationsSpecial styrene rubbersSBR, SBSPmB (polymer modified bitumen)PolyvinylidenePoly vinyl acetate and derivatives (PVA)PmB (polymer modified bitumen)? additives for hydraulic mortarsAcrylic derivativesPolyacrylamidesWater-swelling mortarsDiene polymers (special rubbers)PolyisoprenePmB (polymer modified bitumen)Unsaturated polyestersCopolymers (UPE), vinyl estersChemical anchoringPolyurethanesPURPaintings, pipe line repairsPolyethersEpoxy resins (EP)Repair, protection (paints), coatings, adhesion, composites (reinforced by carbon fibers).Phenolic and related derivativesPhenoplasts, formophenolic or urea formaldehydeWood glues (glue-laminate, concrete scaffolding panels) Joining of timberPolyorganosiloxanes“Silicones”Sealing, antifouling protection

The range of the coatings is vast. Here we will find everything that we have discussed about paint and products used to repair objects. The difference lies, then, in the formulation and the size of the mineral powders used.

Table 1.3 groups together the most commonly used products.

1.1.3. Incorporated components: organic fiber and concrete adjuvants

The resistance and durability qualities of hydraulic concrete greatly depend strongly on its compactness, therefore on the conditions of its implementation. The objective is then to obtain optimal granular stacking. The pursued process brings into play the interfacial properties of fresh concrete's liquid phase. The progress made in the field of rheological admixtures, mainly superplasticizer, made the arrival of more powerful, easier to use, better quality concrete on the market possible. Generally today, admixtures (more specifically the family of plasticizers) are considered as a whole component of concrete.

The formulation of rheological admixtures has greatly evolved since their arrival on the construction market. The first plasticizers were by-products of the paper paste industry, called lignosulphonates. Then, without abandoning these last items, we have sought to use better defined molecules, like gluconates. Finally, when the admixture market showed that it could be lucrative, we planned to develop specific molecules. The poly-naphtalene sulphonates and poly-melamine sulphonates (PMS) initially were developed, and were then more recently followed by electrostatic or steric purpose polymers, with carboxylate, sulphonate or phosphonate termination. In addition, there are also organic admixtures used as retarders, water repellents, viscosity agents (water retentive agents used in the shotcrete technique), air-entraining agents intended to protect the concrete from the effects of freezing (see [MOU 06] and, to go a bit further, see [SPI 00], [AFN 02]). These products, however, have not acquired the inescapable role, which is that of the plasticizers and superplasticizers for the constructor.

1.2. Bitumen and related products

We call hydrocarbon binders the organic binding agents used in road engineering which include:

– bitumens themselves, coming from the distillation of certain crude oil, primarily of animal origin (transformation of marine sediments accumulated in lagoons, lakes and seas of the Mesozoic era;

– tar, made from coal or lignite by pyrogenation away from air, vegetable origin (decomposition of plants and forests located near shores and buried by movements of the Earth's crust);

– natural binders, i.e.:

- natural bitumens presented as a paste containing a strong proportion of heavy hydrocarbons (at least 40%) impregnated in schists or marno-limestones; the largest known deposit can be found in the Antilles, in the island of Trinidad,

- asphalt rocks or natural asphalts, made up of sand and fine limestone and siliceous fine particles, with 6-10% bitumen, the extracted ore following conventional mining techniques is then mixed to give asphalt powder.

Paving bitumen is presented (according to samples) as a very viscous fluid or a solid with the consistency of a soft to hard paste. It can be implemented in several ways:

– by plasticizing at high temperature (140 to 160°C), this is the technique of hot-mixing;

– by softening with the addition of a solvent, i.e. using thinners or fluxes for creating surface dressings for example;

– by emulsifying in water for making surface coatings, cold-mixes, treatedgravel, repairs, etc.

These two last methods are collected under the term of cold techniques.

In addition, research on bitumen has led manufacturers to develop complex products called modified bitumens, special bitumens and bitumens with additives where the polymers mainly intervene.

Lastly, even if 90% of the bitumen production is intended to be used on roads, there are other uses: waterproofing, underground pipe protection, insulation and electrical equipment protection, pulverulent storage protection, etc.

1.3. Organic matrix composite

Composite materials consist of a matrix and a strengthening agent. The mechanical performances of the end product primarily depend on the choice and the geometry of the strengthening agent, the role of the matrix is to ensure continuity between the strains supported by the strengthening agents and their protection.

The current primary applications of organic matrix composites are presented in Table 1.4. The subject will be developed in detail in Part 3 (Chapter 13).

Table 1.4.Main composites with organic matrix used in construction

1.4. Timber

The structure of the wood can be considered as that of a composite: a lignin matrix reinforced by cellulose fibers.

As with the plastics mentioned above, we can say that timber is used as “formulated”:

– to the extent where various processes are applied to the crude material to ensure its durability, and the continuity of its performances;

– to the extent where the present products on the market are generally made up of bonded structures allowing the optimal use of specific performances of crude wood.

The technology of timber has made great progress during the last few years and this has opened it up to markets where other materials were firmly established, in particular in construction. It should be noted that current products do not coincide with the traditional image of the wood as coming directly from the tree and therefore, when it is a question of analyzing their lifecycle, we should not forget the initial treatments and the products used for this situation.

That being said, timber remains a noble material, nice to look at, nice to feel, with multiple uses and increasingly needed in construction.

1.5. Conclusion

Organic materials are omnipresent in the construction, often invisible but especially essential. The pages which follow will endeavor to illustrate it from all angles, and to show how these “soft” materials, these “plastics” have transformed construction techniques in terms of ease, flexibility and comfort, without yielding to resistance and durability.

1.6. Bibliography

[AFN 02] AFNOR, Adjuvants du béton, recueil de normes françaises et européennes, 2002.

[MOU 06] MOUTON Y., Organic Materials in Civil Engineering, ISTE, London, 2006.

[SPI 00] SPIRATOS N., JOLICOEUR C, “Trends in concrete chemical admixtures for the 21st century”, 6ème CANMET/ACI Conf. Intern. Les superplastifiants et autres adjuvants chimiques dans le béton, V.M. Malhotra, ref. SP 195-1, p. 1-16, Nice, October 2000.

1 Chapter written by Michel DE LONGCAMP and Yves MOUTON.

1 It may be noted that the French word “bitumen” is “bitumen” in English and “asphalt cement” in American English. We must note here that “bitumen” has a more accurate sense than “asphalt” which often appears as ambiguous. This is why we will use the European terminology concerning bitumen technology.

Chapter 2

Sustainable Development Issues Regarding Organic Materials used in Civil Engineering1

2.1. Introduction

Sustainable development is now part of our daily lives and occupations. In order to apprehend or establish the actions that favor sustainable development in the construction industry, it is necessary to define a common shared reference which describes the principles to be rejected. Accordingly, the general definitions and issues of sustainable development, such as they exist in a political sense, on a planetary scale are initially specified.

Problems which consist of analyzing these issues in the field of construction are exposed. Over centuries, man has gradually built up a heritage to try to meet his needs. Solving the problem in a technological way depends on localization, the wealth of the country, local construction material resources (even if some resources have to travel around the world). The nature of civil engineering works, as an indicator of society development and therefore of anthropic human activities, implies buildings as well as other infrastructures for mobility needs. Before the environmental approach towards the lifecycle of materials emerged, questions of maintenance had never been integrated into the initial construction evaluation.